LearningLearningLearningLearning

Chapter 5

Learning

• The process by which practice or experience results in a relatively permanent change in behavior

• Conditioning– A simple form of learning in which a

specific pattern of behaviors is learned in the presence of well-defined stimuli

Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning

• Learning in which a response naturally caused by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral stimulus

• Ivan Pavlov– Accidentally discovered classical

conditioning– His experiments on salivation in dogs

turned into research on learning

Elements of Classical Conditioning

• Unconditioned stimulus (US)– A stimulus that automatically causes a

specific response in an organism– And example of a US would be food

• Unconditioned response (UR)– The response caused by a US– The UR is automatic and unlearned– An example of a UR is salivation in

response to food

Elements of Classical Conditioning

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)– A formerly neutral stimulus that is paired

with a US and eventually causes the desired response all by itself

– An example of a CS is the bell in Pavlov’s studies

• Conditioned Response (CR)– The learned response to the CS– An example is salivation in response to the

bell

Classical Conditioning Procedure

Before ConditioningBefore Conditioning

Food (US)

Salivation (UR)

Bell (CS)

No Response

Classical Conditioning ProcedureDuring ConditioningDuring Conditioning

Bell (CS)

Food (US)

Salivation (UR)

Classical Conditioning Procedure

After ConditioningAfter Conditioning

Bell (CS)

Salivation (CR)

Classical Conditioning In Humans

• Many phobias are the result of classical conditioning– The “Little Albert” experiment

demonstrated a classically conditioned phobia

• Desensitization therapy– A technique that uses classical

conditioning to treat phobias– Person learns to relax in presence of

stimulus that used to be upsetting

Classical Conditioning in Humans

• Classical conditioning is selective– Preparedness is the notion that

humans are predisposed to develop certain phobias because they have survival value

– May explain common fears such as dark, heights, and snakes

Classical Conditioning in Humans

• Taste aversion– Learned association between the

taste of a certain food and a feeling of nausea or revulsion

– This learning can occur quickly, often with only one pairing

– Speed of learning is likely related to survival instincts

Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningOperant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

• Learning in which an organism’s behavior is followed by a reward or punishment

• Organism learns to perform behavior in order to gain a reward or avoid a punishment

Elements of Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcer– A stimulus or event that follows a

behavior and makes that behavior more likely to occur again

• Punisher– A stimulus or event that follows a

behavior and makes that behavior less likely to occur again

Types of Reinforcement

• Positive reinforcer (+)– Adds something

rewarding following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again

– Giving a dog a treat for fetching a ball is an example

• Negative reinforcer (-)– Removes something

unpleasant from the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again

– Taking an aspirin to relieve a headache is an example

Punishment

• Goal of punishment is to decrease the occurrence of a behavior

• Effective punishment– Should occur as soon as possible after the

behavior– Should be sufficient, i.e., strong enough– Should be certain, occurring every time the

behavior does– Should be consistent

Punishment

• Not as effective as reinforcement

• Does not teach proper behavior, only suppresses undesirable behavior

• Causes upset that can impede learning

• May give impression that inflicting pain is acceptable

Operant Conditioning is Selective

• Operant conditioning techniques work best with behaviors that would typically occur in a specific situation

• Superstitious behavior– Tendency to repeat behaviors that are

followed closely by a reinforcer, even if they are not related

– For example, a particular pair of socks might become “lucky” if something good happened when you wore them

Learned Helplessness

• Failure to try to avoid an unpleasant stimulus because in the past it was unavoidable

• Possible model for depression in humans

•Powerlessness

•Abusive Homes

•Poverty

•Reservation System

•Welfare-Dependency Cycle

•Attributes

Soda Machine

Slot Machine

Sweat Shop

Lacrosse Game Salaries

Continuous Reinforcement

Variable Ratio

Fixed Ratio

Variable IntervalFixed Interval

Cognitive Learning

• Learning that depends on mental activity that is not directly observable

• Involves such processes as attention, expectation, thinking, and memory

Observational Learning•Social Learning Theory focuses on what we learn from observing other people

•Observational or vicarious learning occurs when we see the consequences of other people’s behavior

Parenting Styles

Permissive-Indulgent•More responsive than demanding•Nontraditional and lenient, do not require mature behavior, allow considerable self-regulation and avoid confrontation•Fail to set appropriate limits•Results: disrespectful, immature, impulsive

Permissive-Indifferent•Low in both responsiveness and in level of demand

•Neglectful & inattentive

•Little emotional support

•Result: overly dependent, lack social skills, and self control

Parenting StylesAuthoritarian

•Highly rigid•Obedience- and status-oriented, and expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation•Well-ordered & structured environments w) clearly stated rules•Result: poor communication, moody, distrustful, withdrawn

Authoritative•Demanding and responsive•Firm structure and guidance •Assertive, but not intrusive and restrictive. •Disciplinary methods are supportive, rather than punitive. •Result: self reliant & responsible, self-regulated as well as cooperative.

Parenting Prompts

1.What are the styles among team members, and provide your best reasoning for choosing each style. Defend it.

2.Describe the most common type you have observed among various relationships & within different households

3.Which method(s) is/are portrayed in the media; which is the most prevalent; and to what extent has the media influenced perceptions of parenting styles--as an example of the cognitive and observational learning processes?

Concepts

Section 1

Learning

Conditioning

Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Unconditioned Response (UR)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Conditioned Response (CR)

Section 2

Operant Conditioning

Reinforcers

Punishers

Positive Reinforcers

Negative Reinforcers

Punishment

Learned Helplessness

Concepts

Section 3Skinner Box

Shaping

Extinction

Spontaneous Recovery

Schedule of Reinforcement

Section 4

Cognitive Learning

Social Learning Theory

Observational Learning

Extinction & Spontaneous Recovery

• Classical– US and CS are no

longer paired, eliminating the CR = Extinction

– Spontaneous recovery occurs when the CR temporarily returns without additional training

• Operant – occurs when

reinforcement is stopped, eliminating the conditioned behavior

– Spontaneous recovery occurs when behavior temporarily returns without additional training

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Interval schedules– Reinforcement depends on the passing of time

– Fixed-interval schedule• Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a fixed

amount of time has passed

• Example: receiving a paycheck every two weeks

– Variable-interval schedule• Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a variable

amount of time has passed

• Example: pop quizzes

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Ratio schedules– Reinforcement depends on the number of responses

made

– Fixed-ratio schedule• Reinforcement follows a fixed number of behaviors

• Example: being paid on a piecework basis

– Variable-ratio schedule• Reinforcement follows a variable number of behaviors

• Example: playing slot machines

Schedules

Part 1) Create an example of each Schedule of Reinforcement…then

Part 2) Justify how each meets the criteria for their respective Schedule.

Sequence as follows:

1. Fixed Interval 2. Variable Interval 3. Fixed Ratio 4. Variable Ratio

Response Patterns to Schedules of Reinforcement