lect. 4a wordstructur 2-2
TRANSCRIPT
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Word StructurePart 1
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Th e Structure of Words:Morp h ology
Fundamental concepts in h ow words arecomposed out of smaller partsTh e nature of t h ese partsTh e nature of t h e rules t h at combine t h ese
parts into larger unitsWh at it mig h t mean to be a word
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T oday
I. Morp h emesII. T ypes of Morp h emesIII. Putting Morp h emes toget h er into larger
structures ± Words wit h internal structure ± Interesting properties of compounds
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I. Morp h emes
Remember t h at in p h onology t h e basicdistinctive units of sound are ph onemes
In morp h ology, t h e basic unit is t h emor ph eme
Basic definition: A morp h eme is a minimalunit of sound and meaning
(th is can be modified in various ways; seebelow)
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Some Examples
Many words can be divided into smaller parts,wh ere t h e parts also occur in ot h er words:
dogs walking blackens player- h ater
dog-s walk-ing black-en-s play-er h
at-er
C ompare: cat-s; runn-ing; dark-en-s; eat-er
(note: in some cases t h ere are spelling c h angeswh en we add morp h emes; ignore t h is)
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Parts, cont.
Th e smaller parts occur consistently wit h many words:
± -s : forms t h e plural consistently ± -i ng : forms a noun from a verb
± -en : forms a verb meaning µbecome ADJ¶ from anadjective ADJ
± -er : forms an agent iv e nom i nal from a verb, aperson or t h ing w h o does t h at activity
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C onsistent Sound/Meaning
Notice t h at t h is is not t h e only way we candivide up words into smaller parts; consider ± T ank, plank, flank, drank, rank , etc.
In th ese words, we could easily identify acomponent -ank However, t h is is not a morp h eme
± Th ere is no consistent meaning wit h th is -ank ± Th e ³leftover´ pieces t -, pl -, fl -, dr -, r - are not
morp h emes eit h er
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C onnections between S ound andMean i ng
Remember t h at a phoneme sometimes h asmore t h an one sound form, w h ile being t h esame abstract unit: /p/ wit h [pº] and [p h ]A related t h ing h appens wit h morp h emes aswell
In order to see t h is, we h ave to look at slig h tlymore complex cases
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Morp h emes and A llomor ph s
We will say in some cases t h at a morp h eme h asmore t h an one allomor phTh is h appens w h en t h e same meaning unit like [past]for past tense or [pl] for plural h as more t h an onesound form ± P ast: one feature [past]
kick / kick-edleave / lef-thit / hit-Ø
Th e last example s h ows a case in w h ich th eph onological form of t h e morp h eme past is z ero , i.e.it is not pronounced
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A llomorp h y, cont.
In th e case of p h onology, we said t h at t h e differentall ophones of a p h oneme are part of t h e sameph oneme, but are found in particular contextsTh e same is true of t h e different all omorphs of a
morp h emeWh ich allomorp h of a morp h eme is found depends onits context; in t h is case, w h at it is attac h ed to: ± Ex ample: consider [pl] for Englis h plural. It normally h as t h e
pronunciation ±s (i.e. /z/), but
moose / moose- Ø
ox / ox-en
box/*box-en/box-es
So, t h e special allomorp h s depend on t h e noun
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A n A dditional Point: R egular andIrregular
In th e examples above, t h e different allomorp h s h avea distinct status. One of t h em is regular . ± Th is is t h e d ef ault form t h at appears w h en speakers are
using e.g. new words (one b lork , two b lorks ) ± For ot h er allomorp h s, speakers simply h ave to memorize t h e
fact t h at t h e allomorp h is w h at it is ± Ex ample: It cannot be predicted from ot h er facts t h at t h e
plural of ox is ox -en ± D emonstration: Th e regular plural is /z/; consider one b ox ,
twob
ox -es .D efault cases like t h e /z/ plural are called regular . A llomorp h s t h at h ave to be memorized are calledi rregular.Irregular allomorp h s b lock regular allomorp h s from
occurring ( ox -en , not * ox -es or *ox -en -s ).
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T wo types
Th ere are in fact two types of allomorp h s.Th ink back to p h onology« ± Th e P lural morp h eme in Englis h h as different
sound-forms : dog -s/cat -s/c hurc h -es
Th ese are predictable, based on t h eph onological context
± In t he case of P ast Tense allomor phy , i t i s not pred i cta b le from t he ph onolog y w h i c h aff i x a pp ears
� We can find verbs wit h th e same (or similar)sound form, but wit h different allomorp h s:b reak/ b roke , not stake/*stoke
� If you t h ink about t h is case for a w h ile, t h oug h ,you will notice some patterns; more on t h is later
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II. Morp h eme T ypes
We ¶ll now set out some furt h er distinctionsamong morp h eme types
Our working definition of mor ph eme wasµminimal unit of sound and meaning ¶
A furth er division among morp h emes involveswh et h er t hey ca n o ccu r on t heir own or
no t: ± No: -s in dog-s ; -ed in kick-ed ; cran- in cran-berry
± Yes: dog , kick , berry
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Some D efinitions
Bound Morphemes: Th ose t h at cannotappear on t h eir own
Free Morphemes: Th ose t h at can appear on
th
eir ownIn a comple x word: ± Th e root or stem is t h e basic or core morp h eme
± Th e t h ings added to t h is are t h e aff i xes
± Ex ample: in dark -en th e root or stem is dark ,wh ile t h e affix± in t h is case a suff i x ± is -en
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Furt h er points
In some cases, works will use root and stemin slig h tly different ways
A ffixes are divided into pref i xes and suff i xesdepending on w h et h er t h ey occur before or after t h e t h ing t h ey attac h to. Inf i xes -- middleof a word (e.g. fan -f* i ng -tast i c )
For t h e most part, prefixes and suffixes arealways bound, except for isolated instances
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C ontent and Funct i on Words
A not h er distinction:C ontent Morphemes: morp h emes t h at h ave areferential function t h at is independent of grammatical structure; e.g. dog , k i ck , etc. ± S omet i mes t hese are called ³o pen -class´ b ecause s peakers
can add to t h i s class at w i ll
Function morphemes: morp h emes t h at are bits of syntactic structure± e.g. prepositions, or morp h emesth at express grammatical notions like [past] for pasttense. ± S omet i mes called ³closed -class´ b ecause s peakers cannot
add to t h i s class
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C ross- C lassification
Th e bound/free and content/functiondistinctions are not t h e same. Some
examples: C ontent Function
Bound cran - -ed
Free dog t he
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A side: Non- A ffixal Morp h ology
In th e cases above, we h ave seen many affixesassociated wit h some morp h ological function
In ot h er cases, t h ere are additional c h anges; e.g.,ch anges to t h e stem vowel:
± sing/sang
± goose/geese
Examples of t h is type are not obviously aff i xal , asth ere is no (overt) added piece ( pref i x or suff i x ).
Rat h er, t h e p h onology of t h e stem/root h as c h anged
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Some examples
Stem c h anging:P resent P ast P articiple
sing sang sung
begin began begun
sit sat sat
come came come
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A not h er pattern
Wh ile in many cases t h e stem c h ange doesnot co-occur wit h an affix, in some cases itdoes:
Ex amples:
break broke brok -en
tell tol-d tol-d
freeze froze froz-en
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U se of stem c h anging patterns
In some languages, stem-c h anging is muc h more important t h an it is in e.g. Englis h
In S em i t i c languages, extensive use is madeof different tem plat i c patterns , th at is, abstractpatterns of consonants and vowels: ± A rabic noun plurals:
kitaab µbook¶; kutub µbooks ¶
nafs µsoul¶; nufus µsouls¶
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III. Internal structure of words
Words h ave an internal structure t h at requiresanalysis into constituents (muc h like syntacticstructure does)
For example: ± U nusable contains t h ree pieces: un-, use, -able
Question: If we are t h inking about t h eprocedures for building words, is t h e order
± derive use -a b le , t h en add un -; or ± derive un -use , t h en add - a b le
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Word Structure
Possibilities:Structure 1 Structure 2
un use able un use able
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Word Structure, C ont.
C onsider: ± With ±a b le , we create adjectives meaning
µcapable of being V-ed ¶, from verbs V
� Break/break-able; kick/kick-able ± Th ere is no verb un -use ± Th is is an argument t h at Structure 1 is correct:
[un [use able]]
±Th
is analysis fits well with
wh
at th
e word meansas well: not capable of being used. Structure twowould mean some t h ing like µcapable of not beingused ¶
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nlocka b le , cont.
Th e second structure is one in w h ich ± a b leapplies to t h e verb unlock Th is verb is itself created from un - and lock
Th e meaning goes wit h th is: µcapable of beingunlocked ¶
In structure 1, t h ere is no verb unlock
So t h e meaning is µnot capable of beinglocked ¶
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Some General Points
Th e system for analyzing words applies inmany cases t h at are created on t h e flyC omplex words and t h eir meanings are notsimply stored; rat h er, t h e parts are assembledto create complex meaningsA not h er example of t h e same principleapplies in t h e process of com pound i ng
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Introduction to C ompounding
A compound is a complex word t h at is formed out of a combination of stems (as opposed to stem + affix)Th ese function in a certain sense as µone word ¶, andh ave distinctive p h onological patterns
Ex amples:olive oil
s h op talk
s h oe polis h
truck driver
Note t h at t h e different elements in t h ese compoundsrelate to eac h oth er in different ways...
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Internal structure
Like wit h oth er complex words, t h e internalstructure of compounds is crucialTh ere are cases of ambiguities like t h at wit h unlocka b leEx ample: obscure document s h redder
1) Person w h o s h reds obscure documents
[[obscure document] s h redder]2) Obscure person w h o s h reds documents
[obscure [document s h redder]]
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C ompounding, cont.A n interesting property of compounds is t h at alt h oug h th ey are µwords ¶,th ey form a productive system, wit h out limits (as far as grammar isconcerned, not memory).
Note also t h at compounds h ave special accentual (stress) properties:
judge
trial judgemurder trial judge
murder trial judge reporter
murder trial judge reporter killer
murder trial judge reporter killer catc h er murder trial judge reporter killer catc h er biograp h er
murder trial judge reporter killer catc h er biograp h er pencil set
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