lehet-e tanult a lovak sztereotip viselkedése? · and control horses 4. to develop a crib-biting...
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Dr. Krisztina Nagy, PhD
Large Animal Clinic
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Szent István University, Budapest, Hungary
Horse Behaviour
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• MSc (2004): Zoology, Faculty of Veterinary
Medicine, Szent István University
• PhD (2009): Postgraduate School of
Veterinary Science, Szent István University
• Working area: horse behaviourist,
biostatistician, researcher, horse riding
instructor
• Field of interest: stress-coping, stereotypies,
personality test
About me
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• Evolution of horses (?)
About horses
Eohippus
-55-60 million years
-fox-sized, 4 toes
-teeth: eating leaves
-living in forest
Modern horse
-2 million years
-walking on 1 toe
-eating grass
-in grass-lands
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• Wild horses (Equus ferus): Tarpan: extinct ( 1909),
przewalski horse/ thaki ( 1969)
• Zebra (plains zebra, Grévy's zebra, mountain
zebra), wild ass (ancestor of the domestic donkey)
Wild relatives of the domestic horse
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• sole surviving genuine wild horse in the world
• not to be confused with, the mustang (America)
or brumby (Australia) a descendent from
domestic breeds gone wild
The przewalski horse
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• 1969: last individual horse seen in the wild
• 1992: reintroduction to Mongolia
• ~ 1900 horses in the world (9 ancestors)
• 250 horses free-ranging in Mongolia, in
Hungary: 140 horses
The przewalski horse
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• domesticated as one of the last mammals
(3000-4000 years ago)
• more impact on humans than most other
domesticated species - dispersion of culture and
language (Clutton-Brock, 1992)
Domestication
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Previously
• They have been selected
for riding and haulage
• various economic
reasons (e.g. livestock,
sport or working animals)
Now
• most owners keep them
as companion animals
• they provide emotional
support to their owners (Wells, 2004)
• similarly to children, they
are often regarded as
family members
(Albert and Bulcroft, 1987)
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Results of domestication
• Large scale of colour and size
• Reduced sexual dimorphism
• Oestrus during whole year
• Neoteny (Thoroughbreds)
• ~ 400 breeds
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• Horse behaviour
• Ethology and animal behaviour
• Proximate („how”) and ultimate („why”)
questions
• New methods used in applied animal
behaviour science
• How to ask questions which can be
answered scientifically (how to form a
hypothesis which can be tested
statistically)?
What will we learn?
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Ethology and animal behaviour
• 4 questions which should be asked of any animal behaviour (Tinbergen)
• How? (Proximate mechanisms) – Causation (mechanism, regulation)
– Development (ontogeny)
• Why? (Ultimate mechanisms) – Function (Adaptation)
– Evolution (Phylogeny)
• Example (feeding behaviour of the horse)
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• 12-16 hours/day (small gastric, large caecum)
• early morning and late afternoon (+25% night feeding)
• patch foraging behaviour (selective)
• Social facilitation
(eats more in companion)
• Social learing
(foal from mother)
• Neophoby for new tastes
• Knows the feeding time
Feeding behaviour
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Time budgets for horses
• Free ranging horses • Stabled horses
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• small harem (1 stallion+3-4 mares+foals) or bachelor
group (2+ years old young stallions)
• Alpha-mare:shows the way to resources, initiating
activities
• dominant stallion: mate, protect + keep the herd together
Social animals
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Stable mirror
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Pair bonds
• Social groupings have evolved for individual
protection against predators, and cohesion is
maintained by a variety of mutually beneficial
behaviors such as:
• mutual grooming
• standing together
• tail-to-tail fly-swatting
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Mutual grooming between
horse and human
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Different levels of aggression
• dominance hierarchy in the herd/group (less
aggression)
• sometimes more stallion in the herd: more stable
harems (mares stay)
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Home range
- 1 km² - 50-70 km² (not protecting territories)
- Scent-mark behaviour (communications between
stallions):the highest ranking animal often marks
last
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The highest ranking animal
often rolls last too
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Standing up • The main muscular effort used in standing
after a period of recumbency comes from
the hindquarters.
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Sleeping
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Interactive Play • foals and adult horses
• among foals
(locomotory play)
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Play fighting (bachelor groups)
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Perception: Vision
almost 350°
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Blind area is influenced by the
horse’s head carriage
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The visual field of a horse
Horse (left eye)
Human
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Approaching a jump with the
horse’s head up
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Human
Horse
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Approaching a jump with the
horse’s head down
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Compare to humans
- normal vision focus on far away objects with their
eyes relaxed (similar)
- more sensitive to movements than acuty (2/3 of
humans)
- dichromatic vision (max: 429nm, 539nm, Carroll et
al., 2001), 27 greyscale tones (Grzimek, 1952)
- sees well even in dusk
- acclimatisation is slower than humans (going out
from stall)
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Colour vision • Dichromatic (horses)
(color-blind humans)
• Trichromatic (humans)
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Chemoreception
• smell and taste are linked
neurologically
• horses familiarize
themselves with foreign
objects by smelling them
• sniffing: part of greeting
rituals between horses
• forced exhalations: helps
deep inhalations that
allow the horse to sample
odor molecules.
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Flehmen response
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Taste • they feel all the basic 5 tastes
• very important in selecting food
• use of peppermint essence (mask the
flavor of food and water): travel
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Hearing
• very well developed
• direction in which the ears point:direction a horse’s attention is focused
• ears move independently of each other (10 muscles, 180°: locate the source of the sound)
• locate compares poorly with hunting species (Ca, Hu), but well equipped to hear faint noises (4.5 km)
• broader range than most mammals: 55Hz - 33kHz
• very low frequencies: earthquakes (hoof)
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It has its attention on the handler
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Touch
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Vibrissae around the eyes and
muzzle
• Vibrissae around the eyes and muzzle have a rich afferent nerve supply
• detect distance, vibrational energy (sound), foal: find the teat, tactile information (along with lips)
• trimming of whiskers has been outlawed in Germany (2002)
• Sensitivity of the skin varies
• skin nociceptors: become less responsive if the stimulus is repeated at frequent intervals
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Thank you for your attention!
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Applied equine behaviour
research
Dr. Rezső Kovács, DVM, Phd student
Dr. Krisztina Nagy, PhD
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Reproductive behaviour
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Blanket on the mare
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Reproducitve cyle of mares
• Puberty: 12–15 months old, free-
ranging: 3rd spring
• Seasonally polyestrous
• Cyclical active estrus (7.1 4.2 d.)
and diestrus (16.3 2.9 days)
• throughout the breeding season
(152 50 days)
• Foal heat: 8 days after parturion
Clitoral winking
in an estrous mare
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Behaviour of the stallion
• first weeks: mounting attempts on their dams
• 3 month: erections
• 12 month: spermatozoa in testes
• 28 months: puberty
• Seasonality: all year
• But: responsiveness to sexual cues and
spontaneous erections in masturbating stallions
(penis being bounced against the abdomen)
increases in spring
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Social groupings
of free-ranging horses
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Leaving the natal band
• Colts leave natal band: time of the birth of their
siblings or when they are forced at 3 years old
• Fillies: search other stallions or stay (25%,
matrilineal dynasties)
• Mares leave (harem splits): winter/less grass
• Sneak matings: subordinate stallion with fillies or
subordinate mares (low conception rates)
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Where social flux is constant
agonistic interactions must be
modulated • Horses adapt poorly to the constant introduction
of newcomers to a social group
• give time
• fence
• food:at distance
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Introducing a new horse
• single-sex groups better than mixed-groups
• even number of horses
• large groups (shows less aggression)
• small groups: mix old with young
• 1 stranger with 1 inhabitant
• 2 strangers together
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Maternal-infant bond
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Foal rejection and Fostering
• bonding that occurs as a result of the
licking and nuzzling in the first hours of life
is very important
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Twin foals (birth rate: 1:10 000)!
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• Mule: donkey+horse
• Horse+zebra
Hybrids
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Foal stands up quickly
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Suckling
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Grazing
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Resting
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Playing
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Weaning
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Weaning
When?
4-6 months
( free-ranging)
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Weaning: profound stress
• When? How?
• Total separation: aberrant behaviors
reflect thwarted kinetic and foraging needs
• Partial separation (fenceline contact):
less vocalisation and locomotion
• Weaned in pairs (pair bonds)
• Management and feeding ! (Waran, 2004)
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Abnormal behaviour
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• Locomotor stereotypies:
Weaving (4%), box-walking (2%)
• Oral stereotypies:
wood-chewing(18%) crib-bitng (wind-sucking) (4%)
Stereotypic behaviour in horses
↔
(Wood-chewing horse ) (Crib-biting horse)
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• Apparently functionless, relatively invariant
repetitive behaviour(Mason, 1991)
• Repetitive behaviour induced by frustration,
repeated attempts to cope and/or central nervous
system dysfunction (Mason és Rushen, 2006)
• only in captive animals: indicator of poor welfare
Stereotypic behaviour
(self-sucking diary cow ) (pacing tiger) (bar-biting sow)
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New definition poses new
challenges to research
(tail-chasing dog) (self-plucked cockatoo) (wall-licking giraffe )
• the development of stereotypies is a long
process and little is know about their origin
• possible central nervous system dysfunctions
are difficult to study
• coping function of a behaviour detrimental to
the health of the animal is questionable
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Aetiology and treatment of
crib-biting behaviour in horses
PhD thesis, 2009
Krisztina Nagy
Supervisor: Dr. Gábor Bodó
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Why horses perform crib-biting
behaviour?
• Genetic background
• Neurobiological factors
• Housing & management
conditions, stress
• Learning from each other (?)
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• Gastrointestinal dysfunction: Crib-biting is primarily
associated with feeding of concentrates
• Impaired basal ganglia function: Upregulated
mesoaccumbens dopaminergic system
• Coping mechanism relieving some of the stress (?)
Why horses perform crib-biting
behaviour?
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Why horses perform crib-biting
behaviour?
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Consequences
• Basal ganglia (n. caudatus, n. accumbens, putamen)
dysfunction may diminish learning abilities
– crib-biters were less successful, required longer time
to perform an instrumental task (Hausberger et al., 2007)
– learned association persisted longer during extinction (Hemmings et al., 2007)
• Crib-biters are more stress sensitive
(Bachmann et al., 2003, Minero et al., 1999)
• Is it more difficult to work with a crib-biter?
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− tooth-erosion, weight loss
− gastric inflammation/ ulceration (Nicol et al., 2002)
− epiploic foramen entrapment colic (Archer et al., 2004,
2008)
→ decreased economical value, unsoundness
Health Consequences
Profound erosion of the incisor teeth of a severe crib-biter
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Not successful (endogen opioid - serotonin system is
involved in the process )
Treatment possibilites
• Pasture
• Ad libitum hay
• Social contact
Prevention is most important!!
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Aim of my PhD studies
1. Examine the risk factors of stereotypic behaviour (effect of a stereotypic neighbour)
2. Compare classification methods used in risk factors analysis (logistic regression - decision tree)
3. Differences in personality traits between crib-biting and control horses
4. To develop a crib-biting triggering stress-test
5. To assess the success-rate of the modified Forssell’s procedure, its implication for the welfare, and to compare the stress coping ability of surgically treated horses to that of collar treated, crib-biting and control (non-stereotypic) horses
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Why horses perform crib-biting
behaviour?
• Plan a study
– How to select horses in the study
– What questions to ask, who to ask, how to ask
– What to measure/record
• Conduct the study
• Analyse the data
• Interpret your findings
• Publish!!
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Why horses perform crib-biting
behaviour?
• Which risk factors to focus on?
– Use findings of previous studies in horses or other
animals!
– Have a hypothesis and a prediction (biological
interpretation)
• How to examine whether they are learning from
each other the crib-biting behaviour?
– Questions
– Methods
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Study 1.
Risk factors associated
with crib-biting
• Questionnaire survey (298 horse, 9 riding schools)
• Factors usually used:
– Age, gender, housing & management, usage
– Unwanted behaviours (e.g. aggression)
• New aspect:
– Presence of an aggressive or stereotypic neighbour (not
further than 3 box)
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Prevalence
This study In the world
Weaving 3% 4%
Box-walking 4% 2%
Wood-chewing 10% 18%
Crib-biting 5% 4%
More frequent in horses used for pleasure riding (2 –test,
p<0,001) (33 out of 126 horses), compared to competition
horses (12 out of 161 horses)
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Logistic regression
Risk factor OR 95%-os CI p-value
Weaving neighbour 20,8 1,7-315,1 0.018
Aggression 11,4 2,4-82,9 0.005
Crib-biting neighbour 6,6 0,6-66,7 0.045
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Control horses
Crib-biting horses
Crib-biting neighbour (OR=6)
Crib-biting neighbour
Present Not
Does this give an answer to our question
(crib-biting is learnt)?
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Study 2.
Decision tree
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Germany: from 2004
Denmark: from 2007
Switzerland: from 2012
Forbidden to use stalls