AN ANALYSIS OF THE USE OF THE ARTICLES IN SCIENCE-RELATED

TEXTS AND SCIENTIFIC TEXTS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY

LEE YEOK JANG (GINA)

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

AN ANALYSIS OF THE USE OF THE ARTICLES IN SCIENCE-RELATED

TEXTS AND SCIENTIFIC TEXTS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY

LEE YEOK JANG (GINA)

A PROJECT SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT FOR AWARD OF BACHELORS

OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION

(TESL)

FACULTI PENDIDIKAN

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

MARCH 2004

DEDICATED TO FATHER IN HEAVEN

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The completion of this project owes everything to the guidance, support and

encouragement of my supervisor, Dr. Noor Abidah bt. Mohd. Omar. I am grateful to her

as she has shaped my ideas and inspired me to write this project.

Many course mates and friends have offered their comments and suggestions about this

paper. To each of them goes an expression of special appreciation.

A special word of thanks must go to many scholars whose writing has provided useful

source of information for my project.

Finally, I am indebted to all who directly or indirectly contributed to the completion of

this project. Of which without them, this would all not have been possible.

LEE YEOK JANG (GINA)

MARCH 2004

ABSTRACT

It is not true, as it is sometimes stated, that the indefinite article is always used

for ‘first mention’ and that the definite article is used subsequently for reference back.

Real language use cannot be reduced to a simple grammatical pattern like the statement

above. As part of an effort to understand the underlying patterns and functions of the

English articles, the present study aimed to analyse the use of the articles in two genres

of written English: Science-related texts from newspapers and scientific texts from

reference books. This study employed the use of a concordance program called Simple

Concordance Program (SCP) 4.0.7 to inspect a corpus of data that consisted of ten

Science-related texts and another ten scientific texts. This study presented a quantitative

analysis of article use in terms of the overall frequency of the articles in each genre, the

co-occurrence frequency of the articles in relation to nouns, and the frequency of the

articles in relation to their functions. The quantitative patterns of article use were then

discussed in terms of the communicative functions each genre served and the pragmatic

factors which influenced the results of the analysis. The findings of this study showed a

higher frequency of the indefinite article in Science-related texts. On the contrary, the

frequency of the definite article was higher in scientific texts. A brief discussion of

pedagogical implications of this study is provided together with some suggestions about

direction for further study.

ABSTRAK

Ini adalah tidak benar, sepertimana yang sering dinyatakan bahawa indefinite

article selalu digunakan untuk ‘sebutan pertama’ manakala definite article selalu

digunakan berikutnya untuk rujukan balik. Penggunaan bahasa yang sebenar tidak boleh

dikurangkan kepada corak tatabahasa yang semudah seperti penyataan di atas. Sebagai

sebahagian daripada usaha untuk memahami corak asas dan fungsi bagi English articles,

kajian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisa penggunaan English articles dalam dua jenis

penulisan bahasa English: teks mengenai Sains daripada surat khabar dan teks saintifik

daripada buku rujukan. Kajian ini melibatkan penggunaan satu program konkordans

yang dikenali sebagai Simple Concordance Program (SCP) 4.0.7 untuk menganalisa

satu korpus maklumat yang terdiri daripada sepuluh teks mengenai Sains dan sepuluh

teks saintifik. Kajian ini mempersembahkan satu analisis kuantitatif yang menerangkan

penggunaan English articles dari segi kekerapan keseluruhan English articles dalam dua

jenis teks, kekerapan bersama English articles dengan kata nama, dan kekerapan bagi

fungsi English articles. Analisis kualitatif ini seterusnya dibincangkan dari segi fungsi

komunikasi bagi setiap jenis teks dan juga faktor pragmatik yang mempengaruhi

keputusan analisis. Dapatan daripada kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa kekerapan

indefinite article adalah lebih tinggi dalam teks mengenai Sains. Sebaliknya, kekerapan

definite article adalah lebih tinggi dalam teks saintifik. Kajian ini juga

mempersembahkan satu perbincangan yang ringkas mengenai implikasi kajian ini di

samping memberikan beberapa cadangan untuk kajian selanjutnya.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

BORANG PENGESAHAN STATUS THESIS

PENGESAHAN PENYELIA

TITLE PAGE i

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES xii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES xv

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Background of Problem 3

1.3 Statement of Problem 4

1.4 Objectives of Study 5

1.5 Research Questions 6

1.6 Significance of Study 7

1.7 Scope of Study 8

1.8 Limitations of Study 9

1.9 Definition of Terms 10

1.9.1 Science-related Texts (SRT) 10

1.9.2 Scientific Texts (ST) 10

1.9.3 Concordance 11

1.10 Conclusion 12

II LITERATURE REVIEW 13

2.1 Introduction 13

2.2 Basic Forms and Nature of the Articles 14 12

2.3 Origins and Historical Developments of the Articles 15

2.4 Positions of the Articles 17

2.5 Relationship Between the Articles and Nouns 18

2.6 Theoretical Considerations of the Articles 21

2.6.1 Determination Theory 21

2.6.2 Actualisation Theory 22

2.6.3 Substantiation Theory 22

2.6.4 Familiarity-Unity Theory 22

2.7 Functions of the Indefinite Article 25

2.8 Functions of the Definite Article 27

2.8.1 Classifying 27

2.8.2 Specifying 29

2.8.3 Time Expression 31

2.8.4 'The' and Adjectives 32

2.8.5 'The' and Proper Nouns 32

2.9 The English Article System and Its

Significance of Use 34

2.10 Formal Instruction on the Learning of the English

Article System 35

2.11 Data-driven Learning 37

2.12 Corpus-based Studies of Grammar 38

2.13 Concordance 41

2.14 Conclusion 42

III RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES 44

3.1 Introduction 44

3.2 Research Design 45

3.3 Samples of the Study - Texts 46

3.4 Research Procedures 48

3.5 Data Analysis 50

3.5.1 Part One of Data Analysis 51

3.5.2 Part Two of Data Analysis 51

3.5.3 Part Three of Data Analysis 52

3.5.4 Part Four of Data Analysis 52

3.5.5 Part Five of Data Analysis 52

3.6 Conclusion 53

IV DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 54

4.0 Introduction 54

4.1 Part One of Data Analysis 56

4.2 Part Two of Data Analysis 57

4.3 Part Three of Data Analysis 60

4.3.1 Frequency of ‘a’ in Relation to Categories

of Nouns 60

4.3.2 Frequency of ‘an’ in Relation to Categories

of Nouns 64

4.3.3 Frequency of ‘the’ in Relation to Categories

of Nouns 66

4.4 Part Four of Data Analysis 69

4.4.1 Frequency of ‘a/an’ in Relation to Its

Functions 69

4.4.2 Frequency of ‘the’ in Relation to Its

Functions 72

4.5 Part Five of Data Analysis 77

4.5.1 Comparison Type One 77

4.5.2 Comparison Type Two 81

4.5.3 Comparison Type Three 84

4.6 Summary of the Findings 90

V CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

5.1 Conclusion 92

5.2 Implications of the Study 96

5.2.1 The Sequence of the Presentation of the

Articles 96

5.2.2 The Teaching of the Prevalent Uses of

the Articles 97

5.2.3 Teaching of Grammar in Context 97

5.2.4 Teaching of English for Specific Purposes 98

5.3 Suggestions for Further Study 98

BIBLIOGRAPHY 100

APPENDICES 103

APPENDIX A 103

APPENDIX B 104

APPENDIX C 105

APPENDIX D 106

APPENDIX E 107

APPENDIX F 108

APPENDIX G 126

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE

2.1 Positions of the Articles 17

2.2 Jespersen Versus Christophersen’s Classifications

of Nouns 19

2.3 Five Combinations of a Substantive Noun with Articles 20

2.4 Possible Combinations of Five Substantives Nouns with

Articles 20

2.5 Functions of the Indefinite Article 26

2.6 The Use of ‘the’ for Classifying 28

2.7 The Use of ‘the’ for Specifying 29

2.8 The Situational Contexts for Specifying 30

2.9 The Use of ‘the’ for Time Expressions 31

2.10 The Use of 'the' with Adjectives 32

2.11 The Use of 'the' with Proper Nouns 33

4.1 General Description of Data 57

4.2 Overall Frequency of the Articles 58

4.3 Frequency of 'a' in Relation to Categories of Nouns 63

4.4 Frequency of ‘an’ in Relation to Categories of Nouns 65

4.5 Frequency of ‘the’ in Relation to Categories of Nouns 68

4.6 Frequency of ‘a/an’ in Relation to Its Functions 71

4.7 Frequency of ‘the’ in Relation to Its Functions 75

4.8 Comparison of the Frequency of article ‘a’, ‘an’ and

‘the’ in the SRT Texts and the ST texts 78

4.9 Comparison of the Frequency of ‘a’ in Relation to

Categories of Nouns in the SRT Texts and the ST Texts 81

4.10 Comparison of the Frequency of ‘an’ in Relation to

Categories of Nouns in the SRT Texts and the ST Texts 82

4.11 Comparison of the Frequency of ‘the’ in Relation to

Categories of Nouns in the SRT Texts and the ST Texts 83

4.12 Comparison of the Frequency of ‘a/an’ in Relation to

Its Functions in the SRT Texts and the ST Texts 85

4.13 Comparison of the Frequency of ‘the’ in Relation to

Its Functions in the SRT Texts and the ST Texts 87

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ADJ Adjective

CLT - Communicative language teaching

CR - Conscious raising

DDL - Data-driven learning

EST - English for Science and Technology

KWIC - Key Word In Context

N - Noun

NIE - Newspaper in education

PG - Pedagogical grammar

SRT - Science-related texts

ST - Scientific texts

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Inconsistencies of the Articles 103

B Cobuild Frequency Count – Top 113 Forms 104

C Old English Declension of Demonstrative ‘That’ 105

D Paradigm for German Definite Article 106

E French and Spanish Definite Articles with Nouns 107

F Samples of Texts 108

G Samples of Concordances 126

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Grammar may be defined as the rules of a language, governing the way in which

words are put together to convey meaning in different contexts (Nesamalar Chitravelu et

al., 1995). A sound knowledge of grammar is essential for competent users of a

language. It enables language users to put words together in the correct order to

communicate ideas effectively. Drawing from this point of view, the aim of grammar

teaching is to ensure that language learners are capable to communicate efficiently with

their current level of grammatical competence.

When language learners are presented with grammar through structural patterns,

they are at the same time being presented with tidy pieces of language to work with.

However, real language use is often very untidy and cannot be reduced to simple

grammatical patterns. Learners need to be aware of this in the same way that they need

to be aware of language and how it is used. This is why discovery activities are so

valuable. By asking learners to discover ways in which language is used, it can raise

their awareness about the creative use of grammar.

The concept of grammatical consciousness-raising leads to interests in

pedagogical grammar (PG). PG simply means grammar for teaching. Hadley (2003)

defines PG as a modest reference which can be used for course work, which principally

draws attention to language patterns. It can be used by teachers, native speakers and

second language learners to gain insight into and better utilize the target language.

According to Nunan (1991), the aim of PG is to provide those involved in language

teaching and learning with information on the grammar of the language for the purposes

of teaching and learning, syllabus construction, materials development and so on. One

practical application of PG is what is known as Data-driven Learning (DDL).

DDL approach to language teaching and learning suggests that the teaching and

learning process should consist largely of conscious raising (CR) activities rather than

the teaching of rules. In other words, the grammar system is organic rather than

mechanic in nature. DDL activities are well suited to CR because the focus of a DDL

activity is to create an awareness of a form, and also to emphasize the function and the

context that the form occurs in. With the notion that grammar teaching as CR in mind,

this research attempted to study the use of one of the components of the grammar

system, that is the English articles. This study took DDL approach out of classroom

context to analyse the articles in two types of texts: Science-related texts (SRT) and

scientific texts (ST). The principle applied in this study was just the same as classroom

concordancing. The underlying patterns of the articles and their regularities of

occurrence were uncovered in the process of analysing the use of the articles.

1.2 Background of Problem

In the early 1980s, communicative competence became the primary concern of

second language instruction while grammatical instruction fell into disfavour (Master,

1994). The emergence of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has tended to

reduce the explicit teaching of grammar in classroom. CLT emphasizes on verbal

fluency over formal accuracy. This unbalanced approach to language teaching can lead

to fossilization.

In order to correct the perceived imbalance between fluency and accuracy, there

is a call for a shift from CLT to PG. PG serves as the middle ground between theoretical

and pedagogical approaches to the teaching of grammar. According to Beaumont &

Gallaway (1994), the article system of English provides an excellent context for bringing

both theoretical and pedagogic issues together. Learners in the classroom are often

presented with this ‘rule of thumb’ or ‘first/second mention’ rule as follows:

The use of 'a/an' when something is mentioned for the first time.

The use of 'the' when something that has been mentioned is referred to again.

According to Chalker (1984), it is not true, as is sometimes stated, that the

indefinite articles are always used for ‘first mention’ and that the definite article is used

subsequently for reference back. The can in fact be used for first mention or indefinite

article may persist in second and subsequent mentions. From here, it can be seen that

there is a distinction between theoretical and pedagogical descriptions of article use.

This can cause confusions to English learners if they attempt to operate the rule on

authentic texts in real life.

In addition to the problems that language learners face with the rules governing

the use of the articles, learners also encounter problems with the inconsistencies of the

use of the articles. This is especially true in the rhetoric of instruction found in technical

manuals and related materials. Based on the example in Appendix A - Inconsistent of

the use of the definite article in a set of instructions (Trimble, 1985), the learner had

twenty-six opportunities to use the definite article but he used it only in five instances.

The inconsistencies such as those illustrated above are more common in non-

native readers than in native readers. A native reader has little trouble in supplying the

missing articles when they are needed to classify the text. Non-native readers, however,

do not have this same ‘feel’ for the articles and so cannot bring to the reading the ability

of the native readers (Trimble, 1985). As a result, learners either by-pass the problem by

ignoring the article altogether or they spend time fruitlessly trying to reconcile an

unfamiliar article use with the ‘rules’ they have so carefully learned (Trimble, 1985).

1.3 Statement of Problem

The English articles are the most commonly used word in our daily

conversation as well as in writing. Nonetheless, the English article system is one of the

most difficult elements of English grammar for foreign students to master, especially for

those whose first language does not use articles (Master, 1987). Unlike native speakers

who have the ‘feel’ for the articles, second language users do not have such reservoir to

draw from. Therefore, some second language users learn the use of the articles by

remembering the rules and if the rules do not fit, they ignore the articles (Trimble,

1985).

The use of the articles presents a great many intricate problems mainly because it

is impossible to give a small number of settled rules for all cases (Jespersen, 1949). In

other words, the articles do not operate all the time according to the prescribed rules.

Therefore, learners who attempt to operate the rule on anything other than highly

controlled ‘model’ texts are likely to suffer considerable confusion (Beaumont &

Gallaway, 1994).

Most of the time in a language classroom, the articles are learned in isolation

rather than in context. Students are often given sentences whereby they are asked to fill

in the blanks with the correct articles. Regrettably, the conditions dictating the use of

the articles are determined by the needs of the current context. This means that the

articles should be presented and learned in context, not in isolation.

1.4 Objectives of Study

The objectives of this study are to:

1. Describe the general patterns of article use in selected

Science-related texts and scientific texts.

2. Describe the co-occurrence frequency of the articles in relation to categories of

nouns in selected Science-related texts and scientific texts.

3. Describe the occurrence frequency of the articles in relation to their functions in

selected Science-related texts and scientific texts.

4. Compare the use of the articles in Science-related texts from newspaper articles

and scientific texts from academic reference books.

1.5 Research Questions

Based on the objectives of the study, these research questions are

designed:

1. What are the general patterns of occurrence of the articles in selected Science-

related texts and scientific texts?

2. What types of nouns occur with the articles and how frequent do these nouns

appear?

3. What are the functions of the articles and how frequent are the articles used to

express those functions?

4. (a) What are the similarities or differences between the overall frequency of the

articles in Science-related texts from newspaper articles and scientific texts from

academic reference books?

(b) What are the similarities or differences between the frequency of the articles

in relation to categories of nouns in Science-related texts from newspaper articles

and scientific texts from academic reference books?

(c) What are the similarities or differences between the frequency of the articles

in relation to their functions in Science-related texts from newspaper articles and

scientific texts from academic reference books?