learn from hope- collaboration wikipedia

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Collaboration From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Collaborator (disambiguation) .

See also: Co - operation ; Coordination

Collaboration is a recursive [1] process where two or more people ororganizations work together to realise shared goals, (this is more than theintersection of common goals seen in co -operative ventures, but a deep,collective, determination to reach an identical objective) for example, an

intellectual endeavor [2][3] that is creative in nature [4] by sharing knowledge,learning and building consensus. Most collaboration requires leadership ,although the form of leadership can be social within a decentralized and

egalitarian group. [5] In particular, teams that work collaboratively can obtaingreater resources, recognition and reward when facing competition for finite

resources. [6] Collaboration is also present in opposing goals exhibiting thenotion of adversarial collaboration , though this is not a common case forusing the word.

Structured methods of collaboration encourage introspection of behavior andcommunication. [5] These methods specifically aim to increase the successof teams as they engage in collaborative problem solving . Forms, rubrics,charts and graphs are useful in these situations to objectively documentpersonal traits with the goal of improving performance in current and futureprojects.

Since the Second World War the term "Collaboration" acquired a verynegative meaning as referring to persons and groups which help a foreign

occupier of their country due to actual use by people in Europeancountries who worked with and for the Nazi German occupiers.Linguistically, "collaboration" implies more or less equal partners who worktogether which is obviously not the case when one party is an army ofoccupation and the other are people of the occupied country living under thepower of this army.

In order to make a distinction, the more specific term Collaborationism isoften used for this phenomenon of collaboration with an occupying army.

However, there is no water -tight distinction; "Collaboration" and

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"Collaborator", as well as "Collaborationism" and "Collaborationist", are oftenused in this pejorative sense and even more so, the equivalent terms inFrench and other languages spoken in countries which experienced directNazi occupation.

Classical examples of collaboration

Following are some examples of successful collaboration efforts in the past.

Trade

Contents

1 Classical examples of collaboration

1.1 Trade 1.2 Community organization

1.3 Game theory

1.4 Military-industrial complex

1.5 Project management

1.6 Academia

1.7 Classical music

2 Contemporary examples 2.1 Arts

2.1.1 Art groups

2.2 Business

2.3 Education

2.4 Music

2.5 Publishing

2.6 Science

2.7 Technology

3 See also

4 References 5 Further reading

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Trade originated with the start of communication in prehistoric times. Tradingwas the main facility of prehistoric people, who bartered goods and servicesfrom each other when there was no such thing as the modern day currency.Peter Watson dates the history of long -distance commerce from circa

150,000 years ago. [7] Trade exists for many reasons. Due to specialisationand division of labor, most people concentrate on a small aspect ofproduction, trading for other products. Trade exists between regionsbecause different regions have a comparative advantage in the production ofsome tradable commodity, or because different regions' size allows for thebenefits of mass production . As such, trade at market prices betweenlocations benefits both locations.

Community organization [edit

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Main article: intentional community

The members of an intentional communitytypically hold a common social , political or spiritual vision. They also shareresponsibilities and resources. Intentionalcommunities include cohousing ,residential land trusts , ecovillages ,communes , kibbutzim, ashrams , andhousing cooperatives . Typically, newmembers of an intentional community areselected by the community's existing membership, rather than by real -estateagents or land owners (if the land is not owned by the community).

Hutterite , Austria (16th century)

Housing units are built and assigned to individual families but belong tothe colony and there is very little personal property. Meals are taken bythe entire colony in a common long room.

Oneida Community , Oneida, New York (1848)

The Oneida Community practiced Communalism (in the sense ofcommunal property and possessions) and Mutual Criticism , whereevery member of the community was subject to criticism by committeeor the community as a whole, during a general meeting. The goal was toeliminate bad character traits.

Early Kibbutz settlements founded near Jerusalem (1890) A Kibbutz is an Israeli collective community. The movement combinessocialism and Zionism in a form of practical Labor Zionism , founded ata time when independent farming was not practical or perhaps morecorrectly not practicable. Forced by necessity into communal life, andinspired by their own ideology, the kibbutz members developed a purecommunal mode of living that attracted interest from the entire world.While the kibbutzim lasted for several generations as utopian

communities, most of today's kibbutzim are scarcely different from thecapitalist enterprises and regular towns to which the kibbutzim wereoriginally supposed to be alternatives.

Game theory

Organization and cooperationbetween community members

provides economic and socialbenefits

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Game theory is a branch of appliedmathematics and economics that looks atsituations where multiple players makedecisions in an attempt to maximize theirreturns. The first documented discussionof it is a letter written by JamesWaldegrave, 1st Earl Waldegrave in1713. Antoine Augustin Cournot 's

may be challenged and removed . (November

2007)

The prisoner's dilemma is anexample of game theory

Researches into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth in 1838 provided the first general theory.It was not until 1928 that this became a recognized, unique field when Johnvon Neumann published a series of papers. Von Neumann's work in gametheory culminated in the 1944 book The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior by von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern . In 1950, the firstdiscussion of the prisoner's dilemma appeared, and an experiment wasundertaken on this game at the RAND corporation.

Military-industrial complex

The term military -industrial complex refers to a close and symbiotic relationship among a nation's armed forces , its private industry , andassociated political and commercial interests. In such a system, the militaryis dependent on industry to supply material and other support, while thedefense industry depends on government for revenue.

Skunk Works

Skunk Works is a term used in engineering and technical fields todescribe a group within an organization given a high degree ofautonomy and unhampered by bureaucracy, tasked with working onadvanced or secret projects. Founded at Lockheed Martin in 1943, theteam developed highly innovative aircraft in short time frames, even

beating its first deadline by 37 days. [8] Creator of the organization,Kelly Johnson is said to have been an 'organizing genius' and had

fourteen basic operating rules. [8]

Manhattan Project

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The Manhattan Project was the project to develop the first nuclearweapon (atomic bomb) during World War II by the United States, theUnited Kingdom and Canada. Formally designated as the ManhattanEngineer District, it refers specifically to the period of the project from19411946 under the control of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ,under the administration of General Leslie R. Groves . The scientificresearch was directed by American physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer .

While the aforementioned persons were influential in the project itself,the value of this project as an influence on organized collaboration is

better attributed to Vannevar Bush .[8] In early 1940, Bush lobbied forthe creation of the National Defense Research Committee . Frustratedby previous bureaucratic failures in implementing technology in WorldWar I, Bush sought to organize the scientific power of the United States

for greater success. [8] The project succeeded in developing and detonating three nuclear

weapons in 1945: a test detonation of a plutonium implosion bomb onJuly 16 (the Trinity test) near Alamogordo, New Mexico ; an enricheduranium bomb code -named " Little Boy" on August 6 over Hiroshima ,Japan; and a second plutonium bomb, code -named " Fat Man " onAugust 9 over Nagasaki, Japan.

Project managementAs a discipline, Project Management

developed from different fields ofapplication including construction,engineering, and defense. In the UnitedStates, the forefather of projectmanagement is Henry Gantt , called thefather of planning and control techniques,who is famously known for his use of the"bar" chart as a project management tool,for being an associate of FrederickWinslow Taylor 's theories of scientificmanagement , and for his study of the work and management of Navy shipbuilding. His work is the forerunner to many modern project managementtools including the work breakdown structure (WBS) and resourceallocation.

The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern project management era.Again, in the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on anad hoc basis using mostly Gantt charts , and informal techniques and tools.

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The 2,751 Liberty ships built infour years by the United Statesduring World War II required newapproaches in organization andmanufacturing


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At that time, two mathematical project scheduling models were developed: (1)the "Program Evaluation and Review Technique " or PERT, developed as partof the United States Navy 's (in conjunction with the Lockheed Corporation )

Polaris missile submarine program; [9] and (2) the " Critical PathMethod" (CPM) developed in a joint venture by both DuPont Corporation andRemington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects.These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many private

enterprises.

In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed to serve theinterest of the project management industry. The premise of PMI is that thetools and techniques of project management are common even among thewidespread application of projects from the software industry to theconstruction industry. In 1981, the PMI Board of Directors authorized thedevelopment of what has become A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), containing the standards and guidelines of practice

that are widely used throughout the profession. The International ProjectManagement Association (IPMA), founded in Europe in 1967, hasundergone a similar development and instituted the IPMA Project Baseline.Both organizations are now participating in the development of a globalproject management standard.

AcademiaBlack Mountain College

Founded in 1933 by John Andrew Rice , Theodore Dreier and otherformer faculty of Rollins College , Black Mountain was experimental bynature and committed to an interdisciplinary approach, attracting afaculty which included many of America's leading visual artists, poets,and designers.

Operating in a relatively isolated rural location with little budget, BlackMountain College inculcated an informal and collaborative spirit, andover its lifetime attracted a venerable roster of instructors. Some of the

innovations, relationships and unexpected connections formed at BlackMountain would prove to have a lasting influence on the postwar

American art scene, high culture, and eventually pop culture .Buckminster Fuller met student Kenneth Snelson at Black Mountain, andthe result was the first geodesic dome (improvised out of slats in theschool's back yard); Merce Cunningham formed his dance company;and John Cage staged his first happening .

Not a haphazardly conceived venture, Black Mountain College was aconsciously directed liberal arts school that grew out of the progressive

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education movement . In its day it was a unique educational experimentfor the artists and writers who conducted it, and as such an importantincubator for the American avant garde . Black Mountain proved to bean important precursor to and prototype for many of the alternativecolleges of today ranging from the University of California, Santa Cruz to Hampshire College and Evergreen State College , among others.

Learning Community

Dr. Wolff- Michael Roth and StuartLee of the University of Victoria

assert [10] that until the early 1990sthe individual was the 'unit of

instruction' and the focus ofresearch. The two observed thatresearchers and practitioners

switched [11][12] to the idea thatknowing is 'better' thought of as a

cultural practice. [13][14][15][16] Rothand Lee also claim [10] that this led to changes in learning and teachingdesign in which students were encouraged to share their ways of doingmathematics, history, science, with each other. In other words, thatchildren take part in the construction of consensual domains, and'participate in the negotiation and institutionalisation of meaning'. Ineffect, they are participating in learning communities.

This analysis does not take account of the appearance of Learningcommunities in the United States in the early 1980s. For example, TheEvergreen State College , which is widely considered a pioneer in thisarea, established an intercollegiate learning community in 1984. In1985, this same college established the Washington Center forImproving the Quality of Undergraduate Education, which focuses oncollaborative education approaches, including learning communities asone of its centerpieces.

Classical musicMain article: Classical music written in collaboration

Although relatively rare compared with collaboration in popular music, therehave been some notable examples of music written in collaboration between

classical composers. Perhaps the best -known examples are:

Hexameron , a set of variations for solo piano on a theme from VincenzoBellini's opera I puritani . It was written and first performed in 1837. The

The Evergreen signature clocktower

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contributors were Franz Liszt , Frdric Chopin , Carl Czerny , SigismondThalberg , Johann Peter Pixis , and Henri Herz .

The F - A- E Sonata , a sonata for violin and piano, written in 1853 as a giftfor the violinist Joseph Joachim . The composers were Albert Dietrich (first movement), Robert Schumann (second and fourth movements), andJohannes Brahms (third movement).

Contemporary examples

Arts

Collaboration or joint production by two or more artists is a common styleamong musicians and performance artists. It has not been so popular, onthe other hand, in the world of art, and especially in modern art. But thestrong sense of individualism long possessed by artists of fine art began towane around the 1960s, and some artists working in units have emerged andbecome widely known along with the development of new media based on

the advances in information technology. They have changed the concept ofart into something that can be engaged in by more than individual artistsalone.

Art groups

Fluxus

An international network of artists, composers and designers noted forblending different artistic media and disciplines in the 1960s. Fluxusencouraged a do it yourself aesthetic, and valued simplicity overcomplexity. Like Dada before it, Fluxus included a strong current ofanti-commercialism and an anti-art sensibility, disparaging theconventional market -driven art world in favor of an artist -centeredcreative practice. As Fluxus artist Robert Filliou wrote, however, Fluxusdiffered from Dada in its richer set of aspirations, and the positivesocial and communitarian aspirations of Fluxus far outweighed the anti -

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art tendency that also marked the group.

Just Buffalo Literary Center, CEPA Gallery, and Big Orbit are threenonprofit arts organizations in Buffalo, New York, that have shared spaceand certain administrative functions since 2005. Just Buffalo offers an arrayof literary arts and arts -in-education programs. CEPA Gallery presentscontemporary photo -related art and supports working artists. And Big Orbithas an art gallery and programs in the fields of experimental theater, literaryperformance, new music and sound art.

Once they co -located their administrative offices they quickly started torealize a number of advantages. Financial savings was an obvious one (theyshare equipment, a software contract, phone and Internet services andmore). Physical proximity also helped the three executives develop a strongsense of trust and respect, and they soon looked for other ways tocollaborate, such as hiring a shared grant writer who brings in grants for allthree organizations.

There have been many benefits: financial savings because of their sharedspace, increased donations, and improved artistic programming. Beyond thetangible benefits, there are important intangibles. The agency directorsshare information and ideas, and they coordinate mailings. Perhaps mostimportant, the organizations have increased their creativity; being in thesame space has led to a "think tank" atmosphere. One of the three directorsnotes that "We work so closely it's helped us come up with new thinkingto expand our capacity and create a built -in brain trust and support systemfor problem solving and practical help."

Situationist International

The Situationist International (SI) was a small group of internationalpolitical and artistic agitators with roots in Marxism, Lettrism and theearly 20th century European artistic and political avant -gardes . Formedin 1957, the SI was active in Europe through the 1960s and aspired tomajor social and political transformations. In the 1960s it split into anumber of different groups, including the Situationist Bauhaus, theAntinational and the Second Situationist International . The first SI

disbanded in 1972. [17]

See also Experiments in Art and Technology , Dada and Colab .

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Collaboration in business canbe found both inter - and intra -organization and ranges fromthe simplicity of a partnership and crowd funding to thecomplexity of a multinationalcorporation . Collaboration

between team members allowsfor better communicationwithin the organization andthroughout the supply chains.It is a way of coordinatingdifferent ideas from numerouspeople to generate a widevariety of knowledge. The

recent improvement in technology has provided the world with high speedinternet, wireless connection, and web -based collaboration tools like blogs,and wikis, and has as such created a "mass collaboration." People from allover the world are efficiently able to communicate and share ideas throughthe internet, or even conferences, without any geographical barriers.

See also : Management cybernetics

Education

Generally defined, an Educational Collaborative Partnership is ongoinginvolvement between schools and business / industry , unions , governments and community organizations . Educational Collaborative Partnerships areestablished by mutual agreement between two or more parties to worktogether on projects and activities that will enhance the quality of educationfor students while improving skills critical to success in the workplace.

Collaboration in Education - two or more co -equal individual voluntarily bringstheir knowledge and experience together by interacting toward a common

goal in the best interest of students for the betterment of their educationsuccess.

See also : Collaborative Partnerships: Business/Industry -Education

MusicMain article: Classical music written in collaboration

Musical collaboration occurs when musicians in different places or groupswork on the same album or song. Collaboration between musicians,

Training meeting about sustainabledesign . The photo shows a training meetingwith factory workers in a stainless steel ecodesign company from Rio de Janeiro ,Brazil. These type of meeting are importantfor the collaboration of the team

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especially with regards to jazz, is often heralded as the epitome of complexcollaborative practice. Special software has been written to facilitate musicalcollaboration over the Internet . Websites have also been created to enablecreative music collaboration over the Internet.

Several awards exist specifically for collaboration in music:

Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals awarded

since 1988 Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals awarded since1995

Grammy Award for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration awarded since 2002

PublishingCollaboration in publishing can be as simple as dual -authorship or ascomplex as commons -based peer production . Technological examples

include Usenet , e -mail lists , blogs and Wikis while 'brick and mortar 'examples include monographs (books) and periodicals such as newspapers,

journals and magazines.

ScienceThough there is no political institution organizing the sciences on aninternational level, a self -organized, global network had formed in the late

20th century. [6] Observed by the rise in co -authorships in published papers,Wagner and Leydesdorff found international collaborations to have doubled

from 1990 to 2005. [6] While collaborative authorships within nations has alsorisen, this has done so at a slower rate and is not cited as frequently. [6]

Technology

Due to the complexity of today's business environment, collaboration intechnology encompasses a broad range of tools that enable groups ofpeople to work together including social networking, instant messaging, teamspaces, web sharing, audio conferencing, video, and telephony. Broadlydefined, any technology that facilitates linking of two or more humans towork together can be considered a collaborative tool. Wikipedia, Blogs, even

Twitter are collaborative tools. Many large companies are developing

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enterprise collaboration strategies and standardizing on a collaborationplatform to allow their employees, customers and partners to intelligentlyconnect and interact.

Enterprise collaboration tools are centred around attaining collectiveintelligence and staff collaboration at the organisation level, or with partners.These include features such as staff networking, expert recommendations,information sharing, expertise location, peer feedback, and real -timecollaboration. At the personal level, this enables employees to enhancesocial awareness and their profiles and interactions Collaborationencompasses both asynchronous and synchronous methods ofcommunication and serves as an umbrella term for a wide variety of softwarepackages. Perhaps the most commonly associated form of synchronouscollaboration is web conferencing using tools such as Cisco TelePresence ,Cisco WebEx Meetings, HP Halo Telepresence Solutions or Microsoft LiveMeeting, but the term can easily be applied to IP telephony, instant

messaging, and rich video interaction with telepresence, as well. Examplesof asynchronous collaboration software include Cisco WebEx Connect,Microsoft Sharepoint and MediaWiki .

The effectiveness of a collabortative effort is driven by three critical factors:Communication - Content Management - Workflow control

The Internet

The low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and

skills has made collaborative work dramatically easier. Not only can agroup cheaply communicate and test, but the wide reach of the Internetallows such groups to easily form in the first place, even among nicheinterests. An example of this is the free software movement in softwaredevelopment which produced GNU and Linux from scratch and hastaken over development of Mozilla and OpenOffice.org (formerly knownas Netscape Communicator and StarOffice).

Commons -based peer production

Commons -based peer production is a term coined by Yale 's Lawprofessor Yochai Benkler to describe a new model of economicproduction in which the creative energy of large numbers of people iscoordinated (usually with the aid of the internet) into large, meaningfulprojects, mostly without traditional hierarchical organization or financialcompensation. He compares this to firm production (where acentralized decision process decides what has to be done and bywhom) and market -based production (when tagging different prices todifferent jobs serves as an attractor to anyone interested in doing the

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Examples of products created by means of commons -based peerproduction include Linux, a computer operating system ; Slashdot , anews and announcements website; Kuro5hin, a discussion site fortechnology and culture; Wikipedia , an online encyclopedia ; andClickworkers, a collaborative scientific work. Another example isSocialtext which is a software that uses tools such as wikis and weblogsand helps companies to create a collaborative work environment.

Massively distributed collaboration

The term massively distributed collaboration was coined by MitchellKapor, in a presentation at UC Berkeley on 2005 -11 -09, to describe anemerging activity of wikis and electronic mailing lists and blogs andother content -creating virtual communities online.

See also

Classical music written in collaboration Collaboration platform

Collaboration science

Collaborative innovation network

Collaborative leadership

Collaborative learning -work

Collaborative search engine

Collaborative software

Collaborative project

Collaborative translation

Conference call

Cooperation

Critical thinking

Design thinking

Facilitation

General theory of collaboration Intranet portal

Knowledge management

Mass collaboration

Postpartisan

Problem solving

Role-based collaboration

Telepresence

Unorganisation

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Wikinomics

References

1. ^ Marinez -Moyano, I. J. Exploring the Dynamics of Collaboration in Interorganizational Settings , Ch. 4, p. 83, in Schuman (Editor). Creating a Culture of Collaboration . Jossey-Bass, 2006. ISBN 0-7879 -8116 -8.

2. ^ Collaborate, Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary , 2007

3. ^ Collaboration, Encyclopdia Britannica Online , 2007

4. ^ Collaboration, Oxford English Dictionary , Second Edition, (1989). (Eds.) J.A. Simpson & E. S. C. Weiner. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

5. â b Spence, Muneera U. "Graphic Design: Collaborative Processes =

Understanding Self and Others." (lecture) Art 325: Collaborative Processes.

Fairbanks Hall, Oregon State University , Corvallis, Oregon . 13 April 2006. Seealso .

6. â b

c d

Wagner, Caroline S. and Loet Leydesdorff . Globalisation in the network of science in 2005: The diffusion of international collaboration and the formation of a core group .

7. ^ Watson, Peter (2005). Ideas : A History of Thought and Invention from Fire to Freud . HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06 -621064 -X. Introduction.

8. â b

c d

Bennis, Warren and Patricia :Ward Biederman. Organizing Genius: The Secrets of Creative Collaboration. Perseus Books, 1997.

9. ^ Booz Allen Hamilton - History of Booz Allen 1950s 10. ^

a b

Roth, W- M. and Lee, Y -J. (2006) Contradictions in theorising andimplementing communities in education. Educational Research Review, 1, (1),pp2740.

11. ^ Lave, J. (1988) Cognition in practice: Mind, mathematics and culture ineveryday life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

12. ^ Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheralparticipation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

13. ^ Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989) Situated cognition and the

culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), pp32 42. 14. ^ Roth, W.- M., & Bowen, G. M. (1995) Knowing and interacting: A study of

culture, practices, and resources in a grade 8 open -inquiry science classroomguided by a cognitive apprenticeship metaphor. Cognition and Instruction, 13,73128.

15. ^ Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1994). Computer support for knowledge -building communities. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3, pp265 283.

16. ^ The Cognition and Technology Group (1994). From visual word problems tolearning communities: Changing conceptions of cognitive research. In K.McGilly (Ed.), Classroom lessons: Integrating cognitive theory and classroom

Look up collaboration in Wiktionary, the freedictionary.

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This page was last modified on 24 November 2010 at 16:26.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution -ShareAlike License ; additionaterms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non -profitorganization.

practice (pp. 157 200). Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.

17. ^ Barbelith: Head Shop: Situationism in a nutshell

Further reading

Daugherty, Patricia J, R. Glenn Richey, Anthony S. Roath, SoonhongMin, Haozhe Chen, Aaron D. Arndt, Stefan E. Genchev (2006), "IsCollaboration Paying Off For Firms?" Business Horizons, Vol. 49,pp. 61 70.

Lewin, Bruce. "The Tension in Collaboration".

London, Scott. "Collaboration and Community"

Marcum, James W. After the Information Age: A Dynamic Learning Manifesto. Vol. 231. Counterpoints: Studies in the Postmodern Theory ofEducation. New York, NY: Peter Lang, 2006.

Richey, R. Glenn, Anthony S. Roath, Judith S. Whipple, and StanFawcett (2010), "Exploring Governance Theory of Supply ChainIntegration: Barriers and Facilitators to Integration," Journal of BusinessLogistics, Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 237 256

Schneider, Florian: Collaboration: Some Thoughts Concerning New Ways of Learning and Working Together. , in: Academy, edited byAngelika Nollert and Irit Rogoff, 280 pages, Revolver Verlag, ISBN 3-86588 -303 -6.

Min, Soonhong, Anthony S. Roath, Patricia J. Daugherty, Stefan E.Genchev, Haozhe Chen, Aaron D. Arndt and R. Glenn Richey (2005),Supply Chain Collaboration: What s Really Happening, InternationalJournal of Logistic Management, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 237 256.

The Power of Collectives, IT NEXT, Jatinder Singhhttp://www.itnext.in/content/power -collectives.html

Spence, Muneera U. "Graphic Design Collaborative Processes: aCourse in Collaboration." Oregon State University. Philadelphia,Pennsylvania: AIGA, 2005.

Categories : Collaboration | International relations | Organizational studies and human resource management

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