Learning

&Memory

Learning

• Change in behavior or mental processes due to experience

• Allows us to adapt to our environment

Learning

• Association - connection between events that occur together– Classical conditioning– Operant conditioning– Observational learning

• Learning is flexible

Classical conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov– Studying digestive reflexes

• Classical conditioning– Learning an automatic association between

two stimuli– Response is reflexive

Classical conditioning

• Requires the pairing of two stimuli to condition a response– Stimulus

• Neutral stimulus • Unconditioned stimulus

– Response • Unconditioned response

Classical conditioning

Food

This is an unlearned (unconditioned) association

Salivation

Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response

SalivationFoodUnconditioned

StimulusUnconditioned

Response

Bell (Neutral Stimulus)

• If you pair a NS with UCS a number of times…

Classical conditioning

Salivation(Conditioned

Response)

Bell (Conditioned Stimulus)

• It will begin to elicit a conditioned response

Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning

• Extinction

• Spontaneous recovery

Classical conditioning

• John Watson & Little Albert– UCS– UCR– CS– CR

Classical conditioning outside the lab

• Advertising

• PTSD

• Aversions

• Phobias

Classical conditioning review

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Neutral stimulus

Unconditioned stimulus

Unconditioned response

Conditioned stimulus

Conditioned response

Operant conditioning

• Association between a behavior and a consequence

E.L. Thorndike

• Puzzle box paradigm– Learning curve for escape

• Law of effect– Successful behaviors are likely to be repeated

B.F. Skinner

• Major pioneer of behaviorism– All responses can be scientifically

measured

• Skinner box– Used to shape complex behaviors

Learning and association between a response and a consequence

• Consequence must follow a behavior

• Reinforcement - increases the likelihood of the response– Positive reinforcement +

• Adds something desirable

– Negative reinforcement -• Takes away something unpleasant

• Punishment - decreases the likelihood of the response– Positive punishment +

• Adds something unpleasant

– Negative punishment -• Takes away something desirable

Consequences

• Reinforcement– Primary reinforcers - innately satisfying– Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers - associated with

satisfaction

• Punisment– Not simply the opposite of reinforcement– Creates several unwanted side effects

• Suppresses all behaviors• Creates fear• Teaches/increases aggression & cruelty

Reinforcement schedules

• Affect speed and retention of learning

• Continuous reinforcement

• Partial reinforcement– Fixed ratio– Variable ratio– Fixed interval– Variable interval

Shaping

• Complex behaviors are created by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior– Each response that comes closer to the

desired behavior is rewarded– Discrete segments of the behavior eventually

comprise the whole behavior

Applications of operant conditioning

• Behavior modification– Applied behavioral therapy

– Animal training

– Teaching children good behaviors and basic skills

– Increasing employee productivity

Extinction

• In the absence of a consequence, conditioned behavior will diminish

– Following extinction, the learned behavior may be recovered

Classical and Operant conditioning

• Contrast– Classical conditioning creates an automatic

response– Operant conditioning teaches an association

between behavior and consequence

• Compare– Associative learning

Observational learning

• Animals and humans learn through watching and imitating others

• Part of typical development

Observational learning

• Observational learning utilizes mirror neurons– Neurons in the frontal cortex– Respond to observation of activity and

emotion

Albert Bandura

• Observational learning relies on watching another’s behavior and observing the outcome

• Bobo doll study

Observational learning

• Modeling/observation of prosocial behaviors increases the occurrence of those behaviors

• Modeling/observation of negative behaviors can have antisocial effects – Children exposed to violence are more aggressive– Television is a model of many negative behaviors

• Correlation• Causation

– Effects of media violence on attitudes and behaviors• Immitation• Desensitization

Memory• The persistence of learning over time.

• Nondeclarative memory– Perceptual– Procedural– Stimulus-response

• Declarative memory– Episodic– Semantic

3 steps to form a memory

Encoding

Storage

Retrieval

Analogy: New sweater

• Fold the sweater and put it away in the closet

• Sweater sits in the closet

• Take the sweater out to wear it

3-stage memory model• Sensory memory - limited sensory record

– Some information is automatically encoded

• Working memory (short-term memory) - active encoding– Processes new information – Utilizes and modifies previously stored memories– “Active” component of memory

• Long-term memory - encoded and stored

Encoding

• Processing information into memory• How we encode

– Automatic encoding - requires little effort or conscious awareness• Space - visual maps• Time - sequence of events• Frequency - repetition of events

– Effortful encoding - requires attention and effort• Rehearsal

Ebbinghaus - rehearsal studies

• The amount of information remembered depends on the amount of time spent learning

Effects on encoding• Serial position effect

– Primacy• Following a delay

– Recency • Immediately after learning

• Spacing effect• Small, repeated rehearsals improve retention

• Effortful processing often becomes automatic with rehearsal

Encoding

• What we encode– Semantic encoding - meaning– Visual encoding - imagery– Organization

• Chunking • Hierarchies

Storage• Retention of memories in the brain

• Stages of Memory– Sensory memory– Working memory– Long-term memory

Sensory memory• Sensory information trace

– Remains in the sensory system momentarily– May be encoded into a short-term memory

• Iconic memories - visual– ½ second

• Echoic memories - auditory– 3-4 seconds

Working memory• The mid-stage of memory storage

– Short-term memories + recalled long-term memories

– Consciously aware of our memories and can work with them at this stage

• Sensory memories short-term memories– Incoming memories must be rehearsed to be

maintained

Working memory• Working memory has a limited capacity

– 7 +/- 2 pieces of information– 20 seconds

• Capacity extended by– Chunking– Rehearsal

Long-term memory• Encoded and stored memories

• Essentially unlimited capacity

Storing memories• Formation of long-term memories relies

on neural changes– Long-term potentiation– Not an exact replica– Not located in one spot in the brain– Brain damage has varying impact, due to the

nature of memory storage

Memory and stress• High stress and strong emotions fuel

brain activity

• Flashbulb memories– Reliable– Not completely infallible

Where are memories made?

Retrieval

• Getting information out of long-term storage• Memories are stored in a network of related

information– Retrieval cues

• Memory associations are activated by conscious and unconscious events– Priming– Context

• Déjà vu - sensation of reliving a previously experienced situation

– Emotions• State-dependent memory

Forgetting

• Inability to retrieve information– Can happen at any memory stage

• Encoding failure– Information not encoded at any stage will be

forgotten– Encoding affected by

• Age• Arousal• Mood

Anterograde amnesia

• Inability to for NEW declarative memories– Failure of encoding– Due to hippocampal damage

Forgetting

• Storage decay– Encoded, stored memories may be lost

– Forgetting curve• Less durable memories are lost most easily

Retrograde amnesia

• Large-scale loss of previously stored memories– Due to brain injury– Time frame of loss varies– Often temporary

Retrieval failure

• Some memories are not readily retrieved from storage– “Tip of the tongue” phenomenon

• Interference– Proactive interference– Retroactive interference

• Revision

Memory is a constructive process

• Schemas– New memories are fit into existing belief

structures– Assimilation– Accommodation

Memory is a constructive process

• Memory recall is not an exact replica of original events and information– Recall is a reconstructing of memory based

on:• New experience, ideas, information• Alteration in the strength of some memories• Interaction with others• Filtering out information• Filling in missing pieces

Memory is a constructive process

• Memory is influenced by faulty information

• Misinformation effect– Loftus’s research on false memories

• Imagination– We can create our own false memories

Memory is a constructive process

• Eyewitness recall - not as reliable as once thought!– Children’s recall– Adult recall

• Final thought:Memory is a reconstructive process

and confidence is NOT correlated with accuracy!