lecture 4 geos24705 the pre-industrial energy crisis the...

Lecture 4 GEOS24705

The pre-industrial energy crisis The steam engine

Copyright E. Moyer 2011

Horse drawn combine, likely 1910s-20s. Source: FSK Agricultural Photographs

“Bio-engines” and some technology make harvesting much more efficient.

27 horsepower! (or perhaps horse-+mule-power)

Very early a switch was made from vertical to horizontal axes

Pitstone windmill, believed to be the oldest in Britain.

Horizontal-axis waterwheel

What were the needs for mechanical work by mills?

anything besides grinding grain?

Why so many windmills along rivers?

Luyken, 1694 Source unknown

Pumping can be done with rotational motion alone…

Dutch drainage mill using Archimedes’ screw from The Dutch Windmill, Frederick Stokhuyzen

Pumping can be done with rotational motion alone…

Chain pumps, including bucket chain pumps (R) From Cancrinus, via Priester, Michael et al.

“Tools for Mining: Techniques and Processes for Small Scale Mining”

Bucket chain pumps are seen as early as 700 BC.

Common in ancient Egypt, Roman empire, China from 1st century AD, Medieval Muslim world, Renaissance Europe.

Chain pumps need not involve buckets

Chain pump cutaway From Lehman’s

…but linear motion allows more efficient pumping

The liG pump AnimaBon from Scuola Media di Calizzano

Same technology used today in oil wells

Linear motions were needed very early in industrial history

European hammer mill w/ cam coupling, 1556 A.D.

Chinese bellows, 1313 A.D.

The cam converts rotational to linear motion

The knife-‐edge cam AnimaBon from the University of Limerick

The noncircularity of the cam creates a push at only one part of the cycle

The cam converts rotational to linear motion

The rocker arm & camshaG AnimaBon from the University of Limerick

The noncircularity of the cam creates a push at only one part of the cycle

Gold refining, France. D. Diderot & J. Le Rond d`Alembert eds, Encyclopédie méthodique. Paris 1763-1777 & 1783-87.

Gears and cams let one wheel drive multiple machines

Rotational • Grindstones • Pumps • Winches • Bucket lifts • Spinning wheels • Lathes, borers, drilling machines (first use)

Linear (reciprocating) • Hammer-mills • Beaters • Bellows • Saws • Looms

Linear (non-reciprocating) • Boats

Machines powered by wind & water include:

Heating Large-scale wood-burning to make heat for industrial use

Georg Acricola “De res metallica”, Book XII (“Manufacturing salt, soda, alum, vitriol, sulphur, bitumen, and glass”), 1556.

Complex chemical transformations driven by heat were common in Medieval Europe.

Wood and coal fired technologies include

Fuel burnt for • Heating • Metallurgy • Glass-making • Brewing (drying the malt) • Baking • Brick-making • Salt-making • Tiles and ceramics • Sugar refining

Heating Large-scale wood-burning to make heat for industrial use

Copper foundry, France

D. Diderot & J. Le Rond d`Alembert eds, Encyclopédie méthodique. Paris 1763-1777 & 1783-87.

Foundries are wood-fired in 1700s and getting large enough to significantly affect the local fuel supply.

“When the fuel situaLon became difficult in France in the eighteenth century, it was said that a single forge used as much wood as a town the size of Chalon-‐sur-‐Marne. Enraged villagers complained of the forges and foundries which devoured the trees of the forests, not even leaving enough for the bakers’ ovens.”

-‐-‐-‐ F. Braudel, The Structures of Everyday Life, 1979.

The energy crisis in Europe: lack of wood

1700s

“Aeneas Sylvius (aGerwards Pope Pius II), who visited Scotland… in the middle of the fiGeenth century, menLons …that he saw the poor people who begged at churches going away quite pleased with stones given them for alms. ‘This kind of stone … is burnt instead of wood, of which the country is desLtute.”

“Within a few years aGer the commencement of the seventeenth century the change from wood fuel to coal, for domesLc purposes, was general and complete.”

-‐-‐-‐ R. Galloway, A History of Coal Mining in Great Britain, 1882.

The energy crisis hit Britain first: lack of wood

1400s

1600

“The miners, no less than the smelters, had their difficulLes during the seventeenth century, but of a totally different kind; for while the la^er were suffering from too li^le fire, the former were embarrassed by too much water… the exhausLon of he coal supply was considered to be already within sight. In 1610, Sir George Selby informed Parliament that the coal mines at Newcastle would not last for the term of their leases of twenty-‐one years.”

-‐-‐-‐ R. Galloway, A History of Coal Mining in Great Britain, 1882.

The 2nd BriBsh energy crisis: flooding of the mines

1600s

“Lack of energy was the major handicap of the ancien régime economies”

-‐-‐-‐ F. Braudel, The Structures of Everyday Life

By the 18th century Europe’s energy crisis limits growth

1.   Fuel had become scarce even when only used for heat

Wood was insufficient, & coal was geang hard to extract Surface “sea coal” deep-‐shaG mining below the water table

2. There were limited ways to make moIon No way to make moLon other than through capturing exisLng moLon or through muscle-‐power

3. There was no good way to transport moIon Water and wind weren’t necessarily near demand

The great 18th century European energy crisis

The 18th century technological impasse

All technology involved only two energy conversions

•  Mechanical moLon mechanical moLon •  Chemical energy heat

There was no way to convert chemical energy to moLon other than muscles (human or animal) – no engine other than flesh

Even for heaLng, the only means out of the energy crisis was coal – but to mine the coal required moLon for pumps.

18th century Europeans had complex and sophisBcated technology, and an abundance of industrial uses for energy, but not enough supply

Newcomen “Atmospheric Engine”, 1712

The revoluIonary soluIon = break the heat work barrier

(Note that “revolution” followed invention by ~100 years – typical for energy technology)

What is a “heat engine”?

A device that generates converts thermal energy to mechanical work by exploiLng a temperature gradient

•  Makes something more ordered: random moLons of molecules ordered moLon of enLre body

•  Makes something less ordered: degrades a temperature gradient (transfers heat from hot to cold)

The two technological leaps of the Industrial RevoluIon that bring in the modern energy era

1.   “Heat to Work” Chemical energy mechanical work via mechanical device Use a temperature gradient to drive moLon Allows use of stored energy in fossil fuels Late 1700’s: commercial adopLon of steam engine

2. Efficient transport of energy: electrificaDon Mechanical work electrical energy mech. work Allows central generaLon of power Late 1800s: rise of electrical companies

Outline of next three lectures

History of early steam engines (today) Fundamental physics of heat engines (Tues Apr. 12th)

understanding heat work

History of Industrial RevoluIon (Tues. 12th makeup or ..with preview of electric generaLon Thurs. 14th)

Organizing framework for energy conversion technology The modern energy system

And then it’s on to individual energy technologies…

Having finished with global energy flows and started history of human use, we’ll now do a tricky transiBon…

Hero of Alexandria, “TreaLse on PneumaLcs”, 120 BC

“lebes”: demonstration of lifting power of steam “aeliopile”

Physics: long understood that steam exerted force EvaporaLng water produces high pressure (Pressure = force x area)

Physics: condensing steam can produce sucLon force Low pressure in airLght container means air exerts force Same physics that lets you suck liquid through a straw (or use a sucLon pump)

First conceptual steam engine

Denis Papin, 1690, publishes design

Set architecture of reciprocaLng engines through modern day – piston moves up and down through cylinder

Papin nearly invented the internal combusLon engine in which the piston is pushed up by high pressure in the cylinder (from expanding air aGer an explosion of gunpowder).

Unfortunately he couldn’t design the valves correctly to vent air aGer expansion, and gave up. He then designed an engine in which the piston is pulled down instead by low pressure in the cylinder (provided by condensing steam).

This is deeply unfortunate for beginning students.

Papin’s first design, now in Louvre. No patent, no working model.

First conceptual steam engine

Denis Papin, 1690, publishes design

Papin neither built his engine nor even patented it. He did not have the mechanical skill to actually build his engine successfully. He needed to machine the cylinder and piston air-‐Lght to maintain a pressure gradient, and couldn’t manage that.

He forms part of conLnuing trend in the history of energy technology: the person who invents a technology is not the person who makes it pracLcal (and yet a third person is the one who makes money off it).

Also: the French explained without building, the BriBsh built without explaining.

Papin’s first design, now in Louvre. No patent, no working model.

First commercial use of steam:

“A new InvenBon for Raiseing of Water and occasioning MoBon to all Sorts of Mill Work by the Impellent Force of Fire which will be of great vse and Advantage for Drayning Mines, serveing Towns with Water, and for the Working of all Sorts of Mills where they have not the benefiY of Water nor constant Windes.”

Thomas Savery, patent applicaLon filed 1698

(good salesman, but he was wrong – this can only pump water)

First commercial use steam

Thomas Savery, 1698

EssenLally a steam-‐driven vacuum pump, good only for pumping liquids.

Max pumping height: ~30 G. (atmospheric pressure)

Efficiency below 0.1%

Some use in Scoash and English mines, to pump out water. Fuel was essenLally free. 2000 Lmes less efficient than people or animals, but they can’t eat coal.

Drawbacks – mines were deeper, fire in mines leads to explosions

Newcomen’s design is state of the art for 60+ years

First true steam engine:

Thomas Newcomen, 1712, blacksmith

Copy of Papin’s engine of design of 1690, with piston falling as steam cooled, drawn down by the low pressure generated

First reciprocaDng engine: force transmi^ed by moLon of piston

Can pump water to arbitrary height.

Force only on downstroke of piston

Very low efficiency: 0.5%

Intermi^ent force transmission

First modern steam engine:

James Wa^, 1769 (patent), 1774 (prod.) Higher efficiency than Newcomen by introducing separate condense Reduces wasted heat by not requiring heaLng and cooling enLre cylinder


James Wa^, 1769 (patent), 1774 (prod.) Higher efficiency than Newcomen by introducing separate condenser


James Wa^, 1769 patent (1774 producLon model)

Like Newcomen engine only with separate condenser Higher efficiency: 2%

Force only on downstroke of piston

Intermi^ent force transmission

No rotaLonal moLon

Improved WaY steam engine:

James Wa^, 1783 model Albion Mill, London

Separate condenser Higher efficiency: ca. 3%

Force on both up-‐ and downstroke

ConLnuous force transmission

RotaLonal moLon (sun and planet gearing)

Engine speed regulator







Engine speed regulator – don’t need electronics for controls

sun and planet gearing

Gearing lets the linear-‐moBon engine produce rotaBon, mimic a water wheel







Engine speed regulator – don’t need electronics for controls!

engine speed governor

No need for electronics for controls – can use mechanical system

Double-‐acBon steam engine:

Why use sucLon to pull the piston down – why not just push it down with another injecLon of steam?

Piston pushed by steam on both up-‐ and down-‐stroke.

No more need for a condenser. Steam is simply vented at high temperature

slide valve alternates input & exhaust


slide valve alternates input & exhaust

Double-‐acIon steam engine

What are benefits?

What are drawbacks?

What would you use one for?

Double-‐acIon steam engine

What are benefits?

Faster cycle – no need to wait for condensaBon. Can get more power, higher rate of doing mechanical work.

Also lighter and smaller – no need to carry a condenser around.

What are drawbacks?

Inefficiency – venBng hot steam means you are wasBng energy.

High water usage – since lose steam, have to keep replacing the water


primary use: transportation


Images top, leb: Sandia Sobware Image boYom: Ivan S. Abrams

water-‐intensive, fuel-‐intensive – requires many stops to take on water and fuel.

An alternate design choice with different tradeoff: Triple-‐expansion steam engine:

primary use: steamships (because they can’t refuel, and weight is not a problem)

Adds two more cylinders to get more out of the steam before condensing it.

Benefits: More efficient – conserves fuel Conserves water

Drawbacks Large, heavy if high power

Image: source unknown

History of locomoBves Trevithick’s first “railway engine”, 1804 (no image) Used for hauling coal – replaces horses. Speed: 5 mph

“Puffing Billy”, William Hedley, 1813 Coal hauler 9” x 36” cylinders

First locomoBves are basically steam engines for the pumps now placed on wheels

History of locomoBves Stephenson’s “Rocket”, 1820 First passenger locomoLve 29 mph (unloaded), 14 mph loaded

Image: source unknown

History of locomoBves Central Pacific Railroad locomoLve #173, Type 4-‐4-‐0, 1864 (Common American design, 1850s-‐1900)

Image: Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum

History of locomoBves Northern Pacific Railway steam locomoLve #2681, 1930

Image: Buckbee Mears Company, Photograph CollecBon ca. 1930, LocaBon no. HE6.1N p11, NegaBve no. 25337. Source: Minnesota Historical Society

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