lec 3,4 toxic response of the immune system4_toxic...reactions, or glomerulonephritis, and are often...

Assist. Prof. Dr.Bushra Hassan MaroufUniversity of Sulaimani-College of Pharmacy

Lec 3,4

Toxic responses of the immune system

February 15, 2020 Toxicology 4th year - Lec 3,4 1

Immune system

Immunity is a homeostatic process, a series of delicately balanced, complex, multicellular, and physiologic mechanisms that allow an individual to distinguish foreign material from "self" and neutralize and/or eliminate the foreign matter.

2February 15, 2020 Toxicology 4th year - Lec 3,4

Immunotoxicology

Immunotoxicology can be defined as the study of adverse effects on the immune system resulting from occupational, accidental, or therapeutic exposure to drugs, environmental chemicals and biological materials.


Continuum of immunotoxicity?(Adverse outcome of immunotoxicity?)

l Decreased immunocompetence (immunosuppression) may result in repeated, more severe, or prolonged infections as well as the development of cancer.

l Immunoenhancement may lead to immune-mediated diseases such as hypersensitivity responses or autoimmune disease.


Continuum of immunotoxicity:


Organs of immune system


Immune system


Innate immunity


Reflexes such as coughing, sneezing, and elevation in body temperature are also a part of innate immunity.

Antigen Processing:


Antigen

l An antigen is defined functionally as a substance that can elicit the production of a specific antibody and can be specifically bound by that antibody.

l Generally antigens are about 10KDa, smaller antigens are termed haptens and must be conjugated with carrier molecules (larger antigen) to elicit a specific response.


Hapten:


Antibody; immunoglobulin

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Fragment Antigen Binding

Fragment Crystalizable

February 15, 2020 Toxicology 4th year - Lec 3,4

Antibody; immunoglobulin

Immunomodulation by Xenobiotics

l The expansive and versatile nature of the immune system renders it susceptible to modulation by a wide variety o xenobiotics.

l Many xenobiotics exhibit immunosuppressive actions, whereas some are immunomodulatory, meaning they might produce immune suppression and immune enhancement. Regardless of the end effect (immune suppression, immune enhancement, hypersensitivity, or autoimmunity)



l Several mechanisms exist by which these chemicals act: l First, the mechanisms are likely to be multifaceted involving

several proteins, signaling cascades, or receptors. l Second, whether a xenobiotic produces a particular immune

effect might depend on the concentration or dose of the xenobiotic, the mode and/or magnitude of cellular stimulation, and the kinetic relationship between exposure to the xenobiotic and exposure to the immune stimulant (i.e., antigen, mitogen, and pharmacological agent).



l Third, xenobiotic exposures rarely occur in one chemical at a time; thus, the effects and/or mechanisms observed might be attributable to several chemicals or classes of chemicals. Finally, determination for immune system effects and/or mechanisms by xenobiotics in humans might be further confounded by the physiological or immunological state of the individual.


Immunomodulation by Xenobiotics (immune suppression, immune enhancement, hypersensitivity, and autoimmunity)

l Halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons (HAH) : Polychlorinated biphenyls, Polybrominated biphenyls

binding of HAH to aromatic hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) ultimately results in upregulation of certain proteins with a net immunosuppressive effect. l Pesticide: can be both immunosuppressive and

immunoenhancingl Metals: at high concentrations usually exert

immunosuppressive effects; however, at lower concentrations, immune enhancement is often observed.



l Solvents and Related Chemicals: benzene, haloalkanesand haloalkenes, glycols and glycol ethers, and nitrosamines: can produce immune suppression.

l Natural and Synthetic Hormones: profound changes in immune activity can result from very slight changes in concentrations of hormones.



l Mycotoxins: secondary metabolites of fungi such as aflatoxin, ochratoxin, vomitoxin.

l These toxins can produce cellular depletion in lymphoidorgans, alterations in T- and B-lymphocyte function, suppression of antibody responses, suppression of NK cellactivity, decreased DTH responses, and an apparent increase in susceptibility to infectious disease.



l Therapeutic Agents : Immunosuppressive Agents, AIDS-Therapeutics , Anti- inflammatory Agents, Biologics suchas recombinant DNA–derived proteins (vaccine)

l Drugs of abuse : such as cannabinoids, opioids, cocaine, methamphetamine, and ethanol exhibit immunosuppressive actions.



l Ultraviolet radiation (UVR): UV-induced immunomodulation can lead to several adverse health consequences, including a pivotal role during the process of skin carcinogenesis.


Environmental immunotoxicant

Xenobiotic-induced hypersensitivity and autoimmunity

l When an individual’s immune system responds in a manner producing tissue damage, it could result in hypersensitivity or autoimmunity, which could be exacerbated, or even induced, by another xenobiotic.


Mechanisms of Xenobiotic-induced hypersensitivity and autoimmunity


Epitope ?

Coombs and Gell classification of hypersensitivity

All four types of hypersensitivity reactions require prior exposure leading to sensitization to elicit a reaction upon subsequent challenge.


Classification of hypersensitivity

l Type I (Immediate Hypersensitivity)l Type II (Antibody-Dependent Cytotoxic Hypersensitivity)l Type III (Immune Complex–Mediated Hypersensitivity)l Type IV cell delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) response.


Type I hypersensitivity reaction:


Type II hypersensitivity reaction:


Type III hypersensitivity reaction:


Type III hypersensitivity reaction (Immune Complex–Mediated Hypersensitivity):

Type II and III immunopathies include anemia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, pneumonitis, vasculitis, lupus-like reactions, or glomerulonephritis, and are often indistinguishable from autoimmune reactions


Type IV hypersensitivity reaction:


Xenobiotic induced-hypersensitivity

l Metals: Metals and metallic substances, including metallic salts, are responsible or producing contact and pulmonary hypersensitivity reactions. Platinum, cobalt, chromium, nickel, and beryllium are commonly implicated.



l Drugs: Hypersensitivity responses to drugs are among the major types of unpredictable drug reactions. Immunologic mechanisms of hypersensitivity reactions to drugs include types I to IV. Penicillin is the most common agent involved in drug allergy.



l Latex: Natural rubber latex is used in the manufacture of over 40,000 products from balloons to surgical gloves. Allergic reactions to natural rubber latex products have become an important occupational health concern with increased use of universal precautions, particularly latex gloves, to combat the spread of blood borne pathogens. Hypersensitivity to latex usually occurs via a type I or type IV reaction. Dermatologic reactions to latex include irritant dermatitis and contact dermatitis


Latex Allergy:



l Formaldehyde: Formaldehyde is used as a preservative, sterilant, and fumigant. Additional exposures come from the textile industry, where it is used to improve wrinkle resistance, and in the furniture, auto upholstery, and resins industries. Occupational exposure to formaldehyde has been associated both with the occurrence of asthma and increased respiratory allergic responses to other stimuli.


Sources of Formaldehyde inside the home:


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When heat is applied in the Brazilian blowout process causes the methylene glycol to dehydrate, yielding formaldehyde gas and water vapors.

February 15, 2020 Toxicology 4th year - Lec 3,4

Sources of Formaldehyde:



l Food and Genetically Modified Organisms: Awareness of hypersensitivity reactions to foods and genetically modified organisms (or crops; GMOs) has increased in the last several years. The most common food allergens are milk, egg, peanuts and other tree nuts, fish, shellfish, soy, and wheat. Hypersensitivity to peanuts occurs primarily via a type I reaction, and the IgE responses may include shortness of breath, asthma, and anaphylaxis.


Autoimmunity:


Induction of Autoimmune Disease :Genes versus Environment


Autoimmunity:

l There are numerous reports of xenobiotics that have been associated with autoimmunity; xenobiotic-induced autoimmunity,


Xenobiotic-induced autoimmunity:

l Methyldopa: Platelets and erythrocytes are targeted by the immune system in individuals treated with this drug, resulting in thrombocytopenia and hemolytic anemia.

l Hydralazine, Isoniazid and Procainamide: All three drugs produce autoimmunity, which is manifested as a systemic lupus erythematosus-like syndrome.


Chemical agents associated with autoimmunity:


ChemicalsimplicatedinAutoimmunity:


Next week activity:

l The ability of hemoglobin to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and tissues is depend on both intrinsic (homotropic) and extrinsic (heterotropic) factors. therefore alteration in the respiratory function of hemoglobin is consider as a toxic response of blood, discuss the factors that lead to alteration of respiratory function of hemoglobin including methemoglobin formation and agents associated with methemoglobinemia ?


lec 3,4 toxic response of the immune system4_toxic...reactions, or glomerulonephritis, and are often...

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