LEADERSHIP,MORALITYANDETHICS:

DEVELOPINGAPRACTICALMODELFORMORALDECISION-MAKING

AlfredW.Kaszniak1,3,CyndaH.Rushton2,&JoanHalifax3

1UniversityofArizona

Tucson,Arizona

2JohnsHopkinsUniversity

Baltimore,Maryland

3UpayaInstitute

SantaFe,NewMexico

Kaszniak, A.W., Rushton, C.H., & Halifax, J. (2018). Leadership, morality and ethics: Developing a practical model for moral decision-making. MindRxiv. April 17. mindrxiv.org/8qby6. DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/8QBY6

Introduction:

Principledandauthenticleadershipinallsectorsofsociety,includinghealth,

education,business,andfinance,requiresfundamentalshiftsinunderstandinghow

moraldiscernmentoperates.Cultivatingleaderswhoexemplifyintegrity

necessitatesgroundinginpro-socialvalues,characterformation,ethicalprinciples,

andcontemplativepracticesthatenhancemoraldecision-makingandengaged

moralaction.Thepresentpaperistheproductofcollaborationbetweena

neuroscientist,anethicist,andacontemplativeexploringissuesaroundleadership,

morality,andethics.Itisanexplorationonhowpeopleinrolesofresponsibilitycan

betterunderstandhowtoengageindiscernmentprocesseswithmoreawareness

andadeepersenseofresponsibilityforothersandthemselves.Ithasbeenwritten

inaglobalclimatewhereapracticalunderstandingofhowmoraldecision-making

worksisessentialinthistimewhentherecanseemtobeanincreasingmoral

vacuuminleadership.

Themeaningsofthewordsmoralsandethicsoverlapincommonusage,though

sometimesconflictingdistinctionsaredrawnbyphilosophersandotherscholars.

Onesimplewayofunderstandingthedistinctionisthat,“Broadlyspeaking,morals

areindividualprinciplesofrightandwrong,andasystemofethicsdealswithsets

ofthoseprinciples.”

<http://www.randomhouse.com/wotd/index.pperl?date=20010813>Theterm

ethicsisoftenusedinreferencetothephilosophicalstudyofmorality.Asystemof

ethics,bysuchusage,hasoverlapwithHaidt’s(2012)definitionofmoralsystems:

“Moralsystemsareinterlockingsetsofvalues,virtues,norms,practices,identities,

institutions,technologies,andevolvedpsychologicalmechanismsthat

worktogethertosuppressorregulateself-interestandmakecooperativesocieties

possible.”(p.314)

Hereweusemoralswhenwearereferringtoindividualprinciplesordiscernment

ofrightandwrong,ethicswhenwearereferringtosets(particularlycodifiedsets)

oftheseprinciples,andmoral/ethicalwhenwearereferringtoboth.Further,when

examiningmentalprocessesthatweseeasinvolvedinmoraldecision-makingand

action,wewilldrawdistinctionsbetweenmoralresonance,moraldiscernment

(including,thoughnotlimitedtomoralreasoning),andmoralaction.Wewillrefer

tomoralresonanceinreferencetoanexpandedperspectiveonmoralsensitivity,

whichhasbeendescribedasthe‘‘abilitytorecognizethepresenceofmoralissuesin

real-worldsituations’’(Navaez&Rest,1995).Onemeaningofthewordresonanceis

aqualitythatmakessomethingpersonallymeaningfulorimportant.Moral

resonance,aswearedefiningthisterm,involvesasetofprocessesthatdetect

whetherinitialreactionstoaneventarealignedwithpersonallyimportantvalues–

withtheleader’scharacter.Theseprocessesbeginwithattentiontosubtleand

initiallypre-consciousbodilycuesreflectingemotionalbiasesandempathic

resonancewithothers.Thesecuescanalertonetothepossibilityofamoralissue,

andcaninteractwithconscienceandaltruisticdisposition(reflectingvaluesand

character).

Wewillusethetermmoraldiscernmenttorefertothosementalprocessesthatare

primedbymoralresonancetoengageexecutivecontrolprocesses.Theseexecutive

processes,informedbyintentionsaswellassocialandemotionalcontexts,allowfor

pause,situationalreappraisal,andarousalregulation.Theemotionalregulationand

balanceaffordedbyexecutiveprocessesallowsforamodulationofpotentialbiases

inmoralreasoning(involvinginductiveanddeductivelogic,andtheapplicationof

systematicethicalprinciples).Moralreasoningtheninformsmoraldecisionsthat

supportvariouscoursesofprincipledmoralaction(seeRushton,Kaszniak,&

Halifax,2013a).Moraldiscernmentthusalsoappearstoinvolveseveral

distinguishablementalprocesses,mostoftheseoperatingwithinconscious

awareness.

Inwhatfollows,wearticulateaconceptualandpracticalmoral/ethicalmodel,

motivatedbyrecentscientificinvestigation,tosupportleadersinworkingskillfully

andcompassionatelywiththecomplexitiesthatinevitablyariseastheyengagewith

theirorganizations,others,andthemselves.

Thefocusofthismodelisonhowpeopleprocessmoral/ethicaldecisions,andhow

thisprocessingcanbedonewithgreaterfidelitytomoralresonance,moral

discernment,claimsofconscience,ethicalprinciples,andinductive/deductive

approachestomoral/ethicalreasoning.Thesemodesofprocessing,whichinclude

cognitive,somatic,emotional,andspiritualdimensions,usedifferentcapacities,all

ofwhichareimportantinreachingmorally/ethicallygroundeddecisionsand

engaginginmoralaction.

Unlikesomeearlymodelsofmoralandethicalcognition,thismodelforanapplied

approachtomorals/ethicsfocusesnotonlyonlogicalconceptualreasoning,butalso

takesintoaccountemotionaldeterminantsofmoralbehavior.Theseemotional

determinantsareoftenoperatingoutsideof,andpriortoaleader’sconsciouslogical

reasoningprocesses.Themodelalsoexaminestheleader’sabilitytoaccessvalues,

viewthesevaluesonbothdeepandsynopticlevels,andalignthemwithinasystems

perspective.Anassumptionofthismodelisthatbothconceptualandexperiential

appreciationoftheinterconnecteddomainsweproposeareessentialwhendealing

withthecriticalandcomplexissuesthatleadersfacetoday.

Itisintendedthattheproposedmodelwillbeapplicabletoleadersatalllevelsin

healthcare,government,education,law,business,andmanyotherareasthatare

bothaffectedbyandcontributetotheglobalconditionsthatareassociatedwithso

muchsufferingintheworldtoday.Thismodel,anditsimplicationsforanew

approachtomoral/ethicaleducation,isgroundedinrecentrelevantscientific

researchandscholarship,aswellasthatconcerningtheconsequencesand

biologicalcorrelatesofcontemplativepracticesthatcanenhanceprincipledmoral

action.Thefollowingsummaryofscientificresearchandscholarshipisnotintended

tobeanexhaustivereview,butratherendeavorstohighlightrepresentative

publishedworkthattheauthorsviewasmostrelevantformoral/ethicalleadership.

ScientificResearchandScholarshiponMoralResonance,MoralDiscernment

andMoralAction:

Untilthelastdecadeofthe20thcentury,thepredominantapproachtoascientific

understandingofmoralityexamineddevelopmentaltheoriesthatplacedtheir

emphasisonconsciousreasoningprocessesinadultmoraldecision-makingand

action(e.g.,Kohlberg,1969).Fromthisperspective,individualsuselogicasameans

toresolveconflictsbetweencompetingpossibleactionsandmoral/ethicalclaims.

Usingbothinductiveanddeductiveinferences,individualsevaluatecertain

premisestoreachconclusionsaboutpropermoralaction.

Althoughsocialprocessesareembeddedinsuchcognitiveapproachestomoral

discernment,theinterpersonalandsocialelementsarenotclearlydifferentiated.In

hergroundbreakingcritiqueofKohlberg’sreasonedjusticeorientationasthe

foundationofethics,CarolGilliganintroducedtheinterpersonal,emotional,and

socialaspectsofethicsinwhatisnowknownasanethicofcare(Gilligan,1982,

1988).Careethicsassertthatmoralinquirybeginswithone’sownexperience

ratherthanfirstappealingtoaprioriprinciples,externalnorms,orstandards.It

emphasizessubjectiveexperientialphenomenasuchasempathyandfeltrelational

bondsashavingcompellingmoralmeaningandconsequentmoralclaimsand

duties.Withoutdiminishingtheroleofmoralreasoning,anethicofcareemphasizes

theaffective,relational,andcontextualelementsofmoralityaspracticesof

responsibility,fromtheimmediateandpersonaltothelargerdomainsofcitizenship

andpublicpolicy.(Hamington,2010;Held,2005;Held&CityUniversityofNew

York,2014;Mohammed&Peter,2009;Walker,2008).Thisisaninterestingand

importantperspectivetobringtobearontheissueofmoralleadership.

Amajorpremiseofanethicofcareisaworldviewthatrecognizesthe

interconnectionandinterdependenceofallbeingsandthings,andwithita

responsibilitytoappreciatetheimpactofactiononothers,particularly

disenfranchisedandvoicelessstakeholders,orevenenvironmentaldimensions.

Walker(2008)identifiesfouressentialelementsofanethicofcare:1)

Responsivenesstohumanneeds,2)Responsiblecompetenceinattendingtohuman

needs,3)Valuinghumanconnectionandrelationship,and4)Valuingtheworkand

responsibilitiesofcare.Thepresentauthorswouldaddtothesefourelementsa

fifth:Valuinghumaninterconnectionswiththeenvironmentandresponsible

competenceinstewardingourenvironment.Takentogethertheseelementscreatea

broaderfoundationforappreciatingthecomplexity,moraltrade-offs,andcontours

ofintegrity-preservingaction.

Relatedtothisisanincreasingrecognitioninthecognitivesciencesand

neurosciencesoftheimportantrolesofemotionandnon-consciousprocessesinall

decisionmaking(e.g.,Damasio,1994;1999),includingmoraldiscernment

(Liljenquist,Zhong,&Galinsky,2010;Narvaez,2014;Zhong,Bohns,&Gino,2010).

Moralresonanceandmoraldiscernmentarestronglyinfluencedbytypicallypre-

consciousemotionalinfluencesthatareoftenmorepowerfulthanrational

reasoning(forreview,seeHaidt,2012).Theseemotionalinfluencesinclude

feedbacktothebrainfrombodilyprocessesthatarerapidlyactivatedinemotion

(Haidt,2001;Greene&Haidt,2002).Thesebodilyprocesses,suchaschangesin

heart-rateandrespiration,preparethebodyfortakingaction,andseveralmaybe

subjectivelyperceivable(termedinteroception)andmadeavailabletoother

consciouscognitiveprocesses,whenbroughtintoawareness(forreviewofrelevant

researchandscholarship,seeFarbetal.,2015).Researchincognitivesciencehas

madeitclearthatactivityofthebodyplaysanintegralroleincognitiveprocesses

(Barsalou,2008).

Ourbodiesthusappearcapableofprovidingwhatcanbethoughtofasearly

warningsystemsthatalertustothreats,challenges,biases,orviolationsofintegrity,

informconscienceandprincipledmoralaction,andinformtheexperienceofmoral

congruence-afeltsenseofdispositiontowardaltruism,andmoralelevation.

Greaterattentiontothebodilycuesassociatedwithsuchmorally-relevantissuesas

pre-consciousbiasesandviolationsofintegritythusappeartohavethepotentialof

counteringwhathasbeentermed“ethicalfading,”(Tenbrunsel&Messick,2004),

wheredecisionmakersallowmoral/ethicalissuestofadeintothebackground,

ceasetobefeltasrelevant,andnolongerperceivethem.

Thereiscorrelationalevidencethatpersonswhoself-reportgreatermindfulness

(open,non-judgmentalattentiontoandawarenessofwhateverisoccurringinthe

presentmoment)intheirdailylivesalsoreportthattheyaremorelikelytoact

ethically,upholdethicalstandards,anduseaprincipledapproachtoethicaldecision

making(Ruedy&Schweitzer,2010).Self-reporteddegreeofmindfulnessindaily

lifewasalsocorrelatedwithlesscheatingonabehavioralmeasureofunethical

behavior(Ruedy&Schweitzer,2010).Inaddition,thereappearstobeakindof

upwardmoralspiralinorganizationswhenleadersserveasexamplesofmoral

excellence.Asreviewedbelowinthediscussionofmoralintentions,thereis

evidencethatleaderswhomanifestmoralexcellenceintheirfairnesswithothers

andtheirself-sacrificeengendermoralelevationandgreatercommitmentamong

theirfollowers(Vianello,Galliani,&Haidt,2010).

Theneuralarchitectureofmoralcognitionappearstoinvolveaconvergenceofboth

pre-consciousandconsciousemotional,physical,social,andcognitiveprocessing

networksevolvedtosupporthumansinnavigatingtheintellectual,social,material,

andmorallandscapeoftheirlives(Bzdok,Gross,&Eickhoff,2014;Helion,2014;

Mathews&Bok,2014;Tangneyetal.,2007).Agrowingbodyofresearchonthe

neuralcorrelatesofmoralityhassuggestedthatourmoralsenseistheresultofan

integrationofconsciouscognitiveprocesseswithseveralprimarilypre-conscious

processesinvolvedinemotionalresponsestosocialsituationsandempathic

attunementtothebehaviorandintentionsofothers(forreview,seeMarazziti,

Baroni,Landi,Ceresoli,&Dell’Osso,2013).

TheEvolutionaryRolesofDisgust,Fear,andSocialCooperationinMoral

Resonance:

Moralresonanceandmoraldiscernmentappeartohavesomeoftheirevolutionary

originsandbiologicalcorrelatesintheemotionsofdisgustandfear(Wicker,etal.,

2003).Humansandotheranimalsshowquickaversiontoanythingthatposesa

threatofharm.Disgustisparticularlyelicitedbysights,smells,andsoundsthat

signalthethreatofdisease,suchasexcrement,indicatorsofinfection,deadbodies,

spoiledfoods,andparticularanimals(Curtis&Biran,2001;Oaten,Stevenson,&

Case,2009).Aregionofthebrain’scerebralcortexenfoldeddeepwithinthefissure

separatingthetemporalandfrontallobes,calledtheanteriorinsula,hasbeen

showntobeactivatedwhenapersonisexperiencingdisgust,andwhenseeing

others’facialexpressionsofdisgust(Phillipsetal.,1997).Stroke-relatedbrain

damageinvolvingtheinsulahasbeenshowntoresultinbothdecreasedresponses

todisgust-inducingsensorystimuli,anddifficultydiscriminatingdisgustfacial

expressionsfromthoseofotheremotionssuchasanger(Calderetal.,2000).

Theanteriorinsularcortex(AIC)receivesvisceral(fromtheinternalorgans)and

visualinputandisinvolvedinautonomicnervoussystemresponsesthataffect

visceralactivity(Wickeretal.,2003).TheAIChasbeenfoundtobeinvolvedina

numberofmental/behavioralphenomena,fromvisceralandsexualfeelings,to

maternallove,craving,decision-makingandsuddenexperiencesofinsight.Such

observationshaveledtotheorizingabouttheimportanceof“embodiment”

(consciousandnon-consciouseffectsofvisceralandotherbodilyfeedbacktothe

brain)inmentalprocesses(e.g.,Farbetal.,2015),andithasbeenproposedthatthe

AICmakesafundamentalcontributioninallconsciousawareness(Craig,2009).

GiventheseobservationsregardingtheAIC,itisnotsurprisingthatdisgustoften

produceschangesinthebodilyreflectionsofautonomicnervoussystem(ANS)

responses,includingdecreasedheart-rate,bloodpressure,andskinconductance,

alteredstomachactivity,andchangesinrespiration(Meissner,Muth,&Herbert,

2011;Ritz,Thons,Fahrenkrug,&Dahme,2005).Thereisalsoacharacteristicfacial

expressionofdisgust,whichappearstomanifestacrosscultures(Ekman,Friesen,&

Ellsworth,1972).Further,seeinganother’sfacialexpressionofdisgust,elicits

activityinthosesamebrainregions(includingtheAIC)thatareactivatedwhenone

experiencesdisgustoneself(Wicker,etal.,2003).

Asecondemotionisrelevanttoconsiderinregardtomoralresonance.The

physiological,experiential,andbehavioralcomponentsofthefearresponseare

initiatedwhenaneventisappraised(consciouslyornon-consciously)asapotential

threat.Theamygdala,analmond-shapedbrainstructuredeepintheforwardpartof

thetemporallobes,andconnectedbrainstructuresplayanimportantroleinthe

rapiddetectionofwhatissalienttotheindividual(Cunningham&Brosch,2012;

Santos,Mier,Kirsch,&Meyer-Lindenberg,2011),oftenpriortoconscious

awarenessoftheevent.Salienteventscanbepotentialthreats,potential

affordances/opportunities,orsomedegreeofacombinationofthesevalences(i.e.,

ambivalent).Thedetectionofsalience,anddeterminationofthesalientevent’s

valenceareinfluencedbytheindividual’smotivationsorneeds(e.g.,hunger,thirst,

socialaffiliation,etc.).Absentarelevantneed,aneventmightnotbedetectedas

salient,andhenceignored(i.e.,respondedtowithindifference).

Asaconsequenceofsaliencedetection,attentionisfocusedontheeventandvarious

biologicalprocessesaresetinmotionthatprepareforaversion(tothreat),

approach(toaffordance/opportunity),orconfusion(toambivalence).Forexample,

ifthesalienteventisappraisedaspotentiallythreatening,theamygdalainitiates

multiplecomponentsofthefearresponse,whichincludeautonomicarousaland

neuroendocrinerelease(seeAdolphs,2013).Fearalsonarrowsandbiasesattention

tothepotentialthreats(Harrison,Hurlemann,&Adolphs,2015;Todd,Talmi,

Schmitz,Susskind,&Anderson,2012),andmayinterferewithempathicconcern

andpro-socialemotionsandbehavior(Cikara&Bavel,2014;Harrison,Hurlemann

&Adolphs,2015).Forexample,aleaderencounteringacolleagueoremployeeofa

differentracial,cultural,religious,orpoliticalgroupmightautomaticallyandpre-

consciouslyappraisethisotherasposingapotentialthreat,basedonpriorcultural

orfamilialconditioning.Theresultantbiologicalprocessesoffeararousalwould

narrowandbiastheleader’sattentiontoonlythoseactionsoftheotherpersonthat

seemtoconfirmthepotentialforthreat.Asaresultofthisbiasingofattention,the

leadermightnotregisterfacialorotherindicatorsoftheother’sdistress,andhence

notexperiencetheempathicresonancethatwouldgiverisetoconcernand

compassionateaction.

Ithasbeenarguedthatdisgustandfearmayhaveanimportantroleincertain

aspectsofmoralityandethics.Forexample,Tybur,Lieberman,andGriskevicium

(2009)describethreefunctionaldomainsofdisgust:pathogendisgust,leadingto

avoidanceofinfectiousorganisms;sexualdisgust,leadingtoavoidanceofpotentially

dangeroussexualpartnersandbehaviors;andmoraldisgust,leadingtoavoidance

oftheviolationofsocialnorms.Remindersofphysicalcleanlinesscaninfluence

moralandpoliticalattitudes(Helzer&Pizarro,2011),andpersonswhoaremore

likelytoexperiencephysicaldisgustarealsomorelikelytoexperiencemoral

disgust(Jones&Fitness,2008),consistentwiththesedifferentkindsofdisgust

sharingcommonbiologicalprocesses.Althoughmoraldisgustmayleadto

principledmoralaction,disgustcanalsoleadtohorrificallyimmoralactions.When

inwarsorethnicconflicts,personsofaparticulargrouparedehumanizedand

likenedtovermin,cockroaches,orotheranimalsthatelicitpathogendisgust,then

atrocitiessuchas“ethniccleansing”orgenocideareoftentheoutcome(seeSemelin,

2007).Dehumanizationofpersonsinparticulargroupsmayalsoresultinreactions

ofdisgustthatmanifestinlessdramatic,butequallyharmfulsystemicviolence,such

asracialdiscriminationandsexism.

Moraldiscernmenthastraditionallybeenconsideredtobeshapedbysocialnorms

andstandardsmotivatedbynon-selfishconsciousconsiderationssuchasrespectfor

others,concernfortheirwell-being,andfairness/impartialityinintentions.Thereis

researchsupportingthisperspective(Fehr&Fischbacher,2004).However,

preconsciousmentalprocesses,involving,forexample,disgustandfear,canoccur

beforeandinfluenceconsciousmoraldiscernment(David&Olatunji,2011).Thisis

particularlyrelevantforpre-consciousprocessesthatcanoperateinthesphereof

theleadershipexperience.Fortheleaderwhoisinteractingwithothersofdifferent

gender,race,culture,orbackground,priorconditioningcaninitiatepre-conscious,

andthereforeunrecognizedbiasesrelatedtodisgustandfear.

Thevalueoffearandanxietyasevolutionarysurvivalmechanismsiswell

understood,buttheadaptiveutilityoftheseemotionsisprimarilyinmanaging

shorttermthreats.Inthelongterm,whenrepeatedlyorpersistentlyactivated,they

canbedestructive.Forexample,thecorrelationobservedbetweendegreeofair

pollutioninU.S.citiesandincreasesincriminalandunethicalbehaviorappearsto

bemediatedbyanxiety(Lu,Lee,Gino,&Galinsky,2018).Fearandanxietycanalso

overwhelmotheremotions,deprivingleadersoftheirfullemotionalcapabilities,

thoughtheimpactisnotexclusivelyemotional.Fearandanxietycanincurlong-

lasting,sometimesdisablingandevenlife-threateningimpairmentsthatmay

markedlylimittheabilityofaleadertodevelopandexerciseothercapabilities.

(Armony&Vuilleumier,2013;Deppermannetal.,2014;Kalin,Shelton,&Davidson,

2004;Maren&Phan,2013;Pittenger&Duman,2007).Forexample,theleaderwho

worksinanenvironmentthatisdrivenprimarilybyefficiencycanchronically

engagefear-based,anxiety-riddledresponsestoBoardimprimaturs,inorderto

demonstratereturnoninvestmentcalculationsthatmayfailtoaccountforthe

contextoftheorganization’smission.Insuchcircumstances,burnoutcanoccur,

numbingtheleader’sabilitytonotice,respondto,andtakeactiontoupholdthe

broaderorganizationalvalues.Casesofmoralinjuryanddistresssuggest,for

example,thatalthoughthereishighvariabilityinindividualsensitivity,biological

andenvironmentalmoralstressorscaninducealossofmoralfunctionality

(Boudreau,2011;Brock&Lettini,2012;Glannon,2011;Hunt,2011;Litzetal.,2009;

Maguen&Litz,2012;C.Shay,2009).

Inadditiontothecontributionsofdisgustandfear,thereisevidencesupportingthe

conclusionthathumanmoralityalsohasevolutionarygroup-levelnaturallyselected

originsinmotivesandskillsforcooperatingwithothers,influencedbysociocultural

contextsandinteractions(Haidt,2012;Tomasello&Vaish,2013;Warneken&

Tomasello,2009).Asobservationsofhumanevolutionarycousinssuchasthegreat

apeshavesuggested,ourevolutionaryancestorslikelylivedinsocialgroupswith

empathy,variousemotions,gratitude,andasenseoffairnessinfluencingsocial

behavior(deWaal,1996),eventhoughsuchancestorsdidnotseemtoshow

processeswewouldidentifyasconsciousmoralreasoning.

Agrowingbodyofresearchsupportstheconclusionthatevolutionhasshapedour

presentbiologyandpsychologynotonlybysurvivalofthefittest,butalsobygroup-

level“survivalofthekindest”(seeHaidt,2012;Keltner,2009),resultinginaninnate

capacityforcooperationandaltruism(seealsoRicard,2015).Accumulating

researchdemonstratesthatgreaterhappinessandsatisfactionisproducedby

altruisticactionsthanbythosethatareegocentric(seeDiener&Seligman,2002).

Ourevolvedaltruisticdisposition,akindofbasicgoodness,isthusbothan

importantaspectofconscience,andperhapsthemostsignificantcontributorto

personalhappiness.

Themoralrelevanceofourevolvedcapacitiesfordisgust,fear,andsocial

cooperationcanbeappreciatedbyreflectingonhowtheserelatetothemost

commondimensionsofmorality.Haidt(2012),basedonsurveysconductedby

himselfandcollaborators,describesdimensionsofthemoralspectrumasincluding:

1)harm/care,2)fairness/reciprocity,3)ingroup/loyalty,4)authority/respect,and

5)purity/sanctity.Thefirstthree(Harm/care,fairness/reciprocity,and

ingroup/loyalty)wouldappeartobemoststronglyrelatedtosocialcooperation,

whileauthority/respectmightalsorelatetofear,andpurity/sanctitytodisgust.As

Haidtandcolleaguesalsohavefound,thesedimensionsofthemoralspectrum

differentiallyrelatetoindividualdifferencesinworldviewthatareassociatedwith

politicalidentification(i.e.,liberalversusconservative).Thereisevidencelinking

suchdifferencestofearanddisgustreactivity.Forexample,conservativeshave

beenfoundtobemoreeasilydisgustedthanliberals(Inbar,Pizarro,&Bloom,

2009),andshowhigherthreatsensitivity(Jost,Glaser,Kruglanski,&Salloway,

2003).Thesedifferencescanbeobservedearlyinlife.Forexample,BlockandBlock

(2006)foundthatwomenwhoidentifiedasliberalswhenadultshadbeenearlier

ratedbynurseryschoolteachersasshowingtraitsconsistentwithnovelty-seeking

andthreatinsensitivity.

Itshouldbenotedthatthepracticalapplicationsofthemodelwehavedeveloped

herewillnotlikelyresolveintergroupdifferencesinworldview,political

orientation,andassociateddifferencesinthosemoraldimensionsthataremost

salientandaremostlikelytoelicitmoralreactivity.However,practicalimplications

ofthemodelmayfacilitategreaterclarityandadecreaseinunrecognizedbiasesin

moraldecision-making.Inaddition,havingaframeworkinwhichtounderstandthe

moraldecision-makingofanothermayfosterlessreactivityinface-to-face

interactionswithanotherwhoinitiallyseemsthreateningorunfamiliar.

EmotionandRationalCognitioninMoralResonanceandMoralDiscernment:

Mind-brainprocessesinvolvedinmoralresonanceandmoraldiscernmenthave

beeninferredfromtheresultsofstudiesemployingmoraldilemmascenarioswhile

simultaneouslyrecordingbrainactivityviafunctionalmagneticresonanceimaging

(fMRI).Commonmoraldilemmascenariosposesituationsinwhichtheparticipant

mustdecidewhetheritismorallyacceptabletosacrificeoneindividual’slifetosave

thelivesofseveralothers.Suchresearchhassuggestedthatindividualsare

influencedbybothemotionalandcognitive/rationalfactorsinmakingmoral

discernments.Brainareasassociatedwithemotional/socialprocesses(e.g.,medial

prefrontalcortex(MPFC),posteriorcingulate/precuneus,superiortemporal

sulcus/temperoparietaljunction)andwithconsciousabstractreasoning(e.g.,

dorsolateralprefrontalcortex)andcognitiveexecutivecontrol(e.g.,anterior

cingulatecortex,ACC)areactivatedwhenpersonsmakejudgmentsofmoral

acceptabilityinresponsetothesekindsofmoraldilemmascenarios(Greene&

Haidt,2002).

Thecontributionsofemotionalprocessesappeartobepredominantwhenamoral

dilemmaisexperiencedas“personal”(Greene,Nystrom,Engell,Darley,&Cohen,

2004).Greenetal.(2001)identifypersonalmoraldilemmasasthosethatmeet

threecriteria:(1)themoralviolationmustbelikelytocauseseriousharm;(2)the

harmmustbetoaparticularpersonorgroupofpersons;and(3)theharmmustnot

resultfromdeflectionofanexistingthreatontoadifferentparty.Leaders,for

example,mayconfrontsuch“personal”moraldilemmaswhentheymustmake

decisionsregardingtrade-offsnecessarytobalancetheorganization’sbudget.

Executivesneedtotaketheperspectiveofthosewithoutauthorityinfluenceor

staturetounderstandtheimpactofbudgetdecisionsonothers.Iftheleader

identifieswithothersinexecutiveroles,theleadermayfailtoappreciatethe

significanceoftheimpactofbudgetcutsonthosewhodonotenjoythesame

authorityorinfluencewithintheorganization.Discernmentinresponsetomoral

dilemmasthatdonotmeetthecriteriadescribedbyGreen,etal.(2001)appearsto

bemorestronglyinfluencedbyprocessesofconsciousabstractreasoningand

cognitivecontrol(Greeneetal.,2004).Examplesherewouldincludetheapplication

ofsystematizedethicalprinciples,values,andnormstoorganizationalpolicy

developmentorbudgetallocations.

TheRoleofIntentionsinMoralDiscernment:

Intentionreflectsagoal,purpose,oraimanindividualiscommittedtobringing

about-anaimorstandardthatguidesaction.Thereiscontroversyregardingthe

relationshipbetweenintentionsandbeliefsandwhetherintentionissufficientto

guideaction(seehttp://plato.stanford.edu/entries/intention/).Priorornormative

intentionsthatarealignedwithvaluesandbeliefs,suchasbringingaboutthe

greatestgoodforthoseaffectedbyadecisionoraction,canofferausefulcognitive

toolinappraisingethicallycomplexsituations.However,itisimportantto

distinguishone’sintentionsfromwhatoneactuallydoes.Forexample,aleadermay

intendtobringaboutgoodoutcomesforthecompany,butmayormaynotactin

accordancewiththoseintentions.Onepotentiallyfruitfulapplicationofintentionin

leadershipinvolvespausingtoreconnecttoone’sbeliefsandvalues(suchas

reducingharmsandbenefittingothers)andexaminingthecoherenceand

consistencyinone’sintentionsandactions.

Ithasbeenfoundthatparticipantsinstudiesinvolvingmoraldilemmascenarios

placeastrongemphasisontheinferredintentionofanactorwhendiscerning

whetheranactionismorallyacceptable(Greeneetal.,2009).Thediscernmentofa

leaderaboutwhetherornottheactionsofcolleaguesandemployeesaremorally

acceptableisthusinfluencedbyhowtheleaderconstruestheseothers’intentions.

Similarly,asalreadynoted,theleader’sengagementinprincipledmoralactionmay

beinfluencedbytheleader’sownintentions.Theleader’sintentions,andinferences

abouttheintentionsofothers,arethusimportantcomponentsofmoral

discernment.Intentionisstronglyinfluencedbyculturalconditioningandmessages

affectingtheleader’sworldview,values,andcharacter,allofwhichareintegral

aspectsofconscience.Asdescribedbelow,theleader’sviewofreality,including

viewsrelatedtoselfandother,permanence/impermanence,

interconnectedness/interdependence,causalityandconsequentiality,andsoonall

contributetoasenseofresponsibilityandanethicofcare.

Insocialpsychologicalexperimentswithinnaturalworksettings,ithasbeenfound

thatleaders’interpersonalfairnessandunselfishness,reflectingtheiraltruistic

dispositionandintention,powerfullyelicitasenseofmoralelevationintheir

followers.Further,thissenseofmoralelevationwasfoundtofullyaccountfor

followers’organizationalcitizenshipandemotionalcommitmenttotheorganization

(Vianello,Galliani,&Haidt,2010).

ConscienceinMoralResonance:

Conscienceisaninnerfeelingorintuitionthatcanbeviewedasa“…barometerfor

appraisingintentions,actsorbehaviorsasmorallypraiseworthyormorally

culpableinrelationtoamoralidealorstandard”(Beauchamp&Childress,2013).It

involvesaself-reflectiveprocesstodiscern,forexample,whatisobligatoryor

prohibited,thedegreetowhichvariousactionsarealignedwithanaltruistic

disposition,andwithwhatonebelievestobevirtuous,honorableor

malicious/hurtful,andone’smoralstandingandcharacter.Theinitiationofthis

processprobablybeginspre-consciously,fromsubtlebodilycuesaccompanying

empathicresonancewithanother’semotionalexperience,conditionedbythe

leader’sworldviewandexperienceofself(seeDambrun&Ricard,2011).Included

ininitiationofconscienceisalsodetectionandinterpretationofthefeelingsand

somatic/physiologiccuesassociatedwithalignment(e.g.balanced,atpeace,

resolute)orviolationofintegrity(e.g.shame,guilt,remorse).Thisprocessof

appraisalinformstheleader’schoicesaboutwhatisrequiredinresponse—either

actionorinaction.

Thereisgrowingevidencethatconscienceisfarmoresocialandemotionalthan

wouldbeexpectedfromperspectivesthatassumehighlyindividuated,autonomous,

self-containedrationalactors.Auniquelyhumanprojectis“themoralmakingofthe

world,”exploringthemoralcategoriesbywhichweapprehendtheworld,themoral

communitiesweconstruct,themoralsignificationofaction,themorallaborof

agents,theproductionofmoralsubjectsandthemoralvalues,issues,debates,and

vocabulariesthatconstitutemoralthoughtanddiscourseattheindividualand

collectivelevels(Fassin,2012).

Conflictsofconscience,thatis,detectingdissonanceorincongruenceofone’svalues,

commitmentsorcharacter,therebyimperilingintegrity,canbeassociatedwitha

broadrangeofmoralharms.Thesecanrangefromtemporaryfeelingsof

frustration,anxiety,angerorsadnesstomoreintense,sustainedfeelingsofguilt,

remorse,lossofself-respect,lossofidentity,self-betrayalormoraldistress

(Rushton,inpress,b).Afailuretoadjudicatethedissonanceorincongruencecan

erodeintegrityandproduceavarietyofdetrimentalphysical,emotional,behavioral

andspiritualconsequences,particularlyifthisissustainedandrepeated(Carse&

Rushton,2017).Conceivably,habituallyoverridingthesignalsofconsciencecan

leadtodampeningtheirstrengthwhenoccasionsthatthreatenintegrityarise.

Embracingthecallofconscienceisvitalforleaderswhoarecommittedto

preservingorrestoringtheirintegritywhenchallengedorthreatened.Attentionto,

andinquiringintothemeaningandsignificanceofthesomaticandemotionalcues

ofconscienceengagesothermentalprocessestohelpclarifypathwaysfor

principledmoralaction.

TheSocial,Emotional,RelationalandOrganizationalContextsofMoral

ResonanceandMoralDiscernment:

Moral/ethicaldecisionsandbehavioroccurwithinsocialcontexts,whetherfamily,

informalgroups,ororganizations.Thesecontextsinfluencemoralresonanceand

moraldiscernment.Humansappeartopossessinnatemoralcapabilitiesandare

socializedinculturallydifferentiatedways.Anelementofthemoraldevelopmentof

individualsinvolvesparticipationinmoralcommunities.Dominguez(2015)

describestheneuralcorrelatesofmoralagencyas“...foundbeyondtheconfinesof

asinglebrain:inthecomingtogetherandinteractingofacommunityofbrains,in

theshapingofthemoralbrainbythesocialfieldandculture,andintheworkingsof

aneurocognitivesystemthatevolvedtoabsorb,reproduce,andcontributetoshared

worldsofmeaning”(Dominguez,2015,p.289).Suchcollectivemoralitycan

producegreatercoherencewithsharedmoralvalues,orcanleadtoacollective

”moralblindness”toissuesthatviolatewidelyrecognizedmoralvaluessuchas

compassion,dignityandfairness.

Socialecologicalframeworkshavebeenwidelyadaptedwiththerecognitionthatno

singlefactorcanexplainorpredictaparticularphenomenon(Baronetal.2014;

Fleury&Lee2006).Giventhecomplexityoftheenvironmentswhereleadersserve,

anunderstandingofthedynamicinterplayamongthedimensionsthatinfluencethe

culture,workenvironments,andintimaterelationshipswheremoral/ethicalissues

ariseisnecessary.Achievingamoral/ethicalcultureisaboutachievingashared

purposeandperspectiveaswellasorganizationalstructuresthatdrivedecisions

thatareconsiderateandrespectfulofindividualsandarangeofperspectives.

Whenissues,suchasverticalandhorizontalviolence,underminecongruence

betweenindividualandcollectivevaluesandbehaviors,andorganizational

processesandstructures,individualandorganizationalintegritycanbe

undermined.Theseorganizationalelementsaresituatedwithinabroader“culture”

thatreflectstheringsofinfluenceoutsidetheorganizationalcontextand

encompasseslargeraspectsofsocietyincludingeconomic,socialpolicy,andother

mega-influencers.Theseaspectsaffectindividualleaders,forexample,when

structuralinequalitiescreatedifferencesinaccesstocertaingoodsandservices—

thatis,involvingissuesofsocialanddistributivejustice.Theselargerinfluences,if

theysupportethicalbehaviorsanddecision-makingattheindividuallevel,arevital

forsupportingindividualmoralagencyandcollectivemoralresponsibility(Rushton

&Sharma,inpress,a).

Socialandorganizationalcontextsinwhichaleaderissituatedcanalsoaffectthe

leader’semotionalexperienceandmood,inbothpositive(e.g.,happiness,serenity)

andnegative(e.g.,anger,fear,despondency)directions.Suchemotional/mood

consequencesofsocialandorganizationalcontextsaffectthescopeofwhataleader

willlikelyperceivetobepossiblechoicesformoralaction.Whenpositive

emotion/moodispresent,individualsperceiveawiderrangeofpossibilitiesfor

action(Fredrickson&Branigan,2005).Positiveemotion/moodalsosetsinto

motionupwardspiralstowardenhancingemotionalwell-beingoftheleaderand

othersinthesocialgroupororganization(Fredrickson&Joiner,2002).

However,socialandorganizationalcontextscanalsoworkagainstindividualand

collectivemoralagencyandresponsibility.AsnotedinaNewYorkTimesOp-Ed

columnbyDavidBrooks(2016),“Whenwebuildacademicdisciplinesandsocial

institutionsuponsuppositionsofselfishnesswe’remissingthemotivationsthat

drivepeoplemuchofthetime.Worse,ifyouexpectpeopletobeselfish,youcan

actuallycrushtheirtendencytobegood.”

Brooksdrawsseveralexamplesinsupportoftheseassertionsfromthosethatare

providedbySamuelBowles(2016)inhisbook,TheMoralEconomy.Bowles’

scholarshiprevealsthatethicalandaltruisticmotivescanbe“crowdedout”by

messagesfromthelargerculture,itsinstitutions,andworkplaces,conveyedby

varioustangible(oftenmonetary)rewardsandpunishments.Thesemessages

communicatethatlimitedself-interestistobeexpected,orthattheindividual

cannotbetrustedtoactinwaysthatconsiderprosocialvaluesandthegreatergood

forbothselfandothers.Inaddition,asnotedabove,socialandorganizational

contextsthatengendernegativeemotionalexperiencealsonarrowtherangeof

whatareperceivedpossibilitiesforaction(Fredrickson&Branigan,2005).This

narrowingofperceivedpossibilitiespotentiallyblindstheleadertoavailablemoral

actionsandwaysofresolvingmoralconflicts.Withoutconsciousattentiontothe

pervasivenarrativethatisconveyedverballyandbehaviorally,leadersmay

inadvertentlyreinforcemessagesthatservetounderminetheintegrityof

individualsandtheorganization.(Rushton&Sharma,inpress,b)

TheImpactofHighEmotionalArousalonMoralResonanceandMoral

Discernment–TheRolesofEmpathicandMoralDistress:

Forthoseleaderswithinorganizationsthatservepersonswhoaresuffering,

includinghealthcare,socialservice,legal,educational,andsomebusiness/financial

organizations,empathicdistress(feelingdistressinseeinganother’ssuffering)and

empathicover-arousal(unpleasanthighphysicalarousalinseeinganother’s

suffering)areasignificantrisk.Empathicdistress/over-arousalcanresultin

behavinginwaysthatareself-focused(Batson,Early,&Salvarani,1997),primarily

concernedwithreducingone’sownunpleasantover-arousal,includingwaysthat

ignoretheotherperson’sneedsandthuspotentiallyinterferewithmoralresonance

andmoraldiscernment.Aparticulartypeofmoralsuffering,moraldistress,has

beendefinedas“anguishoranxietytiedtoasenseofimperiledintegrity,

experiencedunderconditionsofconstraintorduress”(Carse&Rushton,2017).

Moraldistresscanoccurinalltypesoforganizations,insituationswherethemoral

discernmentsofdifferentpartiesareinconflict,orwhereanindividual’smoral

discernmentisinconflictwithinstitutionalpolicies,resourceconstraints,or

managementdecisions(Rushton,Kaszniak,&Halifax,2013a;2013b;Rushton,

Caldwell,Kurtz,2016).Particularlywhenaccompaniedbyemotionalover-arousal,

moraldistresscaninhibitclarityofmoraldiscernmentthroughemotionaleffectson

thebiasingofattention(seeYiend,2009).Moraldistressinworksettingshasbeen

associatedwithlong-termpsychologicalconsequencesandburnout(Allenetal.,

2013).Forthesereasons,itishelpfultoexaminetheprocessesbywhichempathic

andmoraldistressoccur.

Humansareattunedtoandautomatically/spontaneouslymimictheemotional

arousalanddistressofothers,beginningasyoungassixmonthsofage.This

spontaneousmimicryisreflectedbysuchindicesasrespondingtopupilsize

observedinotherpeoplewithcorrespondingchangesinthechild’sownpupilsize

(Fawcett,Wesevich,&Gredeback,2016).Adultsshowspontaneousandinvoluntary

mimicryofthefacialemotionalexpressionofanother,evenwhenthatfacial

expressionisshownveryquickly,andimmediatelymaskedbyasubsequentneutral

face,sothattheother’sfacialemotionalexpressionisnotconsciously

registered/reported(Dimerg,Thunberg,&Elmehed,2000).Thisspontaneous

mimicryappearstoinvolvebrainsystems,referredtoas“mirrorneurons”

(Rizzolatti&Sinigaglia,2008),inwhichthesameneuronalprocessesactivated

whenweengageinaparticularintentionalactionareactivatedwhenobservinga

similaractionshownbyanother.Whenweseeanotherinpainanddistress,this

“mirroring”alsoinvolvesbrainsystemsthatreflecttheemotionaldistressthat

accompaniesourownpainexperience,includingitsmanifestationsinthebody

(Lamm,Batson,&Decety,2007).Thesebrainprocessesareconsideredbyseveral

contemporarysocialneuroscientiststobefoundationaltohumanempathy(e.g.,

Decety,2007).

Forbothhumansandseveralotheranimals,empathic“resonance”withanother’s

distressoftenleadstowhathasbeentermed“empathicconcern,”orcompassion,

understoodasempathyaccompaniedbyintenttodecreasetheother’ssuffering(De

Waal,2008).Empathicconcernhasbeenshowntobeasignificantpredictorof

helpfulbehaviorinsocialinteraction(Winczewski,Bowen,&Collins,2016).

Empathicconcernisthusanimportantcontributortomoralresonanceinsituations

involvingthesufferingordistressofothers.

However,empathycansometimesleadtoempathicdistress,particularlywhenthe

physiologicarousalofempathyisveryhigh,termedempathicover-arousal

(Eisenberg,2002).Empathicover-arousaloftenresultsinthepersonwhois

experiencingempathicdistressnotattendingtoorcomingtotheaidofadistressed

other,focusinginsteadonstrategiestoreducetheirowndistress(Eisenberg,2002).

Incontrast,whenemotionalarousalisregulatedthroughexecutivebrainsystems

thatdirectattention,inhibitimpulsiveaction,andplanalternativeresponses,then

empathicconcernismorelikelythanempathicdistress(seeEisenberg&Eggum,

2009).Burnoutinhelpingprofessionalsandothersmayreflect“empathyfatigue”

(fromrepeatedempathicdistress)andnotwhatisoftenreferredtoas“compassion

fatigue”(e.g.,Figley,1995).Compassion,reflectingattentionalstability,emotional

balance,andlovingdeterminationtohelpthosewhosuffer,isassociatedwith

positiveemotion,andappearsnottofatigue(seeRicard,2015;Halifax,2018).

Experimentshaveshownthatempathicdistress,ratherthanempathicconcernand

compassion,ismorelikelywhensomeoneistakingaself-focusedperspective,and

nottakingtheperspectiveofthedistressedother(Batson,Early,&Salvarani,1997).

Thisoftenreflectsdifficultyindisengagingfromone’sownself-focusedperspective

andshiftingtotheperspectiveoftheother(Royzman,Cassidy,&Baron,2003).

Moregenerally,self-centeredpsychologicalfunctioninghasbeenrelatedtogreater

degreesofexperiencedunhappiness(forreview,seeDambrun&Ricard,2011).An

importantcomponentofempathythatleadstoconcernandcompassion,ratherthan

distress,appearstobeflexibilityinshiftingperspective(forreviewofrelevant

socialpsychologicalresearch,seeBatson,2013;forreviewofsocialneuroscience

studiesoffactorsaffectingempathy,seeZaki&Ochsner,2013).

Asnotedabove,whenpersonsfacedwiththedistressofanotherexperience

empathicover-arousalanddistress,theyarelikelytoengageinvariousendeavors

toreducetheirowndistress.Inadditiontoshiftingattentionawayfromthe

distressedother,thesewaysmayincludeattemptsatsuppressingtheiremotion.

Suchsuppression,referredtoasa“consequent-focused”emotionregulation

strategy(i.e.,astrategyemployedaftertheemotionhasbeenaroused),tendstobe

ineffectiveandoftenactuallyresultsinanincreaseinphysiologicalarousal(Gross&

Thompson,2007).Alternatively,“antecedent-focused”regulationstrategies(i.e.,

thosefocusedoneventsthatinitiateemotionalresponses,andoninterpretationof

theseevents),particularlywhatistermedreappraisal(seeingadifferentmeaningof

theevent),tendtobemoreeffectiveinactuallyreducingemotional,including

empathic,over-arousal.

Forexample,personswithoutspecifictrainingwhoviewapatientundergoinga

painfulclinicalprocedurearelikelytothemselvesexperiencedistress,showing

activationinthosebrainsystemsrelatedtotheemotionalaspectsofpersonalpain

experience.However,clinicianstrainedintheparticularpainfulprocedureareable

toshiftperspective,appraisingthesituationdifferently(e.g.,knowingthatthe

outcomewillactuallyreducethepatient’ssuffering),andshowactivationofthose

brainsystemsassociatedwithperspectiveshiftingandthemodulationofother

brainsystemsthatareinvolvedininitiatingemotionalarousal(Cheng,etal.,2007).

Suchantecedent-focusedemotionregulation,reappraisingthesituationand

especiallyincorporatingawarenessoftheother’sperspective,isalsoarguably

relevantinsituationsofmoraldistress(Rushton,Kaszniak,&Halifax,2013a;Carse

&Rushton,2017).

TheRoleOf“Selfing”InCompromisingAttentionAndMoralDiscernment:

Giventheassociationofempathicover-arousalanddistresswithself-focused

perspectivetaking,antecedent-focusedemotionregulationstrategiesthatactually

reduceself-focusmightbeoptimal.Anumberofneuroimagingstudieshave

indicatedthatbrainsystemsassociatedwiththereplayingofpastmemoriesand

projectionintovariousfuturescenariosareassociatedwithself-focusedcognition

andexperience(e.g.,Buckner&Carrol,2006;Legrand&Ruby,2009;Northoff&

Bermpohl,2004).Thisbraincapacityfor“selfing”(generatingaconstructed,

narrativesenseofself)isusefulinfutureplanning,andplaysaroleinhowwe

understandthemindsandexperiencesofothers(Legrand&Ruby,2009).However,

variousshapingfactors(cultural,parental,educational,socialrole,professional)can

leadtoinflexiblereificationofthissenseofself,fluctuatinglevelsof

happiness/unhappiness,anddecreasedcompassionandaltruism(Dambrun&

Ricard,2011).

Recentresearchhasindicatedthattheattentiontrainingofwhathasbeentermed

mindfulnessmeditation(Hasenkamp&Barsalou,2012;Lutz,Slagter,Dunne,&

Davidson,2008;Malinowski,2013;Quaglia,Braun,Freeman,McDaniel,&Brown,

2016)modulatesself-specifyingandnarrativeself-networksinthebrain(Brewer,et

al.,2011;Vago&Silbersweig,2012).Theleaderwhohasdevelopedgreaterstability

ofattentionandpliancyofattentionshiftingthroughmindfulnesspracticeisless

likelytobecaughtininflexibileself-focus,andmorelikelytobeabletotakethe

perspectiveofanother,resultinginagreatercapacityforempathicconcernand

compassion.

Activityinself-specifyingandnarrativeself-networksinthebrainhasbeenfoundto

beassociatedwithmind-wandering,whereinattentiondriftsawayfromagiventask

athand(Mason,etal.,2007).Recentevidencesuggeststhatgreatermind-wandering

isassociatedwithlesscaringtowardoneselfandothers(Jazaierietal.,2016).

Leadersmustoftendealwithmultipledistractions,andifthesedistractionstrigger

mind-wandering(withafocusontheself),thiscanresultinbeingathighriskfor

decreasedcaringandcompassion.Ittakespracticetonoticemind-wanderingand

bringattentionbacktothepresent.

Long-termmeditatorsshowevidencethatisconsistentwithrapidantecedent-

focusedemotionregulation(Nielsen&Kaszniak,2006),perhapsduetomodulation

ofbrainself-networks.Eventhosetrainedforonlyafewweeksinmindfulness

meditationshowevidenceofdecreasedactivationofthesebrainself-networks,with

increasedactivationofbrainsystemsinvolvedinpresent-centeredawarenessof

bodilyactivity(Farb,etal.,2007).Suchbriefmindfulnessmeditationtraining

appearstoenhancetheactivityofbrainemotionregulationsystems(Desbordes,et

al.,2012).Personstrainedinmindfulnessmeditationforonlysevenweeksalso

showreducedinterferenceofemotionalarousalontheperformanceofa

subsequentcognitivetask(Ortner,Kilner,&Zelazo,2007),aswellasreductionin

theimmunesystemactivationassociatedwithchronicemotionaldistress(Creswell,

etal.,2012).

Justsixweeksoftraininginmeditationfocusingoncultivatingaltruisticlove

(termed“loving-kindnessmeditation”)hasbeenshowntoreducesubtlebiasagainst

stigmatizedout-groupssuchasthehomelessorpeopleofcolor(Kang,Gray,&

Dovidio,2013).Evenasinglesessionofloving-kindnessmeditationpracticehas

beenfoundtosignificantlyincreaseparticipants’senseofsocialconnectedness

(Hutcherson,Seppala,&Gross,2008).Short-termmeditationtraining(both

mindfulnessandloving-kindness)hasbeenshowntoincreasealtruisticresponding

toanother’sdistress(Condon,Desbordes,Miller,&DeSteno,2013).And,thereis

evidenceofenhancedactivationofbrainsystemsrelatedtoemotionregulation

followingmeditationtraining,correlatedwithevidenceofgreatercompassionate

behavior(Klimecki,Ricard,&Singer,2013;Weng,etal.,2013).

MoralResilience:

Thisevidenceregardingmeditationhasmotivatedtherecommendationofattention

training,throughmindfulnessandrelatedpractices,asanapproachtoenhance

compassionandreducemoraldistress(Rushton,Kaszniak,&Halifax,2013a,

2013b).Suchtrainingmayalsobeanimportantcontributortothecultivationof

moralresilience,whichRushton(2016;inpress,b)hasdefinedas“thecapacityof

anindividualtosustain,restoreintegrityinresponsetomoraladversity.”Moral

resilienceispositedasavitalantidotetothedespairandmoraldistressthatis

provokedwhenindividualsdiscernthemorallydesirableactionandareunableto

actonitbecauseofinternalorexternalconstraints.Theconceptofmoralresilience

suggeststhatwhilenegativearousal,activatingmoralresonance,including

conscience,isassociatedwithmorallydistressingevents,sucharousalisnot

necessarilyevidenceofmoralinsufficiencyorfailing(Rushton,inpress,a).Rather,

thedistressexperiencedisasignalofmoralconscientiousness—thatoneisawareof

thetensionorconflictbetweenvariouscoursesofaction,noticesit,andispropelled

intoaprocessofinquirytounderstandthenuances,context,boundariesofethical

permissibility,andconsequencesofpossiblecoursesofaction,onselfandothers

(Carse&Rushton,2017).Leaderswhoaremorallyresilientarebetterableto

navigatetheinevitableethicalconflictstheyconfrontwithoutdetrimentalor

excessivelingeringresidue.Intentionallycultivatingthecapacitiesthatbuildmoral

resiliencecansupportleaderstopreservetheirintegrityinthemidstofcomplex

andchallengingcircumstances(Rushton,Kaszniak,&Halifax,inpress).Moreover,

moralresilienceisorientedtowardintegrityandcanofferleadersanimportant

anchorwhentheymustmakeethicalchoicesthatrequiretrade-offsthatwill

necessarilycauseharmorsufferingtospecificpeopleorgroupsofpeopletheyare

leading.

MoralReasoningandEthicalSystems:

Whenanindividualleaderbecomesawareofamoraldilemma,dissonance,or

incoherence,influencedbythevariouscognitiveandemotionalprocessesdescribed

above,thelogicalprocessesofmoralreasoningcomeintoplayindeterminingthe

specificsofprincipledmoralaction.AsdescribedbyKathleenDeanMoore(2016),

“Moralreasoningisdiscourseinwhichpeopleaffirmwhattheythinkistrueorgood

orrightandthen,thecrucialstep,backtheirclaimswithreasons.”(p.19)Toolsfor

moralreasoningsuchastraditionalethicalprinciplesandtheoriesprovideonelens

forexploringmoralconflicts,althoughreasoningaloneisonlyweaklylinkedto

moralbehavior(Blasi,1983;Thoma,1994).Thesystematiccodificationofmoral

reasoningintoethicalsystemscanprovideusefulgeneralguidancetoleaderswho

facefrequentmoraldilemmasinthecourseoftheirresponsibilities.However,such

frameworks,inthecontextofbusyexecutivepractice,maybereducedtominimalist

standardsorbeconfusedwithlegalorcompliancestandards;therebydiminishing

theireffectiveness.Modelsofmoralcompetencythatgobeyondanassemblageof

discretemoral/ethicalcomponentsmayprovidemorenuancedguidanceforwhata

leadercandointheimmediacyofamoralchallenge.

Oneofthemostcitedmodelsofmoralcompetencyisthefour-componentmodel

developedbyJamesRestandcolleagues,synthesizingnearlyacenturyofmoral

developmentsciencetotheorizefouressentialprocessesforeffectivemoralagency.

(Elm&Weber,1994;Rest&Thoma,1985;Rest,1986a,1986b;Rest,Bebeau,

Narvaez,&Thoma,1999;Restetal.,2000;)Sinceitsinitialdevelopment,themodel

hasbeenexpandedtoincludeafifthcomponent.Theexpandedmodelincludes:1)

MoralSensitivity,2)Moralreasoning,3)Moralcommitment,4)Moralcharacter,and

5)Moralaction.

Narvaez(2008a;2008b;2010),buildingonRest’sfoundationhasdevelopedmore

complex,integratedmodelsofmoraldevelopmentandfunctioningthatcapture

manyoftheemergingdiscoveriesinneuroscience,philosophy,anthropology,and

humandevelopment.Inhercross-culturalmoraldevelopmentresearchand

practice,Narvaezhasintroducedinnovativetheories,mostnotably,TriuneEthics

Theory(TET)andIntegrativeEthicalEducation(IEE),inaholistic,empirically

derivedapproachtomoralityandcharacterdevelopmentthatincorporates

elementsofmoralphilosophy,neuroscience,anthropology,andpsychologytoblend

cognitive,social,andintuitionisttheorieswithafocusonethicalexpertise.(Narvaez,

2008a,2008b,2010).Themodelweproposeheredrawsuponandexpands

Narvaez’work.

Summary:

Insummary,emotionalprocesses(involvingdisgustandfear,aswellaspositive

emotions),empathy(andempathicdistress),altruisticdisposition,worldview,sense

ofselfandself-focus,intentions,attention,cognitivecontrolprocesses,moral

reasoning,moraldistress,andmoralresiliencyallappeartomakeimportant

enablingorinhibitorycontributionstomoraldiscernmentandprincipledmoral

action.Researchontheeffectsandcorrelatesoftheattentiontraininginherentto

mindfulnessmeditationpracticesuggeststhatsuchpracticesmaybeusefulin

reducingself-focusedbiasaswellasempathicandmoraldistress.Thefollowing

proposedmodelthereforeemphasizesalloftheseprocessesintheserviceof

providingpracticalguidanceforenhancingmoraldiscernmentandprincipledmoral

action.

TheModel:

Basedonconsiderationsoftheevidenceandscholarshipreviewedabove,aswellas

ourownpersonalandcontemplativepracticeexperience,weproposethefollowing

modelofhowvariouspre-consciousandconsciousprocessescontributetomoral

resonanceandmoraldiscernment,andinturn,toprincipledmoralaction.This

modelover-simplifieswhatisamorecomplexsystemofiterativeandrecurrent

influencesinwhichthevariousprocessesthataredescribedandgraphically

depictedinterdependentlyco-conditioneachother.However,forthepurposeof

providingaheuristicmodelthatcanhelpguideleadersinunderstandingthe

processesbywhichmoral/ethicaldecisionsandactionsoccur,anddeveloping

feasibleeducationderivedfromthemodel,wehavedecideduponthesimplified

proposaldepictedinFigures1a,1b,1c,and1d.Itshouldalsobenotedthatthis

modelisintendedtodescribenormativehumanprocesses.Thereisconsiderable

variabilitybetweenpeopleinthefunctioningofeachoftheprocesseswedepict.

And,therearesomeforwhomthemodelwouldlikelybeinaccurate.Forexample,

thosepersonswhoaredescribedaspsychopathsmayshownoevidenceofempathic

resonancewithothers,andthereforeareabletoharmotherswithoutemotional

reactionorremorse(Blair,Jones,Clark,&Smith,1997;Hare,1999).Althougha

commonperceptionisthatpersonsdescribedaspsychopathsarefoundprimarily

withinprisonpopulations,therearesome“successfulpsychopaths”whocanbe

foundinbusinessandotherleadershippositions(Babiak&Hare,2007).

Figure1a:InitialPerception-ReactionProcesses

Percep&on)Reac&on,

Conscious,

Pre)conscious,

Sensory,Event,

Perceptual,Pa7ern,,

Recogni&on,

Empathic,Resonance,

Empathy,Cues,

,,,,,

Not,Salient,,

Threat,,

Ambivalence,,

Affordance,,,,,,

Bodily,Reac&on,

,Indifference,

,Aversion,

,Confusion,

,Approach,

Implicit,Memory/

Condi&oning,

Figure1b:MoralResonanceProcesses

Moral&Resonance&

Conscious&

Pre0conscious&

Bodily&Reac4on&A6ended&

To?&

Empathic&Resonance&

A6ended&To?&

Conscience:&Alignment&or&

Conflict&With&One’s&Values&&&Character&

Yes&

No&

Yes&

No&

Una6ended&Empathy&Cues&

Una6ended&Bodily&Reac4on&Cues&

Bodily&Reac4on&Cues&

Empathy&Cues&

Altruis4c&Disposi4on&

Altruis4c&Disposi4on&

Sensed&Misalignment&or&Conflict&

Alignment&&&Integrity&

Figure1c:MoralDiscernmentProcesses

Pre$conscious+

Execu.ve+Control+Pause,+

Reappraisal,+Arousal+

Regula.on+

Cogni.ve+Processing/+

Moral+Reasoning/+

Ethical+Systems+

Moral+Discernment+

Conscious+Social+&+Emo.onal+Contexts+

UnaBended+Empathy,+Empathic+Distress,+or+Moral+Distress+Cues+

UnaBended+Bodily+Reac.on+Cues+

Conscience:+Sensed+Misalignment+or+Conflict++

Lack+of+Execu.ve+Control+

Moral+Conflict+ Moral+Conflict+

Inten.ons+

Altruis.c+Disposi.on+

Distress+

Alignment+&+Integrity+

Figure1d:MoralActionProcesses

Theprocessesshowninthismodelbeginwithasensoryevent.Sensoryevents

relevanttothemoral/ethicaldomaincouldinvolveseeingorhearingsomeoneharm

another,observingsomeonewhoisinphysicaloremotionaldistress,observing

someoneintheleader’sorganizationbeingtreatedunjustly,observingsomeone

speakingdisrespectfullytoasupervisor,learningofsomeonehavingbetrayed

organizationalconfidentialities,oranyofapotentiallyendlessnumberofother

examplesrelevanttotheleader’smoralfoundations.

Cogni&ve)Appraisal)&)Conscience:)

Sense)of)Moral)Alignment)&)Resolu&on?)

Moral)Ac&on)

Return)to)Moral)Discernment) No)

Conscious)

Pre>conscious)

Una@ended)Empathy,)Empathic)Distress)or)Moral)Distress)Cues)

Una@ended)Bodily)Reac&on)Cues) Impulsive)Self>focused)Ac&on)

)))

Self>interested)Moral)Ac&on)

Principled)Moral)Ac&on)

Cogni&ve)Processing)

Conscience:):)Sensed)Misalignment)or)Conflict)))

If)Any)Sense)Of)Moral)Misalignment)Exists,)Appraisal)&)Conscience)May)Ac&vate)

Alignment)&)Integrity)

Inthecasewhereamoraland/orethicaldilemmaorviolationisperceived,the

mind/brainquicklyinitiatesasetofpre-consciousandconsciousprocessesthat

eventuallyleadtothesensoryeventbeingrecognized,conceptualized(i.e.,made

senseof),andabletoaffectmoralresonance,moraldiscernment,andprincipled

moralaction.

Thefirstoftheseprocessesinvolvesperceptualpatternrecognition,whereinvarious

sensoryelements(e.g.,shape,color,movement)are“bound”togetherintowhat

quicklybecomesconsciouslyrecognizableasameaningfulperceptorevent.This

perceptualpatternrecognitionprocessisaffectedbyalloftheleader’sprior

conditioningandimplicitmemory(e.g.,habitlearning),operatingoutsideof

consciousawareness.

Theresultsofthispatternrecognitionbecomesimultaneouslyavailabletobotha

processthatincorporatestheleader’smomentaryneeds/motivations,andtoa

processthatmaygiverisetoempathicresonance,bothinitiallyoperatingoutsideof

consciousawareness.Needsormotivationsactiveinthemomentmayinclude

hunger,thirst,safety,physicalcomfort,socialaffiliation/affection,sex,and“higher

order”needssuchassocialinclusionandpositiveself-regard,amongothers.

Empathicresonancereferstotheautomaticsimulationwithintheleader’sown

brainandbodyofaspectsoftheexperienceofanother,initiatedbysuchcuesasthe

other’sfacialexpression,bodilyposture,toneofvoice,etc.Forexample,perceiving

thefacialexpressionofanotherinpaincaninitiatethosesamebrainandvisceral

activitiesinaleaderthatarepartoftheother’sunpleasantpainfulexperience.

Althoughthemind/brain/bodyprocessesinvolvedininitialempathicresonance

operateoutsideconsciousawareness,theremaybeconsequentbodily/visceral

activities(e.g.,heart-rateincrease,changeinbreathing,tightnessinthechest,etc.)

thatareavailabletoaleader’sconsciousawareness,orthatcanbemadeavailable

bypracticedcarefulattentiontothebody,andhenceaffectprocesseswegroupas

moralresonance.

Aleader’sneeds/motivationsinanygivenmomentareinfluencednotonlyby

variousbiologicalandpsychologicalconditions(e.g.,bloodsugarlevel,relative

recentabundanceordeprivationofsocialaffiliation/affection),butalsobyaleader’s

worldviewandsenseofself.Worldviewandsenseofselfarenotexplicitlydepicted

infigures1a–1dbecausetheyaffectmultipleaspectsofeachgroupofprocesses,

fromwhatisdetectedassalienttotheself,towhetheranotherisexperiencedas

havingsimilaritiestoone’sself,andthereforeelicitingempathicresonance,andalso

conditioningaltruisticdisposition,values,intentions,andmoralreasoning.

Worldviewreferstoinfluencesthataffectwhataleaderpre-consciouslydetermines

tobesalient,importantorofvalue.Theseinfluencesrangefromhowaleaderwas

treatedandraisedbyparents,throughculturalmessagesandpractices,to

institutionalnorms.ThiscandeterminehowaleaderprioritizeswhatHaidt(2012)

describesasdimensionsofthemoralspectrum,including:harm/care,

fairness/reciprocity,in-group/loyalty,authority/respect,andpurity/sanctity.

Worldview,thoughpre-consciouslyaffectingwhatisfelttobeimportantor

valuable,maybeconsciouslyexperiencedasthenarrativesorstoriesthataleader

livesandseesher/himselfasparticipatingwithin.Suchstoriestypicallyincorporate

senseofselfinrelationtoothers,andcanhavewide-rangingeffects.Asnotedby

MacyandJohnstone(2012):

“Futuregenerationswilllookbackatthetimewearelivinginnow.Thekind

offuturetheylookfrom,andthestorytheytellaboutourperiod,willbe

shapedbychoiceswemakeinourlifetimes.Themosttellingchoiceofall

maywellbethestorywelivefromandseeourselvesparticipatingin.Itsets

thecontextofourlivesinawaythatinfluencesallourotherdecisions.”(p.

33)

Senseofselfreferstothoseautomaticandpre-consciouswaysofsensingthenature

ofselfinrelationtoothers,alsoinfluencedbyparental,cultural,institutional,and

othercontexts.Oneleadercouldhaveapre-conscioussenseofselfasfixed

(unchangingovertime),incompetitionwithothersforscarceresources,and

independent(neithermuchaffectedbytheneedsandactionsofothers,norseeing

one’sownneedsandactionsasmuchaffectingothers).Anotherleadermighthavea

senseofselfascontext-specific(changingfluidlyasconditionedbycontextand

situation)andinterdependent,withaleader’sneedsandbehaviorcontinuously

affectingandaffectedbythoseofothers.

Consideraleaderwithamorecontext-specificandinterdependentsenseofselfthat

includesthevaluingofcooperation,commonhumanity(despitesuperficial

differences),andmutualcare.Forthisfirstleader,theperceptionofanother’s

sufferingmayactivateorstrengthenthemomentaryneed/motivationto

compassionatelyrelievethatsuffering.Conversely,considertheleaderwithamore

fixed,competitive,andindependentimplicitsenseofself.Forthissecondleader,the

samephysiologicalandemotionalarousalofempathicresonancemayactivateor

strengthenthemomentaryneeds/motivationsforsafety,forreducingunpleasant

arousaltoregainphysicalcomfort,andforconservingscarcepersonalresources

(e.g.,energy,time).

Forthefirstleader,theperceivedevent,ininteractionwiththatleader’smomentary

needs/motivations,wouldinfluencetheprocessofsaliencedetectionandvalence

determinationinsuchawaythattheeventwillbeprocessedasbothsalientandas

positivelyvalenced(i.e.,asanaffordanceoropportunityforcompassionate

concern).Forthesecondleader,thissameeventwouldmorelikelybeprocessedas

eithernotsalient,andthereforeignored,orasapotentialthreat.When,withinthe

saliencedetectionandvalencedeterminationprocess,bothpotential

affordance/opportunityandthreataredetected,thereisambivalence.

Thissalience-andvalence-determiningprocess,inturn,activatesanotherprocess

wehavelabeledas“bodilyreaction.”Thesereactionsinvolvethevariouswaysin

whichaleader’sbodyisbeingpreparedfordifferentpossibleactions.If,asaresult

ofallofthepreviouslydescribedprocesses,thepersonoreventhasbeenappraised

asapotentialaffordance/opportunity,variousphysiologicalprocessespreparea

leaderforapproach.Here,forexample,aleadermightexperienceasenseof

quickenedpositivearousal/energyinresponsetoanalignmentofthesituationwith

altruisticintentionsorempathicconcern.If,alternatively,theappraisalisthatof

potentialthreat,thenaleader’sphysiologypreparesforaversiveaction,either

avoidance,withdrawal,escape,oraggression.Here,forexample,aleadermight

sensetheabdomentighteninginresponsetoanappraisedthreattoher/his

integrityorcorevalues.Whenambivalenceispresent,thereisconfusion,sensing

thebodypreparingsimultaneouslyforbothapproachandaversion.And,ofcourse,

ifthepersonoreventisappraisedasnotsalientandignored,thereisneutralityor

indifferenceandnoparticularpreparationforaction.

Eachofthesebodilyreactionsmaythusgiverisetosubtleperceivablecues–afelt

senseofbodilychange–thatmaybebroughtintoconsciousawareness,particularly

withpracticedattentiontothesebodilycues.Suchbodilycuesofdifferentreactions

arehelpfulforaleadertorecognize,becausetheyareindicatorsofwhatmight

otherwisebeunnoticedpotentialbiasesthatcanaffectmoraldecisionsandactions.

Attentiontothesebodilycues,withcuriosityandaninquiryintotheirsignificance,

thusformsanimportantprocesswithinmoralresonance.

Inadditiontotheperception-reactionstreamofbodilychangesthatpreparethe

bodyforactionorinaction,whentheeventisassociatedwithapersonorpersons

thereisaparallelstreaminwhichempathicresonance,initiallyoccurringpre-

consciously,initiatesbodilycuesthatcanbeavailabletoconsciousawareness.

Thesebodilycuesmaybeexperiencedasasenseof“feelingwith”anotherperson,

whichmayinvolvepositiveornegativeemotionalexperience,dependingonthe

emotionbeingexpressedbythepersonwhoisperceived.

Withinthesubsequentprocessesassociatedwithmoralresonance,theleadermay

focusattentionontheseempathicbodilycues,aswellasbodilycuesthataccompany

preparationforaversion,approach,orambivalence/confusion.Beingawareof

bodilycuesmay,inthebestofcircumstances,primeunbiasedinquiry.Bringing

whatwouldhavebeenimplicitbiasinginfluencesintoconsciousawareness,through

attendingtothesebodilycues,allowsotherconsciousconsiderationstohelp

balancevariousinfluencesaffectingdecisionsandactions.Inthecontextofanevent

presentingapotentialmoralissue,attentiontofeltexperiencecanactivate

conscience,hereseenasaconsciousprocessthatdetectsalignmentorconflict

betweeninitialreactionstoeventsandaleader’svaluesandcharacter.Processesof

consciencearesensitivetopotentialviolationsofpersonalintegrity-understoodasa

stateoffeltwholenessandharmony.Conscienceispre-consciouslyconditionedby

aleader’sworldview,corevalues,andexperienceofself,whichcombineto

determinealtruisticdisposition–theinclinationtoprovidehelptoothers,even

whenatacosttoself.

Activationofconsciencemaymanifestinafeltsensethatcanindicatealignmentand

integrity,oralerttheleadertoapossibleconflictandviolationofintegrity.For

example,inthecaseofaleaderobservingacolleaguewhodisrespectingan

employee,therecouldbeafeltsenseofdisgustatthemistreatmentofanotherthat

isinconflictwithpositivefeelingstowardthecolleaguewhomayplayacriticalrole

intheorganization’sstructureandprofitability.

Conflictmayalsooccurbetweenaleader’sownconscienceandthesocialand

institutionalcontextsinwhichaleaderissituated.Withrelativelyunbiasedand

stableattention,theprocessofconsciencecanincludeanopeninquiryprocessthat

isattunedto:(1)awarenessofanymisalignmentormoralconflictdeterminedby

conscience,(2)aspectsofthesituation,includingtheinterestsandvaluesofothers,

(3)aleader’sownworldview,mostdeeplyheldvalues,howselfisexperiencedin

relationtoothers,andhowconsiderationofthesereflectsandshapescharacter,and

(4)aninitialawarenessofpossiblechoicesofaction.Itisimportanttonotethat

consciencealoneoughtnotbethefinalarbiterofmoralaction.Rather,itisan

elementinacomplexprocessthatrequiresinquiryanddiscernmenttounderstand

themeaningandsignificanceofthesignalandtouseittoassistindiscernmentof

ethicallyjustifiedactionorinaction.

Summarizingthesefirsttwopartsofourproposedmodel,twostreamsofprocesses

operatewithinthedomainsofinitialperception-reactionandmoralresonance.One

isdominatedbyneeds/motivationshavingtheireffectsonsalience/valence

detection,andconsequentlydeterminingbodilyreactionsthatprepareforaction.

Theotherstreamisdominatedbyempathicresonance,involvinganinitiallypre-

conscioussimulationoftheother’semotionalexperiencewithinone’sownbrain

andbody.Thisempathicresonancegivesrisetosubtlebodilycuesthatcanbe

experiencedasfeelingwiththeother.Whenthebodilycuesofthesetwostreams

arebroughtintoconsciousawareness,incombinationwithaltruisticdisposition,

conscienceisactivated.Ifconsciencedetectsalignmentandintegrity,then

principledmoralactioncanoccur.Althoughnotillustratedinthegraphicdepiction

ofthemodel,insomecasesitmaybethattheinitialcuesindicatethatalignment

andfurtherdiscernmentisneededtoverifyorshiftawarenesstowardtheaction

thatwillbestserveinthesituation.Further,itmaybethecasethataleadercanstill

beinintegritywithher/hisownvaluesevenwheneffortstoactareconstrained

(Rushton,inpressa).Whenconsciencedetectsmisalignmentorconflict,initiationof

theprocessesofmoraldiscernmentisnecessaryinordertoprepareformoral

decisionsandactions.

Intheprocessesassociatedwithmoraldiscernment,thepreviousprocessesof

conscience,wheremoralmisalignmentorconflictisdetected,cangiveriseto

distress.Whensuchdistressresultsinhighemotionalarousalandisnotgiven

sufficientattention,itcanmotivateself-interestedmoralaction.Similarly,when

initialbodilyreactioncues,ormisalignments/conflictsofconscienceare

unattended,theresultcanbeimpulsiveself-focusedaction.However,through

awarenessofbodily,affectiveandcognitiveresponses,distresscanbemodulatedby

consciousexecutiveprocessesthatinitiatereappraisal(i.e.,differentsense-making)

ofthesituation,withconsequentemotionregulationthatreducesarousal.The

regulatoryfunctionofexecutiveprocessesislikelytobemosteffectivewhena

leaderhaspracticedattendingtosubtlephysicalcues.Executiveprocessesarealso

influencedbyone’saltruisticdisposition,activatedbyattentiontothebodilycuesof

empathicresonance,inturninformingtheleader’spre-consciousandconscious

intentions.Theseintentionsarealsoinfluencedbysocial(includingorganizational)

andemotionalcontexts.Aleader’sprosocialintentions,suchasactingkindly,fairly

andjustlywithothers,canbestrengthenedbyexecutiveprocessesthatare

themselvesinfluencedbythepreviousprocessesofconscience.

Theactivationofconscience,alongwiththeinfluencesofperceiveddistress,

intentions,andsocial/emotionalcontext,asmediatedbyexecutiveprocesses,can

thenbebroughtintothemoraldiscernmentprocess.Here,thecognitiveactivitiesof

inductiveanddeductivemoralreasoningandconsiderationofethicalprinciples

preparealeaderforprincipledmoralaction.

Inthesuiteofmoralactionprocesses,theresultofmoraldiscernmentleadsto

eitheraconsciousmoraldecisionorprincipledmoralaction(or,insomecases,

principledinaction).Inafinalrecursivestage,aleadercanobservetheeffectsof

her/hisownmoraldecisionsandactions,callinguponconscienceandinsightto

determinewhethermoralalignmentandresolutionhasbeenreached,orwhether

additionalengagementofmoraldiscernmentisnecessary.Asalsoillustratedwithin

theprocessesofmoralaction,whenaleaderhasnotattendedtobodilyreaction

cues,ortomisalignments/conflictsofconscience,thenimpulsiveself-focusedaction

islikelytooccur.Examplesofimpulsiveself-focusedactionincluderage,angry

accusation,resourcehoarding,dishonesty,andotherbehaviors.Similarly,self-

interestedmoralactionscanoccurwhenaleaderhasnotattendedtoempathic

resonance,empathicdistress,ormoraldistresscues.Suchself-interestedactions

maysuperficiallyappeartobemoral,butservetheprimarypurposeofrelievingthe

leader’sowndistress.

ImplicationsoftheModelforLeadershipEducation:

Thenovelaspectsofourproposedmodelhaveseveralimplicationsforleadership

education.First,theysuggestthatsucheducationwouldbenefitleadersbyfocusing

onthoseprimarilypre-consciousprocessesinvolvedininitialperceptionand

reactiontoapotentiallymorallysignificantevent.Preciselybecausetheseprocesses

occuroutsideofconsciousawareness,leadersneedtounderstandtheirimpactand

acquirestableandpliantattentionalskillstoallowanopenandcuriousobservation

ofsubtlebodilyreactionspotentiallysignalingbothempathicresonanceandbodily

preparationsforactionthatmaybiasmoraldecisions.Acquiringsuchattentional

skillsrequiresthekindofpracticecharacteristicofmindfulnessmeditationtraining,

whereinfeelings,thoughts,andothermentalformationsarerepeatedlynoticedwith

alertopenness,curiosity,andnon-judgment.

Asecondimplication,giventheimportanceofworldviewandsenseofselfin

altruisticdispositionasitinformsconscience,isthatleadershipeducationshould

includeintensivereflectionanddiscussionofworldviewandsenseofself.Whatare

aleader’s(typicallyunexamined)assumptionsabouttheirinterdependent

relationshipswithothers?Towhatextentdoescompetitionversuscooperation

dominatehowothersareapproached?Whatarealeader’smostdeeplyheldvalues?

Theseandmanyotherrelatedquestionscanhelpbringintoawarenessthis

importantsetofinfluencesuponconscience.

MatthieuRicard(2015),inhisbookAltruism,emphasizesthefar-reaching

importanceofworldview:

“…menandwomenacrosstheworldmustrecognizethattheyare

interdependentonmultiplelevels–betweencontinents,nations,andas

individuals–andtobeawareofourcommondestiny.Theinterestsofour

humancommunitycanonlybesafeguardedbymeasuresthatarecommonto

everyone,eveniftheyruncontrarytonear-sightednationalinterests,local

selfishness,thehegemonyofmultinationals,andthemachinationsof

lobbyistswhomeddlewithpolicy,oftentransformingtheinternationalscene

intoagathering-placewheresordidhagglingprevails.”(p.676)

Ricardadvocatesfortheimportantroleofmeditativepracticesthatcultivatea

stableandvividattention,andthosethatreinforceoursenseofdeep

interconnectionwithallbeingsandtheentireplanetitself.Someoftheevidence

regardingthemorally-relevanteffectsofdifferentmeditativepracticeswere

reviewedabove.Whethersuchpracticesarecapableofallowingatransformationof

thoseleaderswhoaremosthighlycommittedtoaworldviewandsenseofselfthat

isfocusedonindividualism,egoism,andselfishness,remainsanopenquestion.

Athirdimplicationinvolveshowmoralalignmentormisalignmentandconflictis

sensed.Again,becausebodilycuesofintegrityversusdiscomfortordistresscan

providetheearliestwarningsofalignmentormisalignment,acultivatedand

practicedopenattentiontobodilyexperienceseemscritical.Whenleadersareable

torecognizeandleveragethesecuestodeepeninsightanddiscernment,itis

possiblethattheirrelationshiptothedistressorconflictinherentinleadership

couldbeshiftedfromguiltandshametocuriosityandpossibility(Carse&Rushton,

2017).

Afourthimplicationisrelatedtotheimportantroleofexecutivementalcontrol

processincreatingsufficienttimeforreappraisingeventsinwaysthatresultin

greateremotionregulation,reducingtherisksofimpulsiveself-focusedactionor

primarilyself-interestedmoralaction.Executivecontrolprocesses,aswith

attentiontobodilycues,areenhancedbymindfulnesswhichhelpscultivatethe

abilitytostopandreappraise.

Ourintentionisthatwhatwehaveproposedinthepresentmodelmightmotivate

newpracticalapproachestoleadershipeducationtoenhancethemoralintegrity

andmoralresilienceoftheleadersoftodayandtomorrow.

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