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§ Understanding the connection between anatomy and how the body moves.

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patella is located and what the structures are around it,you can accurately describe its location using your ownwords. You do not need to memorize someone else’swords to be correct.

By keeping in mind some of the basic principlesaffecting muscles, understanding individual musclefunction need not be so mind-boggling. If you know (1) what motions a particular joint allows, (2) that amuscle must span a particular side of a joint surface tocause a certain motion, and (3) what that muscle’s lineof pull is, then you will know the particular action(s) ofa specific muscle. For example, (1) the elbow allows onlyflexion and extension, (2) a muscle must span the elbowjoint anteriorly to flex and posteriorly to extend, and (3) the biceps brachii is a vertical muscle on the anteri-or surface of the arm; (conclusion) therefore, the bicepsmuscle flexes the elbow.

Yes, kinesiology can be understood by mere mortals.Its study can even be enjoyable. However, a word of cau-tion should be given: Like exercising, it is better to studyin small amounts several times a week than to study fora long period in one session before an exam.

Segments of the Body

The body is divided into segments according to bones(Fig. 1-1). In the upper extremity, the arm is the bone(humerus) between the shoulder and the elbow joint.

4 PART I Basic Clinical Kinesiology and Anatomy

Figure 1-1. Body segments.

Next, the forearm (radius and ulna) is between theelbow and the wrist. The hand is distal to the wrist.

The lower extremity is made up of three similar seg-ments. The thigh (femur) is between the hip and kneejoints. The leg (tibia and fibula) is between the knee andankle joints, and the foot is distal to the ankle.

The trunk has two segments: the thorax and theabdomen. The thorax, or chest, is made up primarilyof the ribs, sternum, and thoracic vertebrae. Theabdomen, or lower trunk, is made up primarily of the pelvis, stomach, and lumbar vertebrae. The neck(cervical vertebrae) and head (cranium) are separatesegments.

Body segments are rarely used to describe jointmotion. For example, flexion occurs at the shoulder,not the arm. The motion occurs at the joint (shoulder),and the body segment (arm) just goes along for the ride!An exception to this concept is the forearm. It is a bodysegment but functions as a joint as well. Technically,joint motion occurs at the proximal and distal radioul-nar joints; however, common practice refers to this asforearm pronation and supination.

Descriptive Terminology

The human body is active and constantly moving;therefore, it is subject to frequent changes in position.The relationship of the various body parts to eachother also changes. To be able to describe the organiza-tion of the human body, it is necessary to use somearbitrary position as a starting point from which move-ment or location of structures can be described. This isknown as the anatomical position (Fig. 1-2) and isdescribed as the human body standing in an uprightposition, eyes facing forward, feet parallel and closetogether, and arms at the sides of the body with thepalms facing forward. Although the position of theforearm and hands is not a natural one, it does allowfor accurate description.

Specific terms are used to describe the location of astructure and its position relative to other structures(Fig. 1-3). Medial refers to a location or position towardthe midline, and lateral refers to a location or positionfarther from the midline. For example, the ulna is onthe medial side of the forearm, and the radius is lateralto the ulna.

Anterior refers to the front of the body or to a posi-tion closer to the front. Posterior refers to the back ofthe body or to a position more toward the back. Forexample, the sternum is located anteriorly on the chestwall, and the scapula is located posteriorly. Ventral is asynonym (a word with the same meaning) of anterior,

Anatomical position

Foot

Hand

Forearm

Arm

Head

Neck

Thorax

Trunk

Abdomen

LegLower extremities

Upper extremities

Thigh

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and dorsal is a synonym of posterior; anterior and posteri-or are more commonly used in kinesiology. Front andback also refer to the surfaces of the body, but these areconsidered lay terms and are not widely used by health-care professionals.

Distal and proximal are used to describe locations onthe extremities. Distal means away from the trunk, and

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proximal means toward the trunk. For example, thehumeral head is located on the proximal end of thehumerus. The elbow is proximal to the wrist but distalto the shoulder.

Superior is used to indicate the location of a bodypart that is above another or to refer to the upper sur-face of an organ or a structure. Inferior indicates that abody part is below another or refers to the lower surfaceof an organ or a structure. For example, the body of thesternum is superior to the xiphoid process but inferiorto the manubrium. Sometimes people use cranial orcephalad (from the word root cephal, meaning “head”) torefer to a position or structure close to the head.Caudal (from the word root cauda, meaning “tail”)refers to a position or structure closer to the feet. Forexample, cauda equina, which means “horse’s tail,” is thebundle of spinal nerve roots descending from the infe-rior end of the spinal cord. Like dorsal and ventral, cranialand caudal are terms that are best used to describe posi-tions on a quadruped (a four-legged animal). Humansare bipeds, or two-legged animals. You can see that ifthe dog in Figure 1-4 were to stand on its hind legs, dor-sal would become posterior and cranial would becomesuperior, and so on.

A structure may be described as superficial or deep,depending on its relative depth. For example, in describ-ing the layers of the abdominal muscles, the externaloblique is deep to the rectus abdominis but superficialto the internal oblique. Another example is the scalpbeing described as superficial to the skull.

Supine and prone are terms that describe body posi-tion while lying flat. When supine, a person is lyingstraight, with the face, or anterior surface, pointedupward. A person in the prone position is horizontal,

Figure 1-4. Descriptive terminology for a quadruped.

Figure 1-3. Descriptive terminology.

Figure 1-2. Descriptive position.

Anatomical position

Posterior Anterior

Superior

Inferior

Medial

Proximal

Distal

Lateral

Dorsal

Caudal Cranial

Ventral

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Experience the power of KinesiologyinAction.comKinesiology in Action is the online program that works with your text to make this challenging, must-know content easier to master. Ten online modules guide you step by step through the basic theory of joint structure and muscle action to provide the foundation you need to understand both normal and pathologic function.

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The Video Library not only offers full-color, narrated clips, but also animations and that illustrate biomechanics, functional anatomy/kinesiology, posture and gait.

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Pre- and post-tests for each module evaluate your mastery of the content and how well you are able to apply your knowledge in practice.

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Critical-thinking exercises enhance your decision-making skills in real-world situations.

Put Kinesiology in Action to work today!www.KinesiologyinActionFollow the instructions on the inside front cover to use the access code to unlock Kinesiology in Action.

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Practice. Practice. And more practice.Interactive exercises, activities, and flashcards provide the know-how you need to master the content.

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The Gradebook tracks your progress through each activity and each module and identifies the areas in which more study is needed.