Lecture 7Lecture 7

Altruism and Helping Altruism and Helping Behavior: Why People Help Behavior: Why People Help

and Why They Don’tand Why They Don’t

I. Defining AltruismI. Defining Altruism

A. Book: An unselfish desire to help A. Book: An unselfish desire to help others; an unselfishly helpful act.others; an unselfishly helpful act.

What is the problem here?What is the problem here?

Can you ever really show that something Can you ever really show that something is unselfish?is unselfish?

B. As we will see, we are better off B. As we will see, we are better off discussing prosocial behaviour, or simply discussing prosocial behaviour, or simply helping.helping.

II. Why People Don’t Help: The II. Why People Don’t Help: The problem of Bystander Apathyproblem of Bystander Apathy

A. Examples: Kitty Genovese, Deletha Word, A. Examples: Kitty Genovese, Deletha Word, Downtown in London OntarioDowntown in London OntarioB. Research by Darley & Latane’B. Research by Darley & Latane’1. The Smoke-Filled Room Experiment:1. The Smoke-Filled Room Experiment:Alone: 70% called for helpAlone: 70% called for helpWith another P: 40% called for helpWith another P: 40% called for helpWith a confederate: 7% called for helpWith a confederate: 7% called for help2. The Falling Lady Experiment and A Fit to be 2. The Falling Lady Experiment and A Fit to be Tried:Tried:– Similar effects.Similar effects.

C. Numerous studies C. Numerous studies supported these initial supported these initial findings. The general findings. The general pattern is as follows:pattern is as follows:

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Alone oneother

2others

8 ormore

%helping

d. Why?d. Why?

1. The Decision Tree: deciding it’s an 1. The Decision Tree: deciding it’s an emergency.emergency.2. Other people present doing nothing leads us 2. Other people present doing nothing leads us to think nothing is wrong.to think nothing is wrong.3. Responsibility Diffusion: Other people present 3. Responsibility Diffusion: Other people present make us think someone already did something.make us think someone already did something.4. Not good enough to explain all examples 4. Not good enough to explain all examples when you can just call for help.when you can just call for help.5. Silverman: Superhero concept, If you phone 5. Silverman: Superhero concept, If you phone you admit that you are not a hero. Possible, but you admit that you are not a hero. Possible, but other defensive mechanisms leading us to other defensive mechanisms leading us to distort the situation may take place as well.distort the situation may take place as well.

III. Theories of Why People Do III. Theories of Why People Do HelpHelp

A. Instinct TheoriesA. Instinct Theories1. Evolution (Darwin): Survival of the species 1. Evolution (Darwin): Survival of the species depended upon cooperation and helping depended upon cooperation and helping behavior.behavior.2. Sociobiology (E. O. Wilson, Richard 2. Sociobiology (E. O. Wilson, Richard Dawkins)– An organism is a genes way of Dawkins)– An organism is a genes way of making another gene.making another gene.a) Use a “behavioral” definition of altruism: Self a) Use a “behavioral” definition of altruism: Self sacrifice performed for the benefit of others.sacrifice performed for the benefit of others.b) e.g., bee sting’s barb, prey that is manipulated b) e.g., bee sting’s barb, prey that is manipulated into approaching its predators.into approaching its predators.

c) Three forms of instinctual altruism:c) Three forms of instinctual altruism:1) 1) KinselectionKinselection: We help others who have the most : We help others who have the most genes in common, genes in common, e.g. 1. Trivers and Sister Ants : Help female over male e.g. 1. Trivers and Sister Ants : Help female over male ants on 3:1 ratio, the same ratio of female to male genes ants on 3:1 ratio, the same ratio of female to male genes they possess.they possess.e.g. 2. Polyandrous societies: What male helps with the e.g. 2. Polyandrous societies: What male helps with the children?children?The uncleThe unclee. g. 3 Maiden Aunts: Spend more time with nephews e. g. 3 Maiden Aunts: Spend more time with nephews than nieces.than nieces.2) 2) Reciprocal AltruismReciprocal Altruism: We have an instinct to help : We have an instinct to help others who are likely to help us.others who are likely to help us.3) 3) MimicryMimicry: Organisms that mimic desirable features of : Organisms that mimic desirable features of other organisms (e.g. carnivorous plants that look like other organisms (e.g. carnivorous plants that look like another bee or frog) leading those organisms to sacrifice another bee or frog) leading those organisms to sacrifice their lives for them.their lives for them.d) Sociobiologists claim that 16 to 22% of helping d) Sociobiologists claim that 16 to 22% of helping behavior is due to instinct.behavior is due to instinct.

B. Social Learning Theories (Norms, Modeling B. Social Learning Theories (Norms, Modeling and Imitation)and Imitation)

1. Norms (e.g., the norm of reciprocity or the 1. Norms (e.g., the norm of reciprocity or the golden rule: Do unto others as you would have golden rule: Do unto others as you would have them do on to you).them do on to you).

a) Research by Latane’ and Darley: attempts to a) Research by Latane’ and Darley: attempts to invoke norms and see if helping increases.invoke norms and see if helping increases.

Study 1. Just looked at social class as a norm: Study 1. Just looked at social class as a norm: subway vs. airport, man on crutches falls and % subway vs. airport, man on crutches falls and % who helped.who helped.

Subway: 83 % helped; Airport: 41% helped. Subway: 83 % helped; Airport: 41% helped. Norms?Norms?

No: turned out to be familiarity of environmentNo: turned out to be familiarity of environment

Study 2: Misinformer Study: Confederate asks Study 2: Misinformer Study: Confederate asks which way is uptown with P and misinformer which way is uptown with P and misinformer standing side by side:standing side by side:

1)C asks Misinformer1)C asks Misinformer

2)C asks Misinformer 2)C asks Misinformer and Pand P

3)C asks P only and 3)C asks P only and Misinformer steps inMisinformer steps in

Should be no Should be no difference but:difference but:

27% correct 27% correct Misinformer in 1)Misinformer in 1)

47% correct 47% correct Misinformer in 2)Misinformer in 2)

93% correct 93% correct Misinformer in 3)Misinformer in 3)

Study 3. Confederate asks P and Misinformer (M) Study 3. Confederate asks P and Misinformer (M) after:after:

ConditionCondition

Physical ThreatPhysical Threat

EmbarrassmentEmbarrassment

ControlControl

Misinformer not sureMisinformer not sure

% correcting M% correcting M..

16%16%

28%28%

52%52%

82%82%

Shows that norms Shows that norms don’t override don’t override situation.situation.

Study 4. The misinformer and the tourist or the Study 4. The misinformer and the tourist or the helpful guy.helpful guy.

TouristTourist

ControlControl

HelpfulHelpful

No differenceNo difference

Study 5.Playing with a Frisbee at the Subway Station

Confederate invokes norm of safety and respect for others.

After C leaves, everybody resumes play

In sum, norms don’t appear to override situational determinants.

2. Modeling and Imitation: Proper models will get 2. Modeling and Imitation: Proper models will get people to imitate their behaviour and do the right people to imitate their behaviour and do the right thing.thing.a) The letter-drop Studies (Hornstein): Both studies a) The letter-drop Studies (Hornstein): Both studies strategically placed wallets all over town (near mail strategically placed wallets all over town (near mail boxes) inside an envelope that was supposedly being boxes) inside an envelope that was supposedly being sent back to the wallet owner.sent back to the wallet owner. In Study 1, the sender was made to appear similar or In Study 1, the sender was made to appear similar or dissimilar to the P. As expected, people were more dissimilar to the P. As expected, people were more likely to send the wallet on when the sender was likely to send the wallet on when the sender was similar. similar. In Study 2, the sender said he was sending it In Study 2, the sender said he was sending it because all his friends said he should versus in spite because all his friends said he should versus in spite of the fact all his friends said he shouldn’t. In which of the fact all his friends said he shouldn’t. In which condition did P’s return the wallet the most?condition did P’s return the wallet the most?

b) Macaulay: models give or do not give.b) Macaulay: models give or do not give.

Study 1. Santa Claus: Models that refuse led to Study 1. Santa Claus: Models that refuse led to more donations than models that gave.more donations than models that gave.

Study 2. Donations to Starving Countries: Study 2. Donations to Starving Countries: Models that gave led to more donations than Models that gave led to more donations than models that refused. Duhhh!models that refused. Duhhh!

c. Bryan: Research with childrenc. Bryan: Research with children

ModelModelHelpHelp ApproveApproveYesYes YesYesYesYes NoNoNoNo YesYesNoNo NoNo

ChildChildLike ModelLike Model Help?Help?11 YesYes33 YesYes22 NoNo33 NoNo

In sum, child liked the In sum, child liked the model who said you model who said you should help the most, should help the most, but did whatever the but did whatever the model did.model did.

d) d) Summary of Research on ModelingSummary of Research on Modeling: Findings : Findings very inconsistent. Grusec, however, shows very inconsistent. Grusec, however, shows evidence that modeling does work if, and only if, evidence that modeling does work if, and only if, the child has a friendly and long-term relationship the child has a friendly and long-term relationship with the model. with the model.

C. Empathy: The key to Altruism?C. Empathy: The key to Altruism?

1. Research by Aronfreed: Had children experience the 1. Research by Aronfreed: Had children experience the other child’s pleasure or pain. Children who experienced other child’s pleasure or pain. Children who experienced it were more likely to help the other child receive it were more likely to help the other child receive pleasure or avoid pain than children who did not. pleasure or avoid pain than children who did not. Nice, but can’t rule out vicarious reinforcement.Nice, but can’t rule out vicarious reinforcement.2. Hoffman: Research with infants. Infants cry when they 2. Hoffman: Research with infants. Infants cry when they hear other children cry. Empathy? Nice but maybe can’t hear other children cry. Empathy? Nice but maybe can’t stand crying (note monkey’s may also help others in stand crying (note monkey’s may also help others in order to turn off noxious stimulus).order to turn off noxious stimulus).3. Sorrentino (1981). The link between kinselection and 3. Sorrentino (1981). The link between kinselection and similarity may be empathy. (Dawkins said, similarity may be empathy. (Dawkins said, “Forgedaboudit.”“Forgedaboudit.”

4. Batson versus Cialdini (see text). Batson believes there 4. Batson versus Cialdini (see text). Batson believes there is a motive for altruism in humans, and it works through is a motive for altruism in humans, and it works through empathy. Cialdini says “forgedaboudit.” empathy. Cialdini says “forgedaboudit.” e.g., Batson and Coke Study:e.g., Batson and Coke Study:

PlaceboPlacebo ConditionCondition

UnpleasantUnpleasant

(egoistic)(egoistic)

PleasantPleasant

(empathic)(empathic)

Difficult to Difficult to EscapeEscape HelpHelp HelpHelp

Easy to Easy to

EscapeEscape HelpHelp EscapeEscape

5. Problem with Batson’s research is that there is always an alternative 5. Problem with Batson’s research is that there is always an alternative explanation; for example here, there is no control condition. We don’t reallyexplanation; for example here, there is no control condition. We don’t really

know if either condition really differs from a no-placebo control conditionknow if either condition really differs from a no-placebo control condition..

PlaceboPlacebo ConditionCondition

UnpleasantUnpleasant

(egoistic)(egoistic)

PleasantPleasant

(empathic)(empathic)

Difficult to Difficult to EscapeEscape HelpHelp HelpHelp

Easy to Easy to

EscapeEscape HelpHelp EscapeEscape

6. Empathy interesting but you can never rule 6. Empathy interesting but you can never rule out selfishness or egoism as a motive. So why out selfishness or egoism as a motive. So why bother?bother?D. Other Mechanisms.D. Other Mechanisms.1. Guilt—Freedman cites dozens of studies 1. Guilt—Freedman cites dozens of studies where guilt leads to helping.where guilt leads to helping.2. Justice—2. Justice—A. Lerner says there are three different forms of A. Lerner says there are three different forms of justice for three different types of people:justice for three different types of people:1) equality--- used for identity relations 1) equality--- used for identity relations (immediate family, close friends).(immediate family, close friends).2) equity--- used for unit relations (friends, 2) equity--- used for unit relations (friends, members of same social groups)members of same social groups)3) mock equity—used for nonunit relations 3) mock equity—used for nonunit relations (casual acquaintances, business relationships.(casual acquaintances, business relationships.

B. Note the startling similarity between B. Note the startling similarity between Lerner’s theory and Dawkins’ theory:Lerner’s theory and Dawkins’ theory:

Identity relations = equality =kinselectionIdentity relations = equality =kinselection

Unit relations = equity = reciprocal altruismUnit relations = equity = reciprocal altruism

Nonunit relations =mock equity = Nonunit relations =mock equity = manipulationmanipulation

Interesting eh?Interesting eh?

Michael Sorrentino says: Goodbye!!!