lecture02 v2 - rice university
TRANSCRIPT
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BIOE 301/362Lecture Two:
Defining “Developing vs Developed” CountriesLeading Causes of Mortality, Ages 0-4
Geoff PreidisMD/PhD candidateBaylor College of [email protected]
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Review of Lecture 1Course organizationFour questions we will answerTechnology assessment – The big pictureHealth data and its usesQuantitative measures of health
IncidencePrevalenceMortality RateInfant Mortality RateQALY, DALY
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Overview of Lecture 2
What are the major health problems worldwide?Defining “Developing vs Developed” CountriesLeading Causes of Mortality, Ages 0-4
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Economic Data
Per capita GDPPer capita health spending
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Economic Data
Per capita GDPPer capita health spendingPurchasing power parity
Take into account true costs of goods and servicesHow much does a loaf of bread cost?
Human Development Index Average achievements in health, education and income.
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Human Development Index
Green = High developmentYellow & Orange = Medium development
Red: Low Development
UN Human Development Report, 2008
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One View of The World
Developed vs. Developing CountriesThere is no universally accepted definition of what a developing country isUsually categorized by a per capita income criterion
Low income developing countries: <$400Middle income developing countries: $400-$4,000
WTO members decide for themselves if they are a developing country; brings certain rights
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Least Developed Countries
In 1971, the UN created a Least Developed Country member category
Countries apply for this statusLow national income (<$900 per capita GDP)Low levels of human capital developmentEconomic vulnerabilityOriginally 25 LDCs
As of 2005, 637 million people live in world’s 50 least developed countries
Population growth expected to triple by 2050
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www.unctad.org
Least Developed Countries
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Group 1Group 1 Communicable diseases, maternal/perinatal conditions, nutritional deficienciesGroup 2Group 2 Non-communicable diseases (cardiovascular, cancer, mental disorders)Group 3Group 3 Injuries
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Ratio of Mortality Rate
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
0-4 5-14 15-29 30-44 45-59 60-69 70-79 80+
Age Group
Mor
talit
y R
ate
in D
evel
opin
g C
ount
ries
/ M
orta
lity
Rat
e in
Dev
elop
ed C
ount
ries
WHO, 2002
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Child Mortality10 million children under the age of 5 die every year
98% of these deaths occur in developing countriesNumber of children who die each year in developing countries is more than two times the number of children born each year in the US and Canada2/3 of deaths could be prevented today with available technology feasible for low income countries
40% of deaths in this age group occur in first month of life (neonatal period)25% of deaths occur in childbirth and first week of life (perinatal period)
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http://globalis.gvu.unu.edu/
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Leading Causes of Mortality: Ages 0-4
Developing world1. Perinatal conditions2. Lower respiratory infections3. Diarrheal diseases4. Malaria
Developed world1. Perinatal conditions2. Congenital anomalies3. Lower respiratory infections4. Unintentional injuries
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1. Perinatal Conditions
Burden of Perinatal ConditionsCommon Perinatal ConditionsPreventing Perinatal Mortality
Maternal Morbidity and MortalityObstetric Fistula
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Burden of Perinatal Conditions2.5 million children each year die in perinatal period (birth through first week of life)Most perinatal deaths are a result of inadequate access to healthcare
Poor maternal health and nutritionNo health care during pregnancy and deliveryLow birth weight
Many cultures…Don’t celebrate child’s birth until weeks have passedMother and child isolated during this periodCan reduce incidence of infectionCan result in delays in seeking healthcare
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Common Perinatal Conditions
1) Infections Acquired during exposure to the maternal genital tractAcquired using non-sterile technique to cut the umbilical cord“ToRCHeS”
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Common Perinatal Conditions
2) Birth AsphyxiaBaby does not breathe at birthUmbilical cord wrapped around baby’s neck
3) Birth TraumaMechanical forces in obstructed labor prevent descent through birth canal (e.g. cephalopelvic disproportion)Can result in intracranial hemmorhage, blunt trauma to internal organs, injury to spinal cord or peripheral nerves
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Preventing Perinatal ConditionsNo good screening tests to indicate who will
need emergency careAll births should be attended by a skilled health
care workerFetal Ultrasound
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Preventing Perinatal Conditions
www.obgyn.net
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Preventing Perinatal Conditions
Partograph
PATH Delivery Kit
Simple technologies
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Maternal Morbidity and Mortality
>500,000 women die from complications due to childbirth
Severe bleedingInfectionsHypertension (pre-eclampsia, eclampsia)Unsafe abortionsObstructed delivery
50 million women suffer from acute pregnancy-related conditions
Permanent incontinence, chronic pain, nerve and muscle damage, infertility
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Obstetric Fistula
http://www.endfistula.org/index.htm
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2. Lower Respiratory Infections
Burden of LRIsPathophysiology of PneumoniaDiagnosis of Pneumonia
Direct Fluorescence Assay
Vaccines for Lower Respiratory Infections
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Burden of Lower Respiratory Infections
One million children each year die from lower respiratory tract infections, mostly pneumoniaUntil 1936, was #1 cause of death in USCan be cured with antibiotics
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Pathophysiology of Pneumonia
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Pathophysiology of PneumoniaInfection of the lungs
Multiple organisms cause pneumoniaBacterial Infection
Causes about ½ of all casesStreptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, and pertussisTreated with antibiotics
Viral InfectionCauses about ½ of all cases Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), influenza virus, parainfluenza virus, and measlesUsually resolve on their ownSerious cases: Use oxygen and antiviral drugs
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Pathophysiology of Pneumonia
Newborns: acquire from maternal genital tractOlder children: acquire from communityInterferes with ability to oxygenate blood in lungsSymptoms:
Fever, cough, chest pain, breathlessnessCan be fatal
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Diagnosis of Pneumonia
Chest X-rayViral vs. Bacterial:
Complete blood count (CBC)Sputum stainFluid from lungs
Developing Countries:Treat all pneumonias in children with antibioticsHas reduced mortalityMay encourage antibiotic resistance
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Direct Fluorescence Assay (DFA)
Collect nasal secretionsSpin down cellsPlace cells on slideImmerse in alcoholApply solution containing antibodies which bind to virusesAntibodies are coupled to fluorescent dyeExamine with fluorescence microscope
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Vaccines for Lower Respiratory Infections
Haemophilus influenzae (Hib)Streptococcus pneumonaeInfluenza virus
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3. Diarrheal Disease
Burden of Diarrheal DiseaseNormal Gastrointestinal PhysiologyPathophysiology of DiarrheaOral Rehydration TherapyVaccines for Diarrhea
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Burden of Diarrheal Disease
2.2 million deaths per yearAlmost all of these deaths occur in children in developing countriesUsually related to unsafe drinking waterLess common in neonates
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Normal Gastrointestinal Physiology8-9 L fluids enter the small intestine daily (1-2 L from dietary intake)Epithelial cells lining the GI tract actively reabsorb nutrients and salts; water follows by osmosisSmall intestine absorbs most of this fluid, so only 1-1.5 L pass into colonFurther water salvage (98%) in colon, with just 100-200 ml H2O/day excreted in stool
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Causes of Diarrhea
Diarrhea = failure of fluid reabsorptionCan rapidly lead to dehydrationLoss of 10% of bodily fluids death4 types of diarrhea:
OsmoticSecretoryInflammatoryMotility
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Causes of Diarrhea
1) Osmotic DiarrheaInadequate absorption of solutes
Ex: Lactose Intolerance, Ingestion of Sorbitol
2) Secretory DiarrheaExcess water secretion into the lumen
Ex: Cholera, E. coli www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys
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Causes of Diarrhea
3) Inflammatory DiarrheaUsually caused by infection
Bacteria: E. coli, SalmonellaViruses: Rotavirus, NorwalkProtozoa: Giardia
4) Motility DiarrheaAccelerated GI transit time
Ex: Diabetes, nerve damagewww.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys
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“Malnutrition is an Infectious Disease”
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Oral Rehydration Therapy
1 liter of water, 1 teaspoon of salt, 8 teaspoons of sugarReduced mortality to diarrhea from 4.6 million deaths per year to 1.8 million deaths per year in 2000Developed in 1960s“The most significant medical advance of the century.” The Lancet, 1978
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How Does ORT Work?
Epithelial cells which line colon are responsible for fluid reabsorption
They reabsorb osmotically active products of digestion, sodiumWater follows
Toxins produced by bacteria bind to epithelial cells in gut and cause cells to secrete chloride and interfere with ability to absorb sodiumsecretory diarrheaWhat if you give patients more water to drink?
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How Does ORT Work?
Discovery in 1950s: New method of sodium transport which depends on glucose, not affected by bacteria which produce diarrhea
Hypothesis:Provide glucose to increase sodium transport
Packet of ORT: 10 centsORT in the U.S.
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Vaccines to Prevent Diarrhea
Rotavirus alone kills 600,000 children per yearFound in every country, highly contagiousAlmost every child will have a rotavirus infection before age 31998: Rotashield approved by FDA
80%-100% effectivePost-licensure surveillance: 1/12,000 fatal complication rateEthical Dilemma
2006: two new vaccines, safe and effective
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4. Malaria
Burden of MalariaMalaria PathogenesisDiagnosis of MalariaPreventing Malaria
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Burden of Malaria
40% of world’s population live in malaria endemic countries300 million cases of malaria per yearAfrican children average 1.6-5.4 episodes/yr1-2 million children under the age of 5 die each year from malariaPregnant women:
Increased susceptibility to malariaAnemia can result in low birth weight babies
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Burden of Malaria
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Malaria PathogenesisMosquitos transmit parasiteParasites evade immune systemMultiply inside liver cellsTravel to blood, attach to red blood cells, consume hemoglobinSymptoms:
Fever, headache, vomiting, anemia
Fatal disease:Anemia: destruction of RBCs’ O2 carrying capacityCerebral malaria: Permanent neurologic damage
http://sickle.bwh.harvard.edu
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Diagnosis of Malaria
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Preventing MalariaSpread by Anopheles mosquito carrying a parasite
Mosquitoes only bite from dusk until dawnReduced human/insect contact
Prevent mosquito breedingUse insect repellents, mats, coilsWear long sleeves/pantsResidual treatment of interior wallsInsecticide-treated mosquito bed netsTreatment of those who have malariaprevent its spread!
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Preventing MalariaPregnant women and infants should sleep under insecticide treated nets
25% reduction in low birth weight babies20% reduction in infant deathsCost: $1.70 (Retreatment: 3-6 cents)
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Preventing Malaria
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Preventing MalariaWhere is the malaria vaccine?
FundingThousands of antigens presented to the human immune system -> which ones are useful targets?Plasmodium has many life stages -> different antigens at each stagePlasmodium has several strategies to confuse, hide, and misdirect the human immune systemMultiple malaria infections of the different species and different strains of the same species may occur in one host!
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Preventing Malaria
The Search for a Vaccine
http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/images/graphs/malaria_lifecycle.gif
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A Malaria Vaccine Breakthrough??
http://www.sanaria.com/
http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/images/graphs/malaria_lifecycle.gif
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Leading Causes of Mortality: Ages 0-4
Developing world1. Perinatal conditions2. Lower respiratory infections3. Diarrheal diseases4. Malaria
Developed world1. Perinatal conditions2. Congenital anomalies3. Lower respiratory infections4. Unintentional injuries
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2. Congenital Anomalies
Burden of Congenital AnomaliesCommon Congenital Anomalies
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Burden of Congenital Anomalies
2-3% of children are born with a birth defect400,000 children die each year as a resultAccounts for a higher fraction of childhood deaths in developed countries (16.9%) than in developing countries (4%)
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Common Congenital Anomalies
Cause Classification Example
Genetic Chromosomal Down syndrome
Single gene Cystic fibrosis
Environmental Infectious disease Congenital rubella syndrome
Maternal nutritional deficiency—folic acid
Neural tube defects
Complex Congenital malformations involving
single organ system
Congenital heart disease
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4. Unintentional Injuries
Result in the deaths of:15,000 children per year in developed countries (4th leading cause of death)273,000 children per year in developing countries (9th leading cause of death)
Causes:Drownings (82,000 deaths)Road traffic injuries (58,000 deaths)
Covered in depth in Lecture 3
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Summary of Lecture Two
Developing world1. Perinatal conditions2. Lower respiratory infections3. Diarrheal diseases4. Malaria
Developed world1. Perinatal conditions2. Congenital anomalies3. Lower respiratory infections4. Unintentional injuries