Lesson 1• Introduce LangChang as taught module for next; two pieces of c/w – investigation &

media text.• Slide 2: overview of c/w pieces, with some examples.• Slide 3: Simple examples of “transformation” from investigation to media text

(emphasize that effectiveness of “transformation” is written into marking criteria); show students some examples of c/w folders.

• Slide 4: overview of work, now to Sept. Short H/W task at bottom of slide.• Slide 5: introduction to LangChang and period of study (Late Modern – C1700-present

day).• Slides 6-10: Drivers of lang change – in order to understand how lang changes, we need

to know about some of the “drivers” of change. Talk through these slides fairly quickly; students can listen or take notes – inform them there will be a quick-fire text afterwards.

• Short break – they can do an unrelated activity, or just have a chat; but they should have 2-3 mins of not doing LangChang work.

• Rest of the slides repeat 6-10, but answers are, initially, hidden.

Language Investigation• Detailed study of an aspect of language

use and/or change.– How is gender represented in, e.g., makeup

adverts (at one moment in time, or across time)?

– How has the language of politics changed over time/how does it differ between the political parties?

– Language strategies used by teachers/a teacher when teaching one/different year groups.

– How have attitudes to taboo language changed over time?

– How has the language of [genre of writing/TV show/children’s literature] changed over time?

Media Text• A journalistic piece, to inform.• Must have a link with your

investigation, but should be a mere repetition/retelling.

• Investigation is academic – technical and highly formal in style.

• Media text is for a non-specialist readership.

For ExampleInvestigation into teacher language

Tips on lang./behaviour strategies for new teachers

Investigation into taboo language in [TV show]

“What’s so bad about swearing?” – informative Guardian article, on nature/history of obscenity

This half term

• Introduction to LangChang• Attitudes towards language change and use• “Mini” investigations and media texts, based on

attitudes towards language change/use; to be handed in after summer.

H/W: Look up the terms “linguistic prescriptivism” and “linguistic descriptivism.” Write out brief definitions of each term. For tomorrow/next lesson.

Language Change

• Studies language change from 1700 (eighteenth century) to present...

• The “Late Modern” period, when there is a concerted effort at standardization (e.g., proliferation of dictionaries & grammars, helped by emergence of printing presses)

• However, this is the not the first/last attempt to stabilize/set norms of the English language

• Standardization: the fixing of norms/standards to English (grammar, spelling, lexis etc.) and its variations

• Synchronic change: change occurring at a fixed “point” or “moment” in time (this moment, though, is theoretical or imaginary – we might be taking “the eighteenth century” as our “moment”)

• Diachronic change: Change occurring across historical

time

“Drivers” of Change: Science & Technology

• New words (often Greek/Latin in derivation) borrowed or coined as needed

• Scientific innovation during the Renaissance (roughly C14-mid C17) and the Enlightenment (roughly mid C17 – C18) required expansion of the lexicon; no language for the new discoveries

• New inventions require new words (e.g., a machine that washes the dishes is called... um... a dishwasher [neologism; compound])

• Technical/specialist words often “borrowed” from Latin – the lingua franca (before English), and the language of scholarship (power/authority invested in Latin).

“Drivers” of Change: Travel

• Travel – because of war/colonialism, trade, and emergence of tourism/leisure industries – brings different languages and cultures into contact with one another

• More borrowings/loan words (e.g., “curry”; in C18 “currey,” when it was a neologism, & therefore did not have a “standard” spelling)

“Drivers” of Change: Social, Political, Ideological

• Changes in public attitudes (e.g., towards gender/race) make certain lexical choices more/less acceptable

• Political correctness exerts a pressure: – some words undergo pejoration, & fall out of use; – Coinages/neologisms replace older, now archaic

terms;– changing attitudes can affect which registers will

be adopted in certain contexts

“Drivers” of Change: Media

• Might affect attitudes (& therefore register – journalism more/less formal today that 100 years ago?)

• Introduce coinages, initialisms, acronyms• Slang/colloquialisms become part of “standard”

lexicon (e.g., “Gotcha”)• Hyperbole [“hy-per-b(u)lly”] and abbreviation

(initialisms, acronyms, clippings) typical of “journalese”

Short break

“Drivers” of Change: Science & Technology

• New words (often Greek/Latin in derivation) borrowed or coined as needed

• Scientific innovation during the Renaissance (roughly C14-mid C17) and the Enlightenment (roughly mid C17 – C18) required expansion of the lexicon; no language for the new discoveries

• New inventions require new words (e.g., a machine that washes the dishes is called... um... a dishwasher [neologism; compound])

“Drivers” of Change: Travel

• Travel – because of trade and tourism/leisure industry – brings different languages and cultures into contact with one another

• More borrowings/loan words (e.g., “curry”; in C18 “currey,” when it was a neologism without standard spelling)

“Drivers” of Change: Social, Political, Ideological

• Changes in public attitudes (e.g., towards gender/race) make certain lexical choices more/less acceptable

• Political correctness exerts a pressure: – some words undergo pejoration, & fall out of use; – Coinages/neologisms replace older, now archaic

terms;– changing attitudes can affect which registers will

be adopted in certain contexts

“Drivers” of Change: Media

• Might affect attitudes (& therefore register – journalism more/less formal today that 100 years ago?)

• Introduce coinages, initialisms, acronyms• Slang/colloquialisms become part of “standard”

lexicon (e.g., “Gotcha”)• Hyperbole [“hy-per-b(u)lly”] and abbreviation

(initialisms, acronyms, clippings) typical of “journalese”

Terms Encountered Today• Standardization• Synchronic change• Diachronic change• Borrowings/loan words• Coinages/neologisms• Renaissance (roughly C14-

mid C17)• Enlightenment (roughly mid

C17 – C18)• Lexicon• Lingua franca

• Political correctness• Pejoration• Amelioration• Archaism• Register• Initialism• Acronyms• Slang/colloquialisms• Hyperbole• Abbreviation/clipping/truncation

Lesson 2• Review prescriptivism and descriptivism; use definitions

on slide 17 to add to/refine definitions as necessary.• Slide 18: talk through format of exam, re. LangChang

section, and brief summary of how to approach an attitudes question if it comes up.

• Read handouts independently, to begin with; answer questions through annotation – some modelling/whole class examples if necessary.

• Slide 20: H/W task (research; resources have been posted to website)

Attitudes towards language use and language change

Prescriptivists…view language as having long-established “rules”; concerned with standards of “proper” English and “correct” grammar; very often assume English now to be in a state of decline. Sometimes called “language mavens” and/or “grammaticasters” (as an insult). Both names suggest someone with strong views on “proper English,” who is not “qualified” to make such judgements.

Descriptivists…attempt to record, document, and describe language as it is actually used, rather than concerning themselves with notions of “correct”/“proper” English.

• In the A2 exam, you will choose to answer one of two questions.

• Sometimes, one of the questions will ask you to read a text and discuss attitudes towards language change.

• To answer the attitudes question, you need to identify the type of attitude being expressed, and then discuss the techniques being used to convey the writer’s message.

Read the articles by John Humphrys and David Crystal

• How would you describe their attitudes towards language use and language change?

• Which driver(s) of language change are they most concerned with?

• What techniques do Humphrys & Crystal use to convey their messages?

• Ext: Do you think one could ever be entirely non-prescriptivist? Why?

Homework

Use the “mini_coursework_projects_-_links” PPt at olibelas.weebly.com (English Language AS AS/A2 transition) to find the Jean Aitchison article (last link on slide). Read the article; make notes on the three types of prescriptivism she outlines. Do you agree with these views?

Lesson 3• Ask questions on slide 23; field responses from students (first question

should be easy-ish; second may be more challenging)• Talk through slides 23-25 as necessary; emphasize that these are

prescriptivist stances that Aitchison herself criticizes.• Slide 26: Problem with Aitchison? Is it possible, based on personal

experience, to think of instances when our linguistic behaviours are not matters of choice but are “infections”/habits? (E.g., use of “y’know,” “like,” “a’right” phatically/as fillers etc.)

• Slides 27-29: Talk through techniques (with focus on register) that Humphrys uses to make his points; this leads to upwards/downwards convergence/divergence on 29. Humphrys uses upwards divergence to set himself apart from the “crowd,” and also uses downwards convergence ironically, to mock the habits he so dislikes.

Varieties of Prescriptivism

• What are the metaphors that Aitchison uses to characterize three widespread types of prescriptivism?

• Can you summarize these prescriptivisms?

The Damp Spoon View

‘The “damp spoon” image comes from a newspaper writer, who has a “queasy distaste” for the “vulgarity” of some current usages, “precisely the kind of distaste I feel at seeing a damp spoon dipped in the sugar bowl or butter spread with the breadknife”. She implies that sloppiness and laziness cause much of language change.’ However, Aitchison goes on, ‘[t]he only truly lazy speech is drunken speech, where alcohol affects co-ordination, and English is not getting like drunken speech.’

The Crumbling Castle View‘This treats the English language as a beautiful old building with gargoyles and pinnacles which need to be preserved intact, as implied in statements by the writer John Simon: Language, he argues, should be treated like “parks, national forests, monuments, and public utilities . . . available for properly respectful use but not for defacement or destruction”.

‘This view itself crumbles when examined carefully. It implies that the castle of English was gradually and lovingly assembled until it reached a point of maximum splendour at some unspecified time in the past. Yet no year can be found when language achieved some peak of perfection, like a vintage wine. Nor have those who claim that English is declining ever suggested what this date might have been.’

The ‘beautiful building’ view is part of this ‘crumbling castle’ stance. The beautiful building view ‘presupposes that rigid systems, once assembled, are better than changing ones.’

The Infectious Disease View‘In an article entitled “Polluting Our Language,” the writer expressed a widespread view that we somehow “catch” changes from those around us, and that we ought to fight such diseases: “The wholesale spread of corruption may surely be ascribed to mere infection, to the careless, unthinking assimilation of the floating germs which envelop us.” Change is indeed brought about through social contact, so the catching notion is not entirely wrong. But the “disease” metaphor falls down. People pick up changes because they want to. They want to fit in with social groups, and they adapt their hairstyle, clothes, and language, to those of people they admire.’

• Do you agree with what Aitchison says, particularly of the “infectious disease” view?

A good dictionary is a fine thing - I yield to no man in my love for one. If I stretch out my right arm as I type, I can pluck from my shelves the two volumes of the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary.

They are as close to my heart as they are to my desk because they are so much more than a useful tool.

How would you describe Humphrys’s language/style/register here?

Relatively high level of formality.

Lexical choice of “fine”: - used in slightly archaic/narrower & stronger sense of “excellent”/“wonderful,” rather than “just OK.”

Literary/frozen register: - idiom: “I yield to no man…” (or “no one”)- Use of zeugma to construct metaphor: “as close to my heart as… to my desk” (close = near geographically/spatially and fond of/intimate with)

Zeugma: When a word(s) refers to two things in two different ways (e.g., literally and metaphorically).

As close to my heart as to my desk. (“close” = fond + near)

She went home in a taxi and a bad mood. (“in” = inside + state of mind/attitude)

Who speaks like this?

In the quotations below, Humphrys is being ironic. How?

• I h8 txt msgs• The spell-check (sorry: spellcheck) on my computer

is happy with both. But that's not why I feel betrayed by my precious OED.

• Have you ever heard anything quite so daft? No time to make one tiny key-stroke (sorry: key stroke).

• To the editor of the OED I will simply say: For many years you've been GR8. Don't spoil it now. Tks.

• Convergence: When the differences between speech patterns/habits are minimized/lessened/reduced (when people’s speech becomes more alike)

• Divergence: When the differences between speech patterns/habits are increased/maximized

• Upwards: In the “direction” of “standard” English and received pronunciation

• Downwards: Towards regional dialect/“non-standard” English

• Therefore, we can speak of upwards/downwards convergence, and upwards/downwards divergence.

How do these terms apply to the Humphrys extracts?

And finally…

Which of Aitchison’s metaphors best applies to Humphrys?

Look at the first definition we wrote of “prescriptivism”: what terms other than “prescriptivist” might Aitchison use to describe Humphrys?

Lesson 4• Informalization/conversationalization• Prediction – are we more/less prescriptive now than 200/300

years ago? Explain your predictions; predictions might include strategies/techniques used in pre-/de-scriptivist accounts

• Write up prediction• Swift and Johnson• Summary exercise and annotation• Were predictions correct, based on evidence? Write this up as

short statement• H/W: read, summarize, annotate two more short texts, using

links PPt from website

How has language changed over the last two- or three-hundred years?

Make a prediction:- Do you think “Society” has become more or

less linguistically prescriptive since 1700?- Give possible reasons for your prediction.

Do the following points affect your predictions?

• Although there were numerous attempts to standardize English before the eighteenth century (1700s), it is from the eighteenth century on (or the Late Modern period) that English begins to stabilize and become the language we recognize today.

• Reasons for this include:– Before standardization, greater orthographic variation, based partly on regional

accent/pronunciation; mechanization & mass production (thanks to printing presses) mean there are gradually fewer orthographic variations.

– Proliferation of grammars and dictionaries (e.g., Lowth’s A Short Introduction to English Grammar [1762]; Dr. Johnson’s A Dictionary of the English Language [1755])

– Syntax: C18 – often longer constructions than we might expect/be comfortable with today; often multi-clausal, with clauses demarcated by frequent commas and/or semicolons. Over the next 200 years or so, syntax tends towards the more direct, shorter, and “simpler” construction. E.g., use of “do” to construct questions and negatives becomes more widespread and more common (e.g., “do you want…?” “No, I do not/don’t want…”)

– Use of commas & semicolons becomes more rigid.– People often suggest that English today is more conversational & more informal. We can talk

about the informalization and conversationalization of English.

Return to your prediction; make any adjustments necessary, and write up this form: Write up in this form:I predict/hypothesise that evidence will suggest that we have become … since 1700. I think that contributing factors to these changes will include…

Read the Swift and Johnson extracts

• What broad points does each writer offer? Summarize in one sentence per extract. “In text A, Swift adopts a … stance, arguing that… In text B, Johnson adopts a … stance, arguing that…”

• How would you describe the attitude of each writer?• Based on this evidence, and the Crystal and Humphrys extracts, is your prediction

correct?• Are the four extracts sufficient evidence for firm conclusions?

• Write up your findings: Based on my evidence, my prediction appears to be… We can see that [summarize attitude each of the four writers – prescriptive/descriptive; “crumbling castle” etc.]. From this, we can tentatively suggest that attitudes towards the English language have– remained as prescriptive/descriptive as…– become more/less … over time

However, before firm conclusions could be reached, we would need to…

H/W

• Read & summarize two more short texts, using links PPt from website

Lesson 5• Choosing “mini” investigation topic• How to set out introductory sections• Write intro., hypothesis, methodology in class• Begin annotation of texts in preparation for

Lesson 6• Note: predictions might be along lines of

more/less prescriptive, or certain rhetorical strategies used by pre-/de-scriptivists

Choosing an investigation topic/title

Based on the evidence we’ve considered in class, and that you’ve considered for homework, there are three obvious approaches you might take:1. How have attitudes towards language use and

language change developed over time?2. What techniques and methods do linguists and

commentators use when discussing language use and/or change?

3. Have linguists become more or less prescriptive about language use and change over time?

The type of study• If you decide to use the selection of texts we have

considered, which span the C18 until (more or less) the present day, then you will be conducting a diachronic analysis. Diachronic studies investigate changes over time.

• If you decide to do task 2, and to restrict your analyses to texts from one period, then you will be conducting a synchronic analysis. Synchronic studies investigate changes at a fixed point in time. If you decide to do a synchronic version of task 2, you will need to find two additional texts from the relevant time period (all the “mini” investigations should cover 6 texts).

Start annotating texts for methods/techniques

• Choose a question/title, and write it in your book as a title.

• Write your introduction, hypothesis, and methodology.

• Introduction: Outline the focus of your project (“I will consider/investigate…”); you will probably restate the title, but say a little more on what you will be doing (“I will analyze a selection of texts, by…; I will consider…”)

• Hypothesis: Make your prediction (as last lesson, but re-write according to the task you have chosen; remember, it does not matter whether or not the hypothesis turns out to be correct.

• Methodology: Synchronic/diachronic analysis of techniques/methods etc. used by writers

Terminology:- Prescriptive- Descriptive- Aitchison’s metaphors- “Grammaticaster”/language

maven- Synchronic/diachronic- Rhetorical techniques

Lesson 6

• Slides 42-44: Introduction, warning, guidance on analyses

• Slides 45-46: How to tabulate/record analyses; start to annotate and tabulate (begin written analysis if additional time)Plan and begin analyses in class

• Slide 47: Final task and H/W

Preparing the analyses• The analyses will form the biggest part of the investigation.• How will organize the analyses?

– Text by text– According to techniques/feature/methods– According to prescriptivism/descriptivism, then

methods/techniques– According to period, then pre-/de-scriptivism and/or

methods/techniques?• Depending on how many texts you are analyzing, and how

much you have to say, you will analyze approx. 2-4 features in detail.

Warning:

• Text by text is probably the least effective; it will probably seem the least well conceptualized to the examiners.

• However, there are cases in which text by text might work (e.g., an analysis of special interest magazines might be organized according to those interests).

• Often (but, again, not always), organizing analyses by method will suggest a broad understanding of the data as a whole.

Research

• You will be expected to show evidence of further reading/research in your written analyses.

• For example, a knowledge of Aitchison’s metaphors might be relevant to a study of the sort we’re doing. Theories/concepts of language and power might also be relevant.

Recording, Arranging, & Presenting Data

• Before you can begin to “write up” your analyses, you will need to record and arrange your data.

• You will need to decide which methods/features/techniques you will consider in your analyses.

• To do this, all texts need to be annotated in detail; consider how techniques/features/methods help the writers achieve their purpose.

Recording, Arranging, & Presenting Data

• Look for patterns in the data.• For example:

– is a certain method technique only used in C18;

– or, are certain techniques only used by pre-/de-scriptivists;

– or, does the frequency of a particular feature vary over time?

– Think about how you will decide which features to comment on – e.g., will you comment on semantic fields only if a) they feature figuratively; b) 3 or more instances occur?

Text Prescriptivist (P)/Descriptivist (D)

Figurative language (semantic field)

Frequency Examples

A P ColourNatureMusic

638

[Short quotations from text]

B D War 3 [Short quotations from text]

Text Prescriptivist (P)/Descriptivist (D)

Use of statistical information

Examples

A P No

B D Yes [Examples from text]

1. Annotate all texts2. Select techniques/feature/frameworks for

analyses3. Start to tabulate

Finish 1 & 2 for H/W

Lesson 7

• Tabulate data – use slide 46 as model; further examples on board; use exemplar work.

Lesson 8

• Show examples of analyses in exemplar work again

• Show examples of conclusions• Time to draft analyses in class?• Set write up as summer task – to be handed in

end wk 2/beginning wk 3 of autumn 2013 term.

Exemplar pieces:

IntroductionIn my investigation I will be analysing the language used in advertising of hair products. This investigation will allow me to discover how advertisements speak to their specific audiences. I have chosen to investigate the language and gender conventions within the beauty industry as these industries have a significant impact on the people around my age. It will be interesting to discover how, and more importantly, why this industry is continually booming. Perhaps we need all these products? Or maybe it’s the language used in the adverts that makes us believe we need them.

I hope to find a definite system whereby industries target either men, or women in advertising. I believe certain attributes are used to focus on men, for example, the idea of “value” yet “difference making” and “obvious results” is a factor that attracts men; they like to be financially cautious but still look good in the process. Alternatively, women are attracted by specialist terminology that sounds scientific. This is due to women believing in scientific language, chemicals and how it will drastically cure their supposed ‘imperfections’. This indicates to me that men and women are still, very much affected by the media’s representation of the “perfect” man or woman.

MethodologyMy data consisted of five pages of written up hair product advertisements. Whilst using the exact advertisements ripped from magazines, I have typed up the adverts so that I am able to purely concentrate on analysing the language, and not allowing for the graphological features, such as colour and facial expressions to tamper and manipulate the lexical choices. Brands such as Herbal Essences and Aussie are predominant in the female market, whilst Lynx, a known male grooming brand may give interesting outcomes, due to previous distinct marketing strategies. The longitudinal research has been taken over a long period of time in order to analyse advertisements and see whether advertisers change their methods of targeting men and women. With equal amounts of female orientated advertisements, as well as male, this allowed for an equal judgement. I thought it would be a suitable topic when investigating language and gender when aiming towards different sexes. The evidence shown in my investigation supports Tannen’s theory of the difference model as men and women are perceived as two different cultures. My investigation and the evidence shown will embrace this idea. Discovering the way in which advertisers target either women or men will obviously revolve around language and how it differs amongst the two genders. Language and gender is an interesting area of sociolinguistics as it allows us to understand the language embodied and sustained by attitudes towards gender. Therefore, exploring into areas of the media and how they equip and use these thoughts will be interesting to critique. Through premodification and pragmatics found in the selected advertisements, I aim to discover how advertisers attract men and women effectively. Premodification will allow me to analyse the adjectives used to “dress up” ordinary noun phrases. Whilst pragmatics will reveal the underlying attitudes of gender conveyed to females and males.

Premodification:

There is a significant variation in the use of premodification between male and female advertisements, revealing a greater difference with how women are targeted, when compared to men. The effect of having premodification in an advertisement is to further describe the noun. The evidence shows that it is far more common in women’s adverts, rather than men’s. In the Herbal Essence advert (no. 6), vivid imagery is accompanied by vivid language. Phrases such as, “thrillingly fresh” with reference to the “Herbal Essence experience”, depicts Herbal Essence’s sensual experience. It is difficult to separate the semantic field of nature, as nature is at the heart of the brand; “herb” being the root word and “al” being the derivational suffix that changes the word class from “herb” to “herbal”. The semantic field of nature is built into the name; advertisers are aware of this and thus, draw upon it in their advertisements. Nature can be found in the premodified phrases, “earthy delights” and “green essence”. The use of natural imagery in “earthy” provides positive connotations; we see nature as a place of celebration. The semantic field of nature implies that Herbal Essence is natural company, but alternatively, they aim to give their consumers an experience with the smells of herbs and flowers, rather than chemically enhanced ‘Pearl proteins’ found in L’Oreal Elive Nutri-Gloss ad (no. 10). Herbal Essences use premodifiers to describe the body’s senses, mostly with smell. For instance, Herbal Essence is a women’s marketed brand of shampoo, with the “essence” being described as “green” triggers scents of flowers, grass and fruits. According to Lakoff, women are more comfortable with lexis denoting colour and smell. This is due to their specialist lexicon revolving around words to do with colour, rather than the masculine special lexicons for sport. Men feel that such discussions of colour are emasculating, and not relevant to ‘their’ real world. This is due to their sense of being the dominant gender: they tend to relegate women’s things that aren’t a concern to them. Alternatively, It could be said that women are far more inclined towards the aesthetic way of life; they are more “anxious” with the way they look. Herbal Essence embodies this aesthetically pleasing quality through their “wild” scents. Furthermore, the word “mysterious” when describing the herbs could lend itself to being mysterious in the sense of a coming from a mythical forest, or an alternative view that it is an unknown herb, used in the bottle of shampoo to give this iconic “experience.” Both implicit meanings of “mysterious” provide positive connotations for the herbs as Herbal Essence pride themselves on giving the, “most beautiful shampoo experience on earth.” It is impossible to talk solely about premodification in Herbal Essence adverts, as semantic field has a great impact on the premodification used. There is a distinction with the type of premodifiers used in male and female products. With female adverts using descriptions such as, “beautiful” and “natural”, male premodifiers used adjectives such as, “long-lasting” and “valuable”. This difference in premodification reveals that women look for attractiveness and appearance, while men differ, by being portrayed as looking for cost and value with lasting results. Women monitor for appearance and “beauty” and men for value and cost efficiency. From the data, women are portrayed to be far more concerned with their image, whereas men are always drawn to the specifics of a product, for example, 24 hour lasting freshness, as typically, men are depicted with busy working lifestyles. Lynx also plays upon the assumption that all men are out working by using the declarative active sentence, “Get the look that gets the girls” (no.1). The repeated irregular verb “to get” implies that using Lynx will ensure attraction from women. This also has the effect of showing men to be active in their lifestyles as the verb “get” acts as an imperative, as well as a declarative sentence. To further this convention, the premodification of “more” in “Get more done…” (no. 3) and the use of “fast-paced” as a description to describe the lifestyle of “today’s man” (no. 8) shows the male sex to be far more advanced than women, in terms of job roles and an occupied life. Advertisers draw towards active lifestyles in men, as this was the typical norm of the 1950s. Whilst women stayed at home, minding the children and putting dinner on the table in time for their husband’s arrival, men were out in the city, working to provide for their families. Women are perceived as being passive, when compared to the active man. Advertisers still draw upon this inequality between men and women through their selective descriptions of their products. Freud as a gender roles and differences theorist believed that men take on “emotional rivalry” against their fathers, and need to contest and become the greater male in the family. This then allows for a males sense of identity to develop, thus resulting in the similar stereotypes and rooted convention put upon men, even now in the 21st century. Freud dates back to the late 19th century, yet is sill relevant to advertisers with the use of minimalistic but “manly” language, when targeting their male market.

Mini Investigation• 1500-2000 words total.• Introduction, methodology, hypothesis• Graphic presentation of data• Analyses (2-4 frameworks)• Conclusion – what did you discover? Was your

hypothesis/prediction correct?• Evaluation – what would repeat, and what would you

change, if you were to do the investigation again?

• Due in Wed 17th September.