1 Running head: Learning Disabilities: Elementary Learners Difficulties in Reading, Writing, and

Spelling

Brandee D. Stanton Chicago State University

Learning Disabilities: Elementary Students’ Difficulties in Reading, Writing, and Spelling

2 Running head: Learning Disabilities: Elementary Learners Difficulties in Reading, Writing, and

Spelling

Introduction to Learning Disabilities

In 1963, Samuel Kirk proposed the term learning disabilities to describe students who have problems learning but posses a relatively normal level of intelligence as opposed to terms such as slow learner or perceptually disabled. Parents of these children embraced the term and a few years later, it was officially recognized by the federal government and professionals. (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2010) According to the reauthorized Individuals with Disabilities Act (2004), the criteria for determining the existence of a specific learning disability reads,

The child does not achieve adequately for the child’s age or to meet State-approved grade-level standards in one or more of the following areas, when provided with learning experiences and instruction appropriate for the child’s age or State-approved grade–level standards: oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, Basic reading skills, reading fluency skills, reading comprehension, mathematics calculation, mathematics problem solving. (IDEA Regulations: Identification of Specific Learning Disabilities, October 4, 2006)

Prevalence

About fifty percent of all special education students within public schools are learning disabled. (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2010) The federal government has been keeping data on the prevalence of learning disabilities since 1977 and the size of the category has more than doubled. Possible causes for the apparent increase in the prevalence of learning disabilities among students is over identification, sociocultural changes. (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2010) Some teachers are quick to label or refer children for special education because they may display behavior that they feel falls within the scope of special education. Increasing academic standards and the increased need for literacy in society are sociocultural changes that may predispose students to develop learning disabilities.

Gender Differences

In reference to gender differences among students identified as learning disabled, the ratio of boys to girls is three to one. Some possible explanations are that males are more likely to exhibit biological abnormalities and vulnerabilities or a bias exists to refer males for special education services due to problematic behavior more so than academic problems. (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2010)

Genetic and Biological Factors

Genetic factors play a role in the basis of learning disabilities, which has been investigated via familiarity and heritability studies. Familiarity studies examine the extent to which the learning disability occurs within a single family. The downside to this method is that some learning disabilities are passed down from parents to children via parental methods of child rearing. Heritability studies examine whether learning

3 Running head: Learning Disabilities: Elementary Learners Difficulties in Reading, Writing, and

Spelling

disabilities are inherited by studying identical and fraternal twins, and thus is a favored method for assessing genetic factors of learning disabilities. Unfortunately, there is no single consensus among geneticists which states that a single gene causes this condition. In regards to biological factors, organic brain injury, dysfunction, or maturational delay of the neurological system during early development can cause learning disabilities. (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2010)

Environmental Factors

A variety of environmental factors exist that may contribute to the development of learning disabilities. Teratogens are substances such as drugs (pharmaceutical and/or recreational), chemicals and toxins that can cause malformations, abnormalities, or defects in a developing fetus. (Rathus, 2002; Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2010) Students who come from low socioeconomic backgrounds may experience a wide range of obstacles due to the nature of their status. Premature and low-weight births due to lack of pre-natal care are medical factors that may affect cognitive development in children. Inadequate diets are poor nutrition are more likely for students of low socioeconomic status, especially in impoverished neighborhoods that lack access to fresh, healthy foods choices. Some children may be exposed to lead via deteriorating paint if they reside in older housing.

Academic characteristics of student with reading learning disabilities.

Characteristics of students with learning disabilities display difficulties in a academic achievement and cognitive processes. There exists a discrepancy in achievement when compared to peers of the same age. Interestingly, the intelligence of students with learning disabilities ranges from average to above average levels, but there is a gap between their academic performance and measured intelligence.

Academically, some special education students can exhibit problems in reading, writing and spelling. They have difficulty with word knowledge and recognition, which makes reading difficult. As cited by Berry (2006), they also struggle with components of text construction and mechanical skills like handwriting and spelling. Other students have spelling skill deficiencies, demonstrated by omitting letters in words. Omission or incorrect use of basic punctuation is common as well. These deficiencies have been linked to problems in written composition. (Berninger, et al. 2008)

Recall is retrieval or reconstruction of learned material, which may also be problematic for special education students. Recognition is the ability to remember events or objects experienced before. (Moreno, 2010; Rathus, 2002) It’s essential that students convert short term memory to long term memory for future success in higher level learning. Information in present in long term memory takes less time to recall, which allows more time to apply the information to the problem at hand. Since characteristics of learning are defined by psychology, teaching strategies often originate from the fields of cognitive and behavioral psychology; a few will be discussed below.

4 Running head: Learning Disabilities: Elementary Learners Difficulties in Reading, Writing, and

Spelling

Academic and administrative teaching strategies for special and general educators and related service personnel

Dyslexia is a severe disability of reading and writing. (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2010; Berninger, et al. 2008) Research has demonstrated that morphological spelling treatment showed greater gains than orthographic treatment when students were asked to spell pseudo words. Orthographic spelling treatment showed more gains for students in grade four to six. Phonological spelling treatment using pseudo words improved spelling, oral repetition, and reading rate. It was also suggested that oral oriented tasks possible enhances attention and engagement of students because they are removed from the previous emotional and academic frustrations of dealing with written words. However, according to triple word theory phonological, orthographic and morphological awareness are necessary in learning to read and spell words.

Mnemonic devices are strategies to improve memory by encoding information in a meaningful way. (Moreno, 2010) It is a system where items are recalled as a block of information or related set by using acronyms, songs, or phrases as symbols. (Rathus, 2002) Use of mnemonics can be applied to lists of related words, formulas, or procedures and are especially useful for students with learning disabilities. (Moreno 2010) For example, the mnemonic, “PAT” helps students remember to identify the purpose, audience, and topic when preparing to write in response to an assessment prompt.

Dysgraphia is a severe graphomotor writing disability. A repetition or drill and practice activity, which is application of rote maintenance rehearsal, facilitates the transfer of short to long term memory. Rathus (2002) commented “Schoolchildren write spelling words over and over to remember them” which reinforces graphomotor skills. Practicing a task until it becomes an automatic response, according to behaviorists, reinforces learning. The students practiced their cursive handwriting with a worksheet formatted like primary lined paper, to improve their penmanship.

For students that have problems in phonological and phonemic awareness, reading will be difficult. Their inability to decode written words affects reading fluency, and subsequently, reading comprehension. Academic and emotional frustrations with reading difficulties causes some students to avoid the task altogether. Visual objects such as pictures, illustrations, or cartoons can be used as motivators for reading. However, variables must be considered when determining the effects of accessory pictures on the subject material comprehension.

One variable is the setting; traditional (pictures interspersed or alongside the text) or non-traditional (computer generated text formats, cartoons, and filmstrips). The second variable is the grade level; elementary students benefit from accessory pictures less than university level students. Other variables are the types of picture used such as line drawings, shaded drawings, or photographs, and whether they are depicted in color or black and white.

5 Running head: Learning Disabilities: Elementary Learners Difficulties in Reading, Writing, and

Spelling

Within the past decade, technology-amplified learning has flooded the classroom setting and research is being done to determine its effectiveness. Some studies indicate that images may cause students to depend on external help to recall information. Some research has shown that dynamic, media-based visualizations are just as good as static visuals with regards to reading comprehension. Alternately, students that create their own drawings (learner-produced drawings) can demonstrate the facilitation of learning if the drawings are relevant to the text’s content. However, other research data has shown that results are ambiguous when it comes to whether pictures aid in reading comprehension. The overall conclusion of such studies has a common theme; visualization aids must be carefully designed and positioned so that it effectively enhances learning, but students need to know how and when to use them. (Phillips, et al. 2010)

Parental strategies for students with learning disabilities

One of the first and most important parental responsibilities of a student with any type of disability is to become familiar with their rights which are protected by state and federal law. Some of these rights include parental participation, written notice and consent, examination of student records, confidentiality, request for mediation and due process hearings. IDEA imposes these specific requirements and mandates to ensure that parents are involved in the educational placement of their child. Activities that parents should be involved in include attending meetings with personnel that collaborate to develop the student’s Individualized Education Program (IEP).

McInerney (2006) discusses a cognitive-behavioral therapy strategy called Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), which is used to address the emotional demands of being a parent of a child with learning disabilities. Psychologically, parents can demonstrate several self-defeating attitudes related to denial versus acceptance, fear versus active concern, anger versus rational statements, and guilt versus self-acceptance. Some parents of special education students are wary of professionals due to previous negative experiences and may exhibit defensive and negative attitudes. Reinforcing rational thoughts, the expression of reasonable emotions, and the teaching of purposeful behaviors are some of the goals of this therapy. One of the first things that special educators and related service personnel must do to ensure parents positively engage in the intervention for their child is to establish a positive rapport. Once a positive therapeutic relationship is established, the parent is more likely to openly discuss fears, anxieties, or concerns about their child. Group counseling is productive, especially if done using the Socratic Method, because it brings parents in similar circumstances together in a non-judgmental and supportive environment. Disputation is a technique that therapists use to persuade parents get rid of negative thoughts about the demands of having a child with special needs; however it requires gentle persistence on the part of the therapist. Unfortunately, in terms of service delivery, implementation of therapeutic programs must consider the availability of resources such as professional time for individualized or group consultations and the realistic expectations desired from such a program.

Teachers can also benefit from participating in cognitive-behavioral therapy program like REBT, also. Frustration, anxiety, and anger can cause self-defeating

6 Running head: Learning Disabilities: Elementary Learners Difficulties in Reading, Writing, and

Spelling

behaviors in special and general educators and other personnel also, which impairs the development of positive discourse between all involved parties. Administration could provide training for teachers and related personnel as a professional development course. (McInerney, 2006) Summary Research based strategies are key to the effective teaching of students with reading learning disabilities. Since the characteristics of learning disabled students vary, cognitive and behavioral teaching strategies must match the needs of the student. Parents, special educators, and related personnel can also benefit from strategies that make them better prepared to deals with the special demands of a learning disabled student.

7 Running head: Learning Disabilities: Elementary Learners Difficulties in Reading, Writing, and

Spelling

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Berninger, V.W., et al. (2008) Tier 3 specialized writing instruction for students with dyslexia. Read Writ. 21. (95-125) Berry, R. A. W. (2006) Teacher Talk during Whole-Class Lessons: Engagement Strategies to Support the Verbal Participation of Students with Learning Disabilities. Bui, Y. N. Schumaker, J.B. & Deshler, D.D. (2006). The Effects of a Strategic Writing Program for Students with and without Learning Disabilities in Inclusive Fifth-Grade Classes. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 21 (4), 244-260. Hallahan, A., Kauffman, J., & Pullen, P. (2010). Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education. (11th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon Publishing Company Illinois State Board of Education. (October 2009) Notice of Procedural Safeguards for Parents/Guardians of Students with Disabilities. http://www.isbe.net/spec-ed/pdfs/nc_proc_sfgrds_34-57j.pdf McInerney, J.F., McInerney, B.C.M. Working with the parents and teachers of exceptional children. In Ellis, A. & Bernard, M.E. (Eds.). Rational emotive behavioral approaches to childhood disorders: Theory, practice and research. (369-383) New York: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities. (June 2010) Comprehensive Assessment and Evaluation of Students with Learning Disabilities. Retrieved from: http://www.ldonline.org/about/partners/njcld#reports Phillips, L.M., et al, Chapter 6 Visualizations and Reading Visualization in Mathematics, Reading and Science Education,. Models and Modeling in Science Education 5(51-62) Rathus. S. A. (2002). Psychology in the New Millennium. (8th ed.). Wadsworth Publishing U.S. Department of Education. IDEA Regulations: Identification of Specific Learning Disabilities. Retrieved from: http://idea.ed.gov/explore/view/p/%2Croot%2Cdynamic%2CTopicalBrief%2C23%2C