The Islamic University of Gaza

Deanery of Graduate Studies Faculty of Education

Department of Curricula and Methodology

Levels of Reflective Teaching among the Student

Teachers of English in Gaza Universities

By Mamdouh Khader Ferwana

Supervised by:

Prof. Ezzo Afana

Dr. Awad Keshta

A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of Education, The Islamic

University of Gaza, in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for

the Degree M. Ed. 2006

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بسم اهللا الرمحن الرحيموقضى ربك أال تعبدوا إال إياه وبالوالدين إحسانا أما يبلغن عندك الكرب (

أحدهما أو كالهما فال تقل هلما أف وال تنهرهما وقل هلما قوال كرميا )24(

واخفض هلما جناح الذل من الرمحة وقل رب ارمحهما كما ربياني صغريا

ســورة اإلســــراء )25(

“And your Lord has decreed that you worship none but Him. And that you be dutiful to your parents. If one of them or both of them attain old age in your life, say not to them a word of disrespect, nor shout at them but address them in terms of honour (24) And lower unto them the wing of submission and humility through mercy, and say: “My Lord! Bestow on them Your Mercy as they did bring me up when I was young (25).”

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Dedication I would like to dedicate my work to My Father’s Soul, who had sacrified everything in his life for my brothers and me, so that we may have a better future. My Mother, who has always been encouraging me and sacrificing to bring me where I am. My brothers and sisters, who have been supporting and encouraging me. My wife, who supported me and raised my spirit whenever I felt tired or bored. My three lovely children Mosa’ab, Mohammad and Mohanad.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all I am awarding my great thanks for the Almighty ALLAH Who all the time helps me and grants me the power and courage to finish this study and give me the success in my life (Alhamdu lillah).

I am grateful to the Islamic University, Deanery of Graduate Studies and Deanery of Faculty of Education for giving me the opportunity to undertake this study.

My gratitude and respect are paid to my supervisors, Prof. Ezzo Afana, Professor of Curriculum and Methodology and Dr. Awad Keshta, Assistant Professor of Curriculum and Methodology for their devoted efforts, valuable advice, continuous encouragement and their constant motivation that push me to finish this study, and above all for granting me the honor to become one of their students.

My gratitude and respect are paid to the two examiners Dr. Walid Amer and Dr. Sanaa’ Abou Dagga for their valuable notes and recommendations.

I would like to express my deep thanks and appreciation to my teacher and my cousin Mr. Sadeq S. Ferwanah for his considerable advice and notes that much contributed to improving the study.

Special thanks and gratitude to my teacher Prof. Mohammad Asqoul, Vice present of the University for Academic Affairs, for his valuable remarks and suggestions that helped me at the beginning of this study.

I would like to express my deep thanks and appreciation to my teacher Dr. Nazmy Al-Masri for his valuable notes that much contributed to improving the study.

I express my sincere acknowledgement to Mr. Mahmoud Mattar for his efforts in doing statistics for this study.

My appreciation and gratitude are paid to the panel of professors (juries of the tools of the study) for their valuable and intellectual notes and suggestions.

I also thank all supervisors and teachers in schools who helped me in gathering needed data for this study.

Many thanks are due to the student teachers who participated in filling the test and the questionnaire of the study. I also thank all my friends who love and support me.

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ABSTRACT Levels of Reflective Teaching among the Student Teachers

of English in Gaza Universities By: Mamdouh Khader Ferwana

Supervised by: Prof. Ezzo Afana and Dr. Awad Keshta

This study aims at measuring the level of reflective teaching among student teachers of English in Gaza universities (The Islamic University of Gaza and Al-Azhar University 2004 -2005) by answering the following questions:

1- What is the level of background about the reflective teaching approach among the student teachers of English in Gaza universities? 2- What do the student teachers of English in Gaza universities think

about the values (importance) of the reflective teaching in their teaching performances?

3- What is the Level of practicing the reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in Gaza Universities?

4- Are there differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between the levels of background about the reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in the two Gaza universities (The Islamic University of Gaza – Al-Azhar University) due to the university variable?

5- Are there differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between the levels of thinking about the values (importance) of the reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in the two Gaza universities (The Islamic University of Gaza – Al-Azhar University) due to the university variable?

6- Are there differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between the levels of practicing reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in the two Gaza universities (The Islamic University of Gaza – Al-Azhar University) due to the university variable?

To fulfill the aims of the study, the researcher followed the descriptive analytical approach. He used different tools to collect the needed information. He prepared a test is to know to what extent the student teachers are familiar (having background) with the reflective teaching approach, questionnaire to know what the student teachers think about the reflective teaching and its values and an Observation card to measure the level of reflective teaching among the Student teachers of English in Gaza Universities. The researcher applied the tools of the study on 66 student teachers as a random sample. Percentages, means, Pearson correlation formula, Alpha Cronbach, Kuder-Richardson Formulas 21 ,Cooper Test, T test and Mann Whitney test were used for analyzing the data statistically. The results of the test show that the student teachers of English in the two universities (The Islamic University of Gaza and Al-Azhar University) had a little educational background about the reflective teaching approach.

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The results of the questionnaire show that the student teachers of English in the two universities (The Islamic University of Gaza and Al-Azhar University) had positive thinking about the reflective teaching approach. The results of the Observation card showed that the student teachers of English in the two universities (The Islamic University of Gaza and Al-Azhar University) had a low level of practicing the reflective teaching approach. There were not statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of levels of background about, levels of thinking about, and levels of practicing the reflective teaching among student teachers of English in Gaza universities due to the university variable.

The study concluded with some relevant recommendations for trainee teachers and teachers of English, universities and faculties of Education, supervisors and schools principals (headmasters and headmistresses) and the Palestinian Ministry of Education and Higher education. The most significant recommendations were as follows:

- Teachers should look again into their work and try to employ the reflective approach. - Teachers should know that reflective approach is one of the keys of their advancement in their work. - Teachers should think deeply in their performance and try to develop it. - Teachers should be cognizant of the idea and the importance of the reflective teaching approach as a fruitful approach. - Universities should highlight the importance of the reflective teaching approach - Universities should make sure that the reflective teaching approach is under focus in methodology syllabuses.

- Supervisors and school principals should encourage collaborative and cooperative professionalism and promote the adoption of the reflective teaching approach.

- Supervisors and school principals should recognize this approach, its principles and its role in improving education and the teaching process in Palestinian schools. - Supervisors and school principals should encourage and recompense the successful and the active reflective teachers. - The Ministry of Education should motivate researchers to focus on the importance of reflective teaching of other branches of sciences. - The Ministry should provoke and help teachers to look critically at their work and try to give them some hints to employ this approach. - The Ministry should recognize that applying the reflective teaching approach means a step towards positive changes in higher education teaching towards the Total Quality Management.

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Table of contents

Title Page

Dedication ii

Acknowledgement iii

Abstract in English iv

Chapter I 1

1.1 Introduction: 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 7

1.2.1 Research Questions 7

1.3 Research Hypotheses 8

1.4 Purpose of the study 9

1.5 Significance of the Study 9

1.6 Definition of Terms 11

1.7 Limitations of the Study 12

1.8 Summary 13

Chapter II 14

Section “A”: The Theoretical Framework 14

2.1 Introduction: 14

2.2 Reflective Practice: The Beginning 18

2.3 What is reflective practice teaching? 19

2.4 Why reflections? The benefits of reflective teaching 20

2.5 Types of reflection 24

2.6 Levels of reflection 26

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Title Page

2.7 Reflective practice process: Steps of reflections 27

2.8 Collecting data (information) 30

2.9 Characteristics of a reflective teacher 45

2.10 Characteristics of reflective practice 47

2.11 Reflection as an Islamic concept 49

2.12 Reflective practice: Criticisms and cautions 53

2.13 Difficulties with reflective teaching: 54

2.14 Summary 55

Section “B”: Literature Review 56

introduction 56

Summary 82

General Comment on the Previous Studies 85

Chapter III : Methodology 87

introduction 87

3.1 Population of the study 87

3.2 Sample of the study 88

3.3 Tools of the study 88

3.3.1 The first tool: The test 88

3.4 The second tool: The Questionnaire 93

3.5 The third tool: The Observation Card 96

3.6 Procedures of the study 101

3.7 Statistical analysis 102

3.8 Summary 102

Chapter IV : Results of the Study 103

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Title Page

introduction 103

4.1 The Answer of the First Question 103

4.2 The Answer of the Second Question 105

4.3 The Answer of the Third Question 106

4.4 The Answer of the Fourth Question 110

4.5 The Answer of the Fifth Question 112

4.6 The Answer of the sixth Question 113

4.7 Comment on the results of the last three questions and hypotheses: 114

4.8 Summar 115

Chapter V: Discussion and Recommendations 116

Introduction 116

5.1 Discussion 116

5.2 Recommendations 119

References 124

Appendix (1): The test 131

Appendix (2): List of experts 134

Appendix (3): The questionnaire 135

Appendix (4): The observation card 136

Appendix (5): Instructions of the observation card 138

Appendix (6): permissions to apply the study 142

Abstract in Arabic 147

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List of tables

Table Page Table (1) The population of the study 87

Table (2) The sample of the study 88

Table (3) Difficulty coefficient of each question of the test 89

Table (4) Discrimination coefficient of each question of the test 90

Table (5) Correlation Coefficient of the Test 92

Table (6) Discrimination Validity of the test 92

Table (7) Correlation Coefficient of the Questionnaire 94

Table (8) Discrimination Validity of the questionnaire 95

Table (9) Correlation Coefficient of the first phase (Planning) 97

Table (10) Correlation Coefficient of the second phase (operations and roles) 98

Table (11) Correlation Coefficient of the third phase (Analysis and reactions) 98

Table (12) Correlation Coefficient of the Phase and the Whole Observation card 98

Table (13) Discrimination Validity of the Observation card 99

Table (14) Levels of background about the reflective teaching 103

Table (15) Levels of thinking about the value of reflective

teaching

105

Table (16) Levels of practicing the reflective teaching 107

Table (17) Differences in the levels of background about the reflective teaching 111

Table (18) Differences in the levels of thinking about the reflective teaching 113

Table (19) Differences in the levels of practicing the reflective teaching 114

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Chapter I

1.1 Introduction: Language is one of Allah’s signs for man “He (Allah) taught him (man)

eloquent speech” (The Holy Quran “Ar-Rahman/3”) and “And among his signs

(Allah) is the creation of the Heavens and the Earth, and the difference of your

(peoples’) languages and colors. Verily in that are indeed signs for men of sound

knowledge” (The Holy Quran Ar-Rum/22”).

Man needs language in as much as he needs air, water, and food. No one can

imagine life without language, as it is the basic means of communication among

individuals, groups and peoples.

Every nation has its own language; there are a number of languages

belonging to different world peoples by which they interact, convey messages and

transmit ideas and thoughts. Every nation seeks to keep its language alive because it

is the main sign of unique history, culture and civilization. Also, language can unify

people to be one nation.

However, there are a lot of languages over the world, each one belongs to

some societies, countries or nations. There are many differences between languages

due to their usage by peoples, their complexity and their comprehensiveness.

English has, lately, established itself as the most popular language in the

world. It may be considered the first world language. “Although English is not the

language with the largest number of natives or (first) language speakers, it has

become a lingua franca. A lingua franca can be defined as a language widely adopted

for communication between two speakers whose native languages are different from

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each other and where one or both speakers are using it as a second language”

(Harmer 2001, p.1)

English is a universal language: the language of communications across

countries in the international world of trade, business, communications, air

transportation and technology. As such, the many “Englishes” of the world do not

belong to any single country, but are adaptations of standard forms accepted as

models or archetypes of “good English”. Therefore, learning and teaching English

are very important in Arab and Muslim countries in general and in Palestine in

particular, as our need for English is of radical importance to better understand the

world peoples and best address them about our concerns. Al-Ghunaimi (2003: p 1)

states that “Recently, it [English language] has been the language of “globalization”.

Therefore, English as a foreign language has been of considerable interest in

curriculum in most Arab countries to enable students to cope with modern life and

develop their countries”. Consequently, the Palestinian National Authority (PNA)

tries to focus on developing the teaching process in general and the teaching of

English in particular.

The Israeli occupation was responsible for several problems especially in the

education field. Mortaga (2004 p.20) says “the discussion has centered the problems

that faced the Palestinian educational system in the Gaza Strip under the Israeli

occupation as well as poor syllabuses, poorly trained school teachers, low salaries,

school closures as a result of the political situation, poorly-equipped schools and

crowded classes”

The PNA has taken right and brave steps to improve education in the

Palestinian territories (the Gaza Strip & the West Bank) in general, and teaching of

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English in particular. It tries to overcome all the problems which faced Palestinians

during Israeli occupation period. “English as a second language is to be taught from

the first grade rather from the fifth grade as was the case in the old curricula. Pupils

will receive twelve years of English instruction instead of eight. This emphasis is to

equip high–school graduates with a higher level of competence in English so as to

achieve two aims: greater openness to world culture in which English occupies a

prominent position, and better competitiveness on the labor market”. (Mortaga, 2004

p.20). The PNA made great contributions to improve school teachers’ proficiency

and updating their background knowledge by holding a number of in-service teacher

training courses (either in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank or abroad) that focus on

English language in general or on the skills of teaching English in particular.

In the light of this situation, it becomes clear that useful methods of teaching

English should be in focus in order to achieve the utmost goals for students and

teachers. However, the question “what is the perfect method of teaching English?”

remains without answer. Teaching depends on many factors such as individual

differences, class environment, teacher’s and learner’s abilities and the lesson subject

matter. These factors and others enforce teachers, who are aware of the fact that there

is no standard and perfect teaching method to follow, to seek a suitable approach to

present their lessons. These factors invite teachers to improve their abilities and

develop their performance.

Reflective teaching “can positively affect professional growth and

development by leading to greater self awareness to the development of new

knowledge about professional practice” (Imel 1992). Reflective teaching means

“looking at what we - as teachers - do in the class and thinking why we do it”

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(Farrell, 2004 p.72). In other words, it is a process of self-observation and self-

evaluation by collecting data about what is going on in our classroom and then

analyzing and evaluating data to lead us to positive changes and improvements in our

teaching.

Finally the researcher hopes that this study be a guide for teachers who seek

better performance and better results in both their achievement and in their students’.

The reflective approach for teaching is “one in which teachers and student

teachers collect data about teaching, examine their attitudes, beliefs, assumptions and

teaching practices and use the information obtained as a basis for critical reflection

about teaching” (Richards, 1997 p 1). Teachers can collect such data by keeping a

diary or a journal, using a tape recording, or a video recording or taking notes from

external observers. All of these resources and others can give teachers information to

make critical judgments about their teaching and can be the basis for improving it

When teachers have the abilities to observe themselves and the skills of

collecting data about their performance, they could then analyze the situations and

data they collected. Gaining the benefits of observations and collection of data are to

promote the teachers’ critical inquiry and sense judgment of their performance.

(Ruth 1992) “Engaging in reflective teaching takes time and efforts but the

rewards can be great. The following list summarizes reflective teaching processes:

- Questioning what, why, and how one does things and

asking what, why and how others do things.

- Seeking alternatives.

- Keeping an open mind.

- Comparing and contrasting.

- Asking “what if …?”

- Considering consequences.

- Seeking, identifying and resolving problems ”

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Reflective teaching is a useful method for teachers and student teachers to

generate and explore their concerns about the quality of their teaching and their

students learning. The outcomes of the adoption of this approach are fruitful.

“There is evidence that serious attention to reflective

teaching in college courses pays off. A study at Ohio

State University, reported by Appalachian Educational

Laboratory, examined two groups of teachers in the

graduate school of education. Members of the first group

were instructed to reflect weekly on what they were

learning and record their thoughts in a journal. Those in

the second group also kept journals, but in addition, they

were taught structured ways of reflecting were

encouraged to discuss their reflections with other

teachers. Researchers who compared the content and

style of the journals from both groups concluded that the

second group demonstrated a higher level of

understanding about reflective teaching and had more

thoughts about ways to put new ideas into classroom

practice”. (Black 2001)

It becomes obvious that the teaching process should be activated by

improving teachers’ performances and developing their practices. Teaching process

really needs a positive change. Because there is no perfect teaching method, it is

therefore important to think realistically about the practicalities of change. In

thinking through the changes the teacher would like to make, it is useful to ask

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oneself, what is important to me? Who needs to be involved? What is the time-scale?

How do I communicate the need for action? And other similar questions.

Most teachers seek to evolve their performance in order to do their

best towards their students either in schools or universities. Therefore, this

research is supposed to focus on the reflection in the teaching process, its

values, and why and how it is employed?

Islam asserts on the notion of reflection. The Holy Quran contains a

lot of instructions for man to think deeply in his life, and his behaviors. Islam

invites Muslims to be active in their life and to seek for good, so it stimulates

them to reflect on their actions and behaviors in order to be controlled by

right Islamic directions.

It is worth mentioning that the reflection process in teaching is a very

famous approach among western and non-Arab teachers either in schools or

universities. Thus, our school and university teachers need to pay the utmost

attention to their practices in their pursuit for bettering their performance and

experience.

The researcher hopes that this study be a guide for the teachers who

seek better performance and better results in their achievement and in their

students’. The researcher chooses this topic depending on some justifications

which are as follows:

- No research (at least in the Gaza Strip) has been dealt with the

reflective teaching approach.

- Improving teaching practices is important with regard to rapid

development.

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- Reflective teaching approach teaching approach is not used in a

standard form at schools and universities. This makes it necessary to

shed light on it

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The problem of the study will be addressed in the following major question:

What is the level of reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in

Gaza Universities?

The following minor questions emanate from the above major one:

1.2.1 Research Questions:

1- What is the level of background knowledge regarding the reflective

teaching approach among the student teachers of English in Gaza

universities?

2- What do the student teachers of English in Gaza universities think

regarding the value (importance) of the reflective teaching in their

teaching performances?

3- What is the Level of practicing the reflective teaching among the

student teachers of English in Gaza Universities?

4- Are there statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level

between the levels of background knowledge regarding the reflective

teaching of the student teachers of English in Gaza universities (The

Islamic University of Gaza – Al-Azhar University) due to the

university variable?

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5- Are there statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level

between the levels of thinking regarding the value (importance) of the

reflective teaching of the student teachers of English in Gaza

universities (The Islamic University of Gaza – Al-Azhar University)

due to the university variable?

6- Are there statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level

between the levels of practicing reflective teaching of the student

teachers of English in Gaza universities (The Islamic University of

Gaza – Al-Azhar University) due to the university variable?

1.3 Research Hypotheses

The primary research hypotheses of this study are:

1- There are no statistically significant differences between averages

in the background knowledge regarding the reflective teaching of

the student teachers of English in Gaza universities (The Islamic

University of Gaza – Al-Azhar University) due to the university

variable.

2- There are no statistically significant differences between averages

in levels of thinking regarding the value (importance) the reflective

teaching among the student teachers of English in Gaza universities

(The Islamic University of Gaza – Al-Azhar University) due to the

university variable.

3- There are no statistically significant differences between averages

of levels of practicing the reflective teaching of the student teachers

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of English in Gaza universities (The Islamic University of Gaza –

Al-Azhar University) due to the university variable.

1.4 Purpose of the Study:

1- To describe and measure the level of the background knowledge

regarding the reflective teaching approach among student teachers of

English in Gaza universities.

2- To describe and measure the level of the thinking regarding the

value (importance) of the reflective teaching approach among

student teachers of English in Gaza universities.

3- To describe and measure the level of practicing the reflective

teaching among the student teachers of English in Gaza universities.

4- To measure if there are statistically significant differences between

averages in the levels of background knowledge, the levels of

thinking and the levels of practicing the reflective teaching among

the student teachers of English in Gaza universities (The Islamic

University of Gaza – Al-Azhar University) due to the university

variable.

1.5 Significance of the Study:

Teachers seek to evolve their performance to do their duties efficiently and

professionally. In order to achieve this goal, teachers try to employ some approaches

or methods in teaching. Some western scholars of education advise teachers to

exploit reflection processes in their teaching to get more benefits and more positive

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results in their job. On the contrary, the Arab world in general, and Palestine in

particular seem to lack studies in this approach.

This study is supposed to focus on the importance of positive changes in the

teaching process by exploiting reflective teaching, by which teachers can develop

their professions and performances as well as evolving their students’ performances.

Therefore, the study will give a clear idea about the approach and its benefits in

developing the teaching process concerning the following groups:

a) Student Teachers and In-service Teachers:

The study is supposed to stimulate and help them to look critically at their

performance in the classrooms and try to give them some hints and signs to employ

this approach, reorganize their beliefs, and to reveal their roles in improving

education and teaching in the higher education institutions.

b) Faculties of Education in Universities:

The study is supposed to help them to increase their foci on this useful

approach in methodology courses.

c) Supervisors and Mentors:

The study is supposed to raise supervisors’ and mentors’ awareness of the

advantages of implementing this approach in our schools and their roles in this

process.

d) Palestinian Ministry of Education and Higher Education:

The study is supposed to explain this approach, its principles for teachers and

its role in improving the teaching process and the curricula of Palestinian schools.

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1.6 Definition of Terms:

- Reflection:

“ Is a careful thought about a particular topic ” (Collins Co-build Learner’s

Dictionary, 1996 p 918)?

- Reflective Teaching:

“Is a mode that integrates or links thought and action with reflection. It involves

thinking critically and analyzing one’s actions with the goal of improving one’s

professional practice” (Imel, 1992)

- Reflective Teaching:

Gierlinger, (1996) defined reflective teaching as “ is essentially grounded in action

research whose principal features are change and collaboration between researchers

and those researched ”

The Researcher Definition:

Taking the above definitions into consideration, the researcher would define

reflective teaching as “Taking time to think deeply about what we do in the

classroom as teachers. We (as teachers) can simply collect information by many

ways to form a clear and real idea about this, and then analyze and evaluate this

information in order to make some decisions which lead us to changes and

improvements in our teaching”

- Teaching Skills:

They “ are techniques that contribute to the academic development and perfection of

the individual. As techniques these skills have a procedural and functional

perspective.” (Mukalel, 1998 p.155)

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- Evaluation:

It is “ a systematic process of determining the extent to which instructional objectives

are achieved by pupils” (Nunan & Lamb, 2000 p. 230)

- Self-evaluation:

It is “ the ability of teachers to judge their own teaching honestly and to see clearly

how much learning is taking place in the class” (Doff, 1995 p. 278)

- Diary:

It is a “ book sometimes used in school by teachers as an account of class work and

homework done by pupils. The record is written either by teacher to describe the

collective work of the children…. ” (Page & Thomas, 1989 p. 104)

- Student Teacher:

A male or female student who will graduate from the faculty of education and

candidate to be a teacher in schools.

- Gaza Universities:

Institutions offer higher education for Palestinian students in the Gaza Strip and grant

Bachelor and master degree in most of science fields.

1.7 Limitations of the Study:

The study will be applied on and limited to male and female

student teachers of English in the faculties of Education in Gaza

universities (The Islamic University and Al- Azhar University Al-

Aqsa University) in the academic year 2004 – 2005.

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The researcher put aside the sample of Al-Aqsa University as he faced many

problems to apply his study on it. He thought that it would be difficult to apply the

study tools on Al- Aqsa University sample for the following reasons:

- The observer visited every student teacher just two times during the

year, so he/she will not be able to observe the student teacher twice

as the study required.

- Although the researcher obtained a permission from the Palestinian

Ministry of Education to allow cooperative teachers to observe the

student teachers in their schools, he thinks that it would be

impossible to obtain accurate data in such situations.

- The researcher tried to observe the students teachers by himself,

but he found that he must visit about twenty schools, so it would be

very difficult for the researcher to do that.

The main concern of this study is to explore the reflective teaching among

student teachers of English in Gaza universities in their performances.

It is worth mentioning that it can not be claimed that student teachers in this study

are representative of all sttudents at Gaza universities. Therefore, the generalizability

of the results are limited.

1.8 Summary This chapter viewed the background of the study by viewing an introduction,

statement of the problem of the study. In addition to that it focused on the hypothesis,

purposes and significance of the study. Finally, it mentioned the limitation of the

study and the definition of its terms.

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Chapter II

Section “A”

The Theoretical Framework

2.1 Introduction:

No one can deny the importance of the foreign language study in our life as a

society of students and teachers. It has great influences on their intellectual abilities.

Language study offers many benefits to learners in terms of improved

communicative abilities, cognitive development, cultural awareness, and job

opportunities.

Teachers seek to develop their abilities and improve their practice by using

reflective approach as a means of developing the classroom teaching process “over

the last decade there has been increasing interest in reflection as a tool for improving

practice in education. Numerous scholars have developed rationales,

conceptualizations and methods for encouraging reflection as an integral part of

classroom teaching and teacher education” (Merryfield 1993)

It could be said that the utmost end of the teaching process is to make student

learning possible. So, teachers should do their best to achieve this great goal.

Teachers who like to better their practice think of positive change continuously.

Thinking must be deep and directed as well as continuous in order to get the real

benefits. Thinking may also force or lead teachers to ask themselves very critical

questions such as What is important to me? Who needs to be involved? What

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resources do I need? What is the time scale? How do I communicate the need for

action?

It is known that teaching is a highly personalized job, no two teachers teach

in the same way. Every teacher has his/her own way, which can be developed, when

the teacher intends to do that. So, it could be said that any program for teachers’

development will not be useful unless the teachers intend to develop their practices .

Experience alone does not lead to effective teaching, as teachers need to activate this

experience during their job in order to be effective teachers. It may be useful for

teachers to try reflection as an approach to enhance their abilities and possibilities.

This shows us the important interplay between experience and reflection. This

interplay “influenced by the time of reflection, which has a dramatic impact on what

can be seen and acted on. Anticipatory retrospective and contemporaneous reflection

demand different skills and framing abilities and interact with experience in a variety

of ways” (Loughran 2002)

Changing for better situations is not a difficult mission. It requires an honest

intention, organized plan for change and then support from others who are involved

in teaching process. Teachers as human beings have natural intentions for change, so

it is easy for them to start change for good situation. Joyce (1997 p.397) says, “The

need to grow is built into the fiber of our being. We are impelled upward in a

developmental sense”. According to that, it becomes clear that intention to change

existed but it can not be activated without a complete and coherent plan and a

positive support in order to get the utmost benefits from change.

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The first gate for teacher to start change is observation, which leads to

evaluation, and then takes decision for change. Observation is a very useful process

to take a true and real picture of the situation and then evaluate it. Teachers need

observation in all its kinds during their practice. “We [as teachers] need to ascertain

the present and future significance, value or quality of our process work after

carefully studying the good and bad features of particular options” (Woodward, 1991

p. 217)

Student teachers always need to be under supervision, by expert teachers in

order to know their positive and negative practices. By supervision experience can be

transferred to the trainee who will be a teacher for real situation. “The aim [of

supervision] is usually to improve the trainees’ teaching skills and develop their

awareness of how student learn” (Gower and Philips, 1995 p. v)

Trainee teachers should accept to be under observation during their practice in order

to get the utmost benefit of training because observation is considered as the first

step to reach the excellence level. Trainee teachers should know more and more

about the methods of teaching and think continuously of improving those methods.

So, they should learn methodology in advance. Most colleges of education in most

universities designed a syllabus of methodology to enhance the concept of “HOW

TO TEACH” in order to make teachers more practical and more flexible to choose

the suitable way for teaching and then think to develop this way.

Teachers should plan to change for better to get rid of routine procedures in

teaching, (Stern, 1993 p. 25) asserts “sometimes students come to the language class

with very fixed ideas of what to expect from a teacher and what they think teaching

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should be like. Their view may be quite different from the self image that teachers

themselves wish to project”

Finally, it may become obvious how teachers need to learn about teaching,

improve their teaching ways and then put plans depending on the results of

observation, supervision and reflection.

If teachers test and observe their practice in order to advance their performance in the

classroom, they will be led to adopt the reflective approach. “Becoming reflective

[teacher] forces us to adopt a critical attitude to ourselves as individual foreign

language teachers to challenge our espoused personal beliefs about teaching”

(Richards and Nunan 1995 p. 213)

To develop any situation is a natural action for man. So active teachers try to

be main factors in the developing process as a result of their natural feeling “when

they produce their own materials, it is a response to the feeling that what is available

is not enough for the needs of their class” (Yalden 1994 p. 7)

Development in teaching field is not an easy process; it needs abilities and

possibilities that enable teachers to lead the process itself. It requires teachers to be

able to criticize themselves, evaluate their performance, observe their practice and

accept any change or criticism. “Development may be brought about by breaking our

own teaching rules or norms as a way of challenging what we have taken for granted.

It may involve trying out new ideas or changing the ways we use old ones. It may

involve investigating something that puzzles us or that we do not know about”

(Harmer 2001 p. 344)

Doubtless, adopting reflection in teaching makes teachers more active and

openminded. It will enforce them to seek overcome the problems they face and

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improve the situation they are involved in. “During the last decade the slogan of

reflective teaching has been embraced by teachers. Reflection can be seen as a

reaction against the view of teachers as technicians who narrowly construe the nature

of the problems confronting them and merely carry out what others want to do”

(Zeichner and Liston 1996 p. 4). It is worth mentioning that the development process

is a continual one. It lasts throughout the teachers’ jobs in order to get professional

growth. It has also become widely recognized that “the professional development of

teachers should be a continuous long-term process undertaken for and by all

teachers” (Tickle 1994 p.1)

Teachers will not get benefit from this process if it is not continuous because it is an

accumulative process; in other words, it means that every event relates to another

and depends also on another.

2.2 Reflective Practice: The Beginning

According to Zeichner and Liston (1996 p. 8), it is difficult to say when and

where exactly reflective practice for teachers originated, but the work of the

American educator John Dewey (1933/1958) greatly influenced an increase in its

popularity for US teachers. Dewey made many major contributions to educational

thinking. He was one of the first educational theorists in the United States to view

teachers as reflective practitioners, as professionals who could play very active roles

in curriculum development and educational reform.

“In the United States of the late 1970s and early 1980s, the idea of reflective

practice became fashionable through the works of Van Maren (1977), and Schon

(1983-1990) and Goodman (1984)” (Farrell 2004 p.16). In 1990s educators began to

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study and investigate the content of reflection, its principles, how teachers think

about their practice, and the features of reflection of various teachers.

It becomes clear that John Dewey and Donald Schon have a great influence

on the work concerning reflection theories and practices “Schon has written widely

about reflective practice highlighting its uses in several fields” (Zeichner and Liston

1996 p. 8).

2.3 What is Reflective Practice Teaching?

According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (1992)

“Reflect,” means “think deeply about or remind oneself of past events.

“Reflection” means “thought or memory of past events.

“Reflective” (of a person, need, etc) means “thoughtful”

According to Collins Co-build: Essential English Dictionary (1994)

“Reflect” over something “you think deeply about it”

“Reflection” “is thought, you can refer to your thoughts about something as your

reflections”.

According to Collins Co-build: Learner’s Dictionary (1996)

“Reflect” means “think deeply about something”

“Reflection” “is careful thought about a particular topic”

Reflective teaching “in which teachers and student teachers collect data about

teaching, examine their attitudes, beliefs, assumptions, and teaching practices and

use the information obtained as a basis for critical reflection about teaching”

(Richards and Lockhart 1997 p. 1)

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Reflective teaching is“ systematic and structured process in which we look at

concrete aspects of teaching and learning with the overall goal of personal change

and more effective practice” (Farrell 2004 p. 27)

2.4 Why Reflections?

The Benefits of Reflective Teaching

Many teachers already think about their teaching, they may talk with

themselves or with others “the lesson went well” “students seem to understand” or

“students have shown bad behaviors today”. However, with some focusing on or

discussing what has happened, they may conclude about why things happened.

Teachers may begin a process of reflection as a response to a particular

problem that has arisen in their classes, or simply as a way of finding out more about

their teaching. As a result of that they may decide to do something in a different way

or decide that what they are doing is the suitable way.

Reflective teaching “can positively affect professional growth and

development by leading to greater self awareness to the development of new

knowledge about professional practice” (Imel 1992). When teachers apply reflection

ideas during their work, they will overcome some problems, such as lack of time,

lack of expertise, lack of continuous support and fear of being weak teachers. “For

teachers who share these worries (problems) reflective teaching can provide a

potentially more private, and more manageable professional development alternative

[s]” (Bailey & Nunan 1996)

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All novices or experts teachers can benefit from becoming reflective ones.

They think about what they wish to accomplish in the classroom, why they have

chosen these goals or those, and how they wish to achieve these goals. So, they think

of these questions and do their best to achieve a satisfactory situation in teaching.

Reflection is not limited or applied to a specific discipline; some scholars

“have written about teacher reflection in science education and social studies”

(Merryfield 1993). In other words, reflection can be suitable to be applied in teaching

for any scientific discipline including teaching language. So, every teacher regardless

of what he/she teaches can get benefit from reflection in his/her teaching process.

Also, reflection can be a very effective means in improving practice in

teacher education. “Numerous scholars have developed rationales, conceptualizations

and methods for encouraging reflection as an integral part of classroom teaching and

teacher education” (Merryfield 1993).

Reflection practice improves quality of teacher’s work. So, in the recent

years, many educational programs of colleges have been interested in this approach

as a means of professional development. Reflection can take many forms, and deals

with an endless variety of issues. Teachers can use reflection for any situation in or

out of the class. They can think about their actions in a correct way in order to make

correct decisions.

There is a strong connection between reflection and professional development

especially among pre-service teachers, so many universities focus on reflection in

their pre-service teacher programs. This opportunity for the pre-service teachers

improves the quality of teaching. So “future teachers will enter their professional

lives with the skills necessary to continually ask themselves how they are meeting

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the needs of their students” (Ross 1998) as a result of focusing on reflection in their

educational programs during their studies in university.

The role of such programs is to assist pre-service teachers to identify and

diagnose practical problems and then help them to formulate their own solutions to

these problems, and thus assisting them to improve the quality of their work. In many

programs, efforts may be made for pre-service teachers to reflect upon their practice

as teachers at workshops or formal courses, pre-service teachers are asked:

* to reflect upon a particular aspect of their work (for example. a change process)

* to describe it (what the change was, how it was affected)

* to analyze it (in terms of a given framework).

* to share their descriptions and analyses with their fellow participants.

* to summarize their collective understanding of this aspect of their work (in other

words, the nature and experience of change) (Marshall 1998)

Doubtless, reflective teaching can facilitate pre-service teachers’ selection

from many ideas, help them to “confront and challenge their conception of teaching

and learning and their worldview, and assist them in learning how these affect their

professional development and classroom decision making” (Rodriguez 1998)

Pryke (2003) mentions that Schon cites four reasons to be put forward in

support of the notion that reflection interferes with action:

-There is no time to reflect when we are on the firing line, if we stop to think we are

dead.

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- When we think about what we are doing, we surface complexity which interferes

with the smooth flow of action. The complexity that we can manage unconsciously

paralyses us when we bring it to consciousness.

- If we begin to reflect-in-action, we may trigger an infinite regress of reflection on

action, then on reflection on action, and so on.

-The stance appropriate to reflection is incompatible with the stance appropriate to

action. (Pryke, 2003)

Richards concludes some benefits for reflection in teaching:

- It can help to achieve a better understanding of one’s own assumptions about

teaching as well as his/her own teaching practice.

- It can lead to a richer conceptualization of teaching and better understanding of

teaching and learning processes.

- It can serve as a basis for self-evaluation.

- It can be an important component of professional development.

- It enables teachers to feel more confident in trying different options and assessing

their effects on teaching.

- It helps teachers to discover whether there is a gap between what they teach and

what their learners learn. (Richards, 1997)

Reflection process can lead teachers to formulate their own theories depending on

past knowledge and present experiences. Zeichner emphasizes that “reflection also

signifies a recognition that the generation of new knowledge about teaching is not the

exclusive property of colleges, universities…etc. It is a recognition that teachers have

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ideas, beliefs and theories too, that can contribute to the betterment of teaching for all

teachers” (Zeichner & Liston 1996 p. 5)

2.5 Types of Reflection:

As mentioned earlier, there are several definitions of reflection and reflective

practice in the field of education. Some of those definitions did not take social

influence into consideration, and others included the influence of the social political

context of the teaching process as well as the schools and communities in which they

teach. Also, some educators say that teachers should reflect only in their classroom

whereas other educators say that teachers should reflect in and outside the classroom.

So it would be acceptable to find many types of reflection depending on points of

view of different educators.

Farrell (2004, p.22) concentrates on the actions of teachers towards their

classrooms, so he puts some types of reflection as follows:

a) Anticipatory Reflection:

Allows teacher to plan, decide a course of action and anticipate future

consequences of the actions.

b) Active or Interactive Reflection:

Allows teacher to make immediate decisions during class as events unfold.

c) Recollective Reflection:

Allows a teacher to make sense of past experiences and give new, deeper

insight into the meaning of those experiences.

d) Descriptive Reflection:

Involves describing a situation or problem.

e) Comparative Reflection:

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Involves thinking regarding the situation from different perspectives.

Teachers try to solve a problem while also questioning their values and beliefs.

f) Critical Reflection:

Involves teachers looking at all the different perspectives of a situation or

problem and at all of the players involved: teachers, students, the school and the

community.

The researcher summarizes and compares four major approaches to the study of

reflective practice:

g) Reflection-in-action:

Making decisions about events in the classroom as they happen. This practice

requires that the teachers employ a kind of knowing-in-action. This action triggers

spontaneousness, which means routine responses.

h) Reflection-on-action:

Thinking regarding one’s teaching after the class, giving reasons for one’s

actions and behaviors in class. This type involves thinking back on what was done to

discover knowing-in-action, may have caused an unexpected action. (Farrell, 2004 p.

28). Teachers in this type reflect on their actions after they have finished teaching

classes.

i) Reflection for Action:

It is a proactive thinking in order to guide future action. This type is different

from the previous types of reflection in that it is proactive in nature. It is the desired

outcome of both previous types of reflection. “It guides teachers to future actions.

Teachers can prepare for the future by using knowledge from what happened during

class and what they reflected on after class” (Farrell, 2004 p. 28) .

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j) Action Research:

Investigating in detail one topic related to one’s classroom teaching. Action

research and reflective teaching practice are closely connected. Action research is

one answer to the problematic reality that teacher’s voices are absent from the

research literature on teaching. Teachers should be as professional thinkers who can

pose and solve problems according to their educational practice. They can do that by

entering into a reflective cycle.

2.6 Levels of Reflection:

Once teachers have chosen a particular type of reflection, the next step or

question is to what extent do or should they reflect? Farrell (2004) asserts that

educators split reflective practice into three hierarchical levels as follows:

Level 1: Is action in the classroom. When teachers plan at the level of action, they

are concerned only with what they do in their classrooms.

Level 2: involves analyzing the reasons for the actions taken. It is also called

reflection at contextual level, what teachers focus on the theory behind their

classroom practices. They can then look into alternative practices they might prefer

to use depending on their students’ needs.

Level 3: encourages teachers to justify the work they do and reflect within the

broader context of society.

Other educators mentioned the same levels, but gave them different names, such as:

Level 1 called technical rationality, when teachers focus on their behaviors and skills

within the classrooms.

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Level 2 called reflection at contextual level, when teachers focus on the theory

behind their classroom practices. They can then look into alternative practices they

might prefer to use, depending on their students’ needs

Level 3 called critical or dialectical reflection, when teachers focus on the moral,

ethical and social issues associated with their practice.

It may be possible for teachers to reflect on different levels at the same time,

depending on the topic of reflection. Some new teachers may find themselves

reflecting at level 1 (the level of action – technical rationality) because they may not

have enough experience to reflect at level 2 (conceptual level) or level 3 (moral

level). The researcher thinks that level 1 is a normal level for new teachers. In time,

they will find themselves reflecting at each of the various levels.

2.7 Reflective Practice Process:

Steps of Reflections:

As mentioned earlier, reflective teaching means looking at what teachers do

in the classroom, thinking why they do it, and thinking if it works. By collecting

information about what goes on in the classroom, and by analyzing and evaluating

this information, teachers identify and explore their own practices, and this may lead

to positive changes and improvements in their teaching.

Many teachers think about their work, and may talk with colleagues about it.

They can decide “the lesson went well or not” or “their students understood the

lesson or not”. Reflective teaching implies a systematic process for thinking

regarding such matters and then going onto making changes.

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A teacher may begin a process of reflection in response to a particular

problem that has arisen in the classroom, or he/she decides to focus on particular

students, or look at a feature of his/her teaching. Reflective teaching is a cyclical

process because once the teacher starts to implement changes, then the reflective and

evaluative cycle begins again.

As a result of teachers’ reflection, they may decide to do something in a

different way, or they may decide to change something, or decide that what they are

doing is the best way. The goal of reflective practice is not necessarily to address a

specific problem, but to observe and refine practice in general on an ongoing process.

Many scholars and educators set some steps of reflection. All of them concentrate on

fundamental steps such as collecting data, analyzing it, reflecting on it and then

taking decision for positive change. The researcher tried to summarize the steps of

reflection in four steps. The first step is collecting descriptive data. Teachers need

detailed information on what is happening in the classrooms. They collect these data

through some data collection tools.

The second step is analyzing data. After they have collected data, teachers

can analyze them according to their attitudes, beliefs and goals. They may find

unexpected or surprising results. Teachers should be fair and objective when they

analyze these data. The third step is considering how the situation or activity could

have been different. Teachers need to examine how others solve or deal with similar

situations, and generate alternatives. Teachers should ask at this stage “what if…?”

this question would push and stimulate teachers to broaden their thinking and

reflection beyond the data they have collected. The last step is creating a plan that

incorporates new insights. Teachers must link information and insights, which were

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gained after analyzing the data, to changes they are making in the classroom. The

important thing is that teachers should incorporate their new insights in their ongoing

planning and continue in the reflective process.

Imel (1992) states that Peters describes a process called DATA that consists

of four steps: describe, analyze, theorize, and act. The first step is describing the

problem or the activity and the aspect of the practice which the teacher wants to

change or modify. The second one is analyzing the descriptive data identifying all

internal or external factors that affect the teaching process. The third step involves

theorizing alternative ways of teaching by taking the theory derived from the

previous step and developing it into a new one. In this step the teacher can develop

and adopt his/her own new theory. The last step is to act and try the new theory in the

teaching process. This will only occur through more thoughts and reflection.

When the teacher decides to investigate a problem. He/she starts to plan how

to investigate the ways of the problem solving. The teacher begins to know the

background of the problem, and then plans to collect data. When the data have been

collected, the teacher analyzes and reflects on them. After going through this process,

teachers will take more responsibility for the decisions they make in their classes.

Dinkelman (2003) summarizes the process on the light of Dewey’s theory of

reflective thinking. He asserts that the process of reflection represented by the steps

of confronting a puzzling situation, identifying the problem posed by that situation.

The teacher then forms a hypothesis about what might be done to solve that problem,

and then tests the hypothesis against the realization of desired ends.

Richards and Nunan (1995) set a number of principles that guide a process by

which teachers can become reflective. The researcher summarized them as follows:

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- The issue upon which the teacher reflects must be connected with its social contexts

- Teachers must be interested in the problem to be solved.

- Reflection involves problem solving from the teaching situation.

- Systematic procedures are very necessary.

- Collected information must be derived from the teacher’s experience of teaching.

- The teacher’s ideas need to be tested through the practice of teaching.

- Ideas about teaching must lead to some course of reflexive action.

Hence, reflexive action may be transformed into new concepts or understandings and

redefined practice in teaching. (Richards and Nunan 1995 p. 207)

Therefore, it can be concluded that reflection consists of systematic process. It is not

random actions. It consists of overlapped steps and actions which lead teachers to

their professional development.

2.8 Collecting Data (Information)

The reflective process depends completely on descriptive data collected by

teachers about a certain problem the teacher focuses on. So, collected data are the

core of the reflective process, as without data teachers can do nothing or find nothing

to deal with. “The reflective process can be facilitated in two important respects. The

first respect is in terms of how the professional action can be recalled so that it is

available for reflection. The second respect is in terms of how the professional action

can be most fruitfully analyzed as part of the reflective process.” (Wallace, 1994 p.

60)

Teachers can use several techniques to gather necessary information.

Gathering information needs experience and correct steps which teachers should

follow. The research focuses on all of these techniques which are as follows:

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* Teaching portfolios

* Teacher’s diary or Teacher’s Journal.

* Reflective Group Discussions.

* E-mail in discussion group.

* Lesson report.

* Reflective feedback.

* Audio or/and video recordings.

* Classroom Observation.

2.8.1 Teaching Portfolios:

The teaching portfolio is a narrative document in which the teacher concisely

organizes details of his/her teaching efforts and situations. It “offers selected

information about a teacher’s assigned responsibilities, philosophy, methods,

materials, classroom experiments, participation in workshops and other development

efforts and teaching goals” (Zubizarreta 1994). Teaching portfolio may also include

evaluation from students, peers, and supervisors as well as self-evaluation.

Zubizarreta (1994) asserts that teaching portfolios are becoming, perhaps, the

most effective tools in improving the instruction of both novice and experienced

teachers and in providing them with a supportive and convincing method of

evaluation.

Teachers who use teaching portfolios can take more responsibility for their

career development. Thomas Farrell (2004) describes the teaching portfolios as an

album, much like photo album, containing many aspects of teacher’s efforts, skills,

abilities, achievements, and contributions to student, colleagues, institutions,

academic disciplines and community.

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A teaching portfolio might include lesson plans, students’ projects, class

newsletters, annual evaluations, and letters of recommendation. It should be

remembered that the teaching portfolio is not one time snapshot of the present

position of teachers but it is a growing and continual gathering of selected and

recorded experiences, thoughts and goals. After collecting necessary information the

teachers must reflect on what they have put together and assess and evaluate their

current and future teaching plans.

2.8.1.1 Why Using Teaching Portfolios?

It is clear that a teaching portfolio is very important for teachers in their

development process. Some educators mentioned some benefits of teaching

portfolios, which the researcher summarizes them as follows:

1- “Teaching portfolios can provide teachers with opportunities for self reflection

and collaboration with colleagues in addition to opportunities to plan individual

professional development path” (Farrell 2004 p. 88)

2- “Novice teachers become more intentional in generating actual products of good

teaching, which makes students the real benefactors of the work that goes into a

portfolio” (Zubizarreta 1994)

3- “Portfolios have become the preferred way of getting an overview of teaching

quality and of making claims to take an approach to teaching. (Knight 2002 p.182)

4- “It provides insight into the nature of classroom and helps in modifying teachers’

behavior” (Chauhan 1995 p.139)

5- Teaching “portfolios help student teachers to remember classroom events more

fully and accurately, and focus their reflection on contents of specific aspects of their

teaching” (Borko & Michalec 1997)

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The researcher can add some benefits of teaching portfolios, such as:

- Teaching portfolios offer teachers a chance to get truly good looks at themselves, as

if they were looking into a mirror.

- They allow teachers to review the content; they can reflect on where they were,

where they are now and where they want to go.

- They are a resource of directions: They are considered a starting point for

development, as teachers create a plan for the future and set goals.

- They cultivate reflection and self-assessment.

2.8.1.2 Types of Teaching Portfolios:

Teaching portfolios comprise the following types,

a) The Working Portfolio:

Teachers use a working portfolio to document progress and development

regarding performance standards. The materials included in this type of portfolio are

intended to reflect work in progress and growth over time.

b) The Showcase Portfolio:

Teachers use this type to literally showcase a collection of exemplary

documents that highlight their best performance. Teachers can use this type to share

information about themselves with colleagues and administrators

c) The Critical Incident Portfolio:

Teachers use critical incident portfolio to document events they found and

faced. It may contain the event that happened and then the rationale for choosing this

topic and its solution. After that, teachers should document their reflective statement

concerning this critical incident.

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2.8.2 Teacher’s Diary or Teacher’s Journal:

Teaching journals are excellent tools to aid reflection. They are simple to

create and can promote the development of reflective teaching. Teachers as

individuals, pairs or groups can use teaching journals when reflecting on their work.

Teachers can write in their journals at any time of the day, during their attendance at

institution or after that. They can record criticism, frustration, questions, doubts,

suggestions and experiments.

A teaching journal records what happens in teacher’s life both inside and

outside of the classrooms. Teachers can revise these events later to make sense of

them so that they can better understand themselves as teachers.

2.8.2.1 Why Keep a Teaching Journal?

Educators have stated benefits of the teaching journal in their writing; the

researcher summarizes them as follows:

Lally and Veleba (2000) believe that:

- A reflective diary can help improve the normally poor communication between

student teachers and supervisors.

- Because the diary is a chronological record, any changes in goals and attitudes can

be traced through sequential entries.

- By keeping a concrete record of otherwise fleeting thoughts the student teachers

were able to organize and verbalize ideas for improving both their immediate and

future teaching.

Richards and Lockhart (1997) believe that:

- Writing a journal allows them to compare different reactions and re-evaluate the

predictions that were made based on what actually happened.

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- Writing a journal can provide an access to hidden effective variables that influence

the way teachers teach and students learn.

- Writing a journal provides a means of generating questions and hypotheses.

The researcher can add the following benefits of the teaching journal:

- Writing about teaching in a diary or journal can help organize teachers’ thoughts

into more systematic reflection about their work.

- It helps teachers to know themselves better and allow them to shape and reshape

themselves.

- It helps teachers to recognize and define the problem and then respond and solve it.

This will lead them to professional development.

- It gives teachers long enough time to reflect on their work.

2.8.3 Reflective Group Discussions:

Reflection on teaching can be done by individuals, pairs, and groups. It is the

teacher’s option. Some teachers prefer individual or personal reflection, which is a

basis for professional progress. Personal reflection is a quite spontaneous and

informal process. When the teacher has nothing to occupy his mind, certain actions

that happened in the classroom come to his mind and he starts puzzling about what to

do towards these actions.

It should to be clear that reflective group discussion has many expressions to

be mentioned. Some educators use several terms such as teachers’ group, group

talking, reflective conversation, collaborative discussion, and reflective

communications. On the opposite side, group discussion occurs when several

teachers come together to reflect on their work. When they are sitting for discussion,

it is important to address the issue or the problem which needs discussion.

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It is important for group to have a leader who orients the discussion, and addresses

the issue to be discussed. The leader of any sitting is the teacher who sets the topic to

be discussed by the group. In sitting of reflective group discussion all members are

encouraged to express their views in order to get benefit and reflect on their work.

Group discussion provides opportunities for teachers to stimulate their thinking and

increase their knowledge.

“They could come together to design their investigation, and to decide how it

is to be implemented and monitored in their different classrooms” (Allwright &

Bailey 1991 p. 199). Also, Harmer (2003 p. 349) asserts that “teachers’ group is one

of the most supportive environments for teachers where real teacher development can

take place in the small teachers’ group”.

As a group discussion is an informal discussion with colleagues who have

good relationships with each other, a teacher feels easy to contribute and share them

in discussion.

Any related topic can be discussed. When a teacher shares in discussion, they

may “wish to find a solution to a problem, confide a failure, get an idea to how to

teach something” (Ur, 1997, P. 320)

2.8.3.1 Why Group Reflective Discussion?

Based on mentioned above, reflective practice is a means for teachers to

examine their values and teaching ways, and then they must be presented with

opportunities that enable themselves to carry out the reflections correctly. One of

these opportunities is the reflective group discussion in which teachers talk to other

teachers on one or many topics related to their classes, teaching practice or their

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students. Teachers may find it more beneficial for them to share groups or teams to

discuss their teaching especially if the discussion occurs in a supportive atmosphere.

Educators have pointed out some benefits of reflective group discussion which the

researcher summarizes as follows:

- Faculty members can collaborate in a variety of ways (like group reflective

discussion) to enhance their teaching (Quinlan 1998).

- Tickle (1994 p.147) lists some benefits of reflective group discussion as follows:

Teachers can get great benefits from sharing the reflective group discussion. They

can be able to:

- Manage the unpredictable, considering options for action knowledge.

- Predict the outcome of actions learning.

- Make decisions in unfamiliar situations.

- Develop new teaching strategies.

2.8.4 Using E-mail in Discussion Group:

Teachers from many places can discuss their practices for reflection with

each other by using e-mails. Using e-mails in discussion reduces the vast distance

between the participants in discussion and save their time and efforts.

Although there are some obstacles preventing some teachers from sharing

groups, such as being ashamed, shy, nervous, having weak characters or not fluent in

presenting their issues or opinions, using e-mail in discussions overcomes them. By

using e-mail, ashamed teachers may feel comfortable to discuss their questions or

problems.

Besides the above advantages of using e-mails in the reflective group

discussion, the researcher can add additional advantages as follows:

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- They encourage ashamed, nervous, weak and not fluent teachers to share in

discussions.

- Any teacher can log on at any time to present his/her issue or to ask questions.

- Teachers from different places can discuss a topic via e-mail.

- Teachers may have good chance to arrange their ideas and to present them

consequently.

- Teachers can be in contact when their institutions are closed.

- E-mails can be used as documents to put them in teaching portfolios, in order to

revise them in case of need.

2.8.5 Lesson Report:

A lesson report describes what actually happened in the class in a certain

period from the teacher’s point of view. It differs from lesson plan because the lesson

plan mentions what teachers intend to do during a lesson. “A lesson report is a

structured inventory or list which enables teachers to describe their recollections of

the main features of a lesson” (Richards and Lockhart, 1997 p. 9)

Lesson report serves teachers as a useful record of many important features of

the lesson. Teachers should write lesson report as the lesson went. They should write

just what happened in the class with concise comments in order to get benefits in

another position.

2.8.6 Reflective Feedback:

As mentioned earlier, the reflection process depends completely on collected

information about the teaching process. Getting or asking for feedback is one of the

procedures of collecting information.

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Some teachers may find difficulty to accept the feedback that relates to the

real situation. Teachers should accept feedback even it contains negative points

towards them. “The feedback may be difficult for you at the first time, but the end

result of increased honesty, openness and mutual respect will almost certainly have a

great long-term benefit” (Scrivener, 1998 p. 196)

Brinko (1993) mentioned “teachers can get feedback from two sources. They

may get feedback from individuals who make an evaluative judgment on the teacher,

such as students, peers, colleagues and supervisors. They also may get it from data

which were generated by their performance such as audio and video recordings,

objective observation, students achievement scores”.

Teachers can get feedback from their students by asking them what they

really think about the lesson or the teacher himself/herself. In most cases students

can give a real picture about the teaching process which contains evaluation of

teaching methods and the teacher behaviors.

Harmer (2001 p. 346) suggests interviewing some students about activities,

materials, techniques and procedures, in order to get feedback. Nunan and Lamb

(2000, p. 244) mentioned a technique that they have used successfully. This

technique called “action meeting” was conducted by members of the class without

the teacher being present in order to review the progress of their course, to record

what they liked as well as what they would like more in the future.

The teacher can also get feedback from colleagues by asking them to come in

class and observe some of his/her lesson, and do an exchange observation with them,

not to judge each other but to learn from each other.

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Some educators mention that some aspects of teaching could be investigated

through carrying out a survey or administering a questionnaire (for example.

investigation of students’ attitudes towards group work). “Questionnaires and

checklists can help to externalize the teaching process and provide objective data on

the teaching process” (Nunan and Lamb, 2000 p. 236). “Survey and questionnaires

are useful ways of gathering information about affective dimensions of teaching and

learning, such as beliefs, attitudes, motivation, and preferences. They enable teachers

to collect a large amount of information relatively quickly” (Richards and Lockhart

1997 p. 10)

Brinko (1993) mentions some characteristics and practices relative to the source of

feedback which tend to increase the effectiveness of feedback. The researcher

summarizes them as follows:

v Feedback is more effective when information is gathered from a number of

sources.

v Feedback is more effective when information is gathered from oneself as well as

from others.

v Feedback is more effective when the source of the information is perceived as

credible knowledgeable and well-intentioned.

v Feedback is more effective when the source of feedback is lower or equal in

status to the feedback recipient.

v Feedback is more effective when mediate by a consultant.

v Feedback is more effective when the consultant is authentic, respectful,

supportive, empathic and able to keep consultations confidential.

v Feedback is more effective when conveyed in a variety of modes,

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v Feedback is more effective when it contains accurate data and irrefutable

evidence.

v Feedback is more effective when it contains concrete information.

v Feedback is more effective when it contains specific data.

v Feedback is more effective when it is focused.

v Feedback is more effective when it focuses upon behavior rather than on the

person.

v Feedback is more effective when it is descriptive rather than evaluative.

v Feedback is more effective when it contains model for appropriate behaviors.

v Feedback is more effective when given as soon as possible after performance.

2.8.7 Using Audio or/and Video Recordings:

A teacher can carry out observation alone, with another teacher or with a

group of teachers. Teachers may need to use some equipment such as tape recorders

or video recorders to observe their own teaching in the class. “Videotape and

audiotape are especially useful precise observation tasks since they allow us to watch

and/or listen to events repeatedly”. (Harmer, 2003 p. 346)

Audio and video recordings can provide teachers with a vast amount of

information about classroom events. Teachers “can use the video for any level and

use a whole range of techniques to make the most of it, but (they) should not over-

use the video” (Riddell, 2001 p. 234)

Video or audio recordings of lessons can provide very important information

for reflection. Many spontaneous events can only be observed by video or audio

recordings. These recordings can give a real and objective picture of what really

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happens in the class. Teachers can observe themselves in their classes, they may do

things in class they are not a ware of, or there are things happening and the teachers

do not see them.

Some educators advise teachers to see the recordings of their class

immediately to observe themselves “the process (seeing the recordings) is best

carried out immediately after the class in question, so that events are as fresh in the

memory as possible” (Wright, 1988 p. 153)

Like any procedures, audio or/and video recordings have some advantages

and disadvantages. Some educators mentioned some advantages. The researcher

summarizes the audio and videotape advantages as follows:

- They can be transcribed totally or partially.

- They give teachers a better chance of observing patterns in their teaching.

- They help teachers explore all aspects of their teaching.

- They provide opportunity to identify exactly who says what, and how teachers and

students interact with each other.

- They help teachers to gauge the effects of the change, when teachers decide to

change something for the sake of variety.

- They can be used easily, and a recording process can be carried out easily too.

On the other side, using audio and video recordings has disadvantages. Richards

and Lockhart (1997) mention two of these advantages as follows:

- It can’t be possible to capture all events in the class; where as other events are very

necessary but not recorded.

- This type of activity can never become an activity continued on a day-to-day basis.

It will only be applied on special occasions.

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Farrell (2004) mentions other disadvantages as follows:

- Both teacher and students may need some time to get used to having a video

camera in the classroom.

- Teachers should place a video camera in each class for a significant period of time.

- If teachers and students do not get comfortable with the camera, the gathered data

could be heavily influenced by bad effects.

2.8.8 Classroom Observation:

It is known in the previous topics that there are many methods and sources to

gather information. Classroom observation is one of the rich and important sources

for gathering information about class events. “Observation involves visiting a class

to observe different aspects of teaching”. (Richards and Lockhart, 1997 p.12).

Observation by supervisors may cause fear or negative feelings for some teachers. “It

seems that many teachers go on the defensive when they hear that they are going to

be observed while teaching” (Farrell, 2004 p. 59)

On the other side, there are many teachers who like to be observed, as they

will receive valuable feedback on their teaching that will help them grow as teachers.

The researcher think that to get rid of teachers’ fear or bad feelings, observers should

take care in gathering descriptive information about teaching methods rather than

making evaluation or judgments. “The observer cannot, nor does he/she wants to

observe them all. He/she pays attention only to those events that are significant from

his/her point of view” (Stern, 1990, P. 493)

Richards and Rodgers (1995 p.161) assert “Observational data refer to

recorded observations of methods as they are being taught”

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Brown and Atkins (1988) mention some roles of supervisors that can take

them in observation methods. The researcher summarizes them as follows:

- Director (determining topic and method, providing ideas)

- Facilitator (providing access to expertise)

- Adviser helping to resolve problems, suggesting alternatives

- Teacher (of research techniques)

- Guide (giving feedback on progress)

- Critic (of interpretations of data)

- Freedom giver (helps teachers to make decisions and support them)

- Supporter (gives encouragement, shows interest)

- Friend (concerns on non academic aspects of teacher’s life)

- Manager (gives systematic feedback and plan work)

(Brown and Atkins 1988, P. 120)

Allwright (1993) asserts that “systematic classroom observation came into

teacher training originally as an answer to the problem faced by supervisors who had

to evaluate their trainees’ classroom performance”.

2.8.8.1 Purposes of Observation:

There are a number of different purposes for observation. Wajnryb (1993)

mentioned several purposes. The researcher summarizes them as follows:

- Giving teachers some guidance to the professional growth and development

- Helping teachers gain a better understanding of their own teaching.

- Teachers become more aware of what they actually do in the class.

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2.8.8.2 Types of Observation:

a) Self-observation

Any teacher can carry out the classroom observation alone. Teachers can

observe themselves by looking at what goes on in their classrooms. Individual

teachers can only observe themselves by using audio and/or video recordings. Later,

they can describe, analyze and interpret the information they have recorded.

“In order to evaluate themselves, teachers must learn to observe themselves

by careful planning before the lesson, followed by careful reflection after the lesson

on what actually took place “ (Doff, 1988, p. 278)

b) Peer Observation

When teachers become more confident in observing their classes with using

audio or video recording, they may want to share their findings with other teachers

by discussing what they observed or noted.

Such discussion can lead to peer observation. Peer observation occurs when a

teacher invites a colleague to come into class to collect information about his/her

lesson, and observe him/her carefully. In this case observation should have a focus.

“The value of observation is increased if the observer knows what to look for”

(Richards & Lockhart 1997 P. 24)

2.9 Characteristics of a Reflective Teacher:

Norton (1997) states that Pollard & Tann identify some characteristics of a

reflective teacher. The researcher summarizes them as follows:

1- An active teacher concerns with aims and consequences, both in classroom

practice and beyond including social and political situation, which has great

influence on teaching process.

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2- A teacher has competence in the techniques of classroom enquiry,

particularly the competence of gathering information, analysis and

evaluation.

3- A teacher has key personal characteristics, which contribute to the

commitment of the teacher. He/she is an open-minded, responsible and

wholehearted teacher.

4- A teacher judges himself/herself by self-reflection and insights from across

the whole educational spectrum.

5- A teacher collaborates with colleagues, collaboration produces discussion

and action together with reflection.

6- A teacher looks at classroom problems from many perspectives.

7- A teacher involves in willingness to engage in constant self-appraisal and

development.

8- A teacher realizes the right connection between school and real life.

9- A teacher develops a sense of community among their students.

10- A teacher reflects critically on the moral, political, social and economic

dimensions of education.

11- A teacher perceives mistakes as developmental, part of the process of trial

and error leading to success.

12- A teacher who is able to develop collaborative professional relationships.

13- A teacher who is more independent, he/she is self-directed teacher.

14- A teacher has long-term views.

15- A teacher differentiates between teacher’s roles and learner’s.

16- A teacher who is a strategic and an imaginative thinker.

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17- A teacher who is able to make right decisions.

18- A teacher assists less experienced teachers with their professional

development.

19- A teacher prefers to work with group as a team.

20- A teacher is expected to continue with professional growth.

21- A teacher can look back on events and make judgments about them.

22- A teacher may have positive influence on the educational system in which

he/she works.

23- A teacher reflects on his/her theories, values and beliefs about teaching.

24- A teacher engages in group reflective discussions.

25- A teacher reads what others have said about various aspects of teaching.

26- A teacher who is curious about some aspects of the practice sitting.

27- A teacher frames the aspects in terms of the particulars of the setting.

28- A teacher reframes that aspect in the light of past knowledge or previous

experience.

29- A teacher develops a plan for future actions.

30- A teacher attempts to solve dilemmas in classroom.

31- A teacher who is attentive to the institutional and cultural context in which

he/she teaches.

32- A teacher takes parts in curriculum development and involves in school

change efforts.

2.10 Characteristics of Reflective Practice

Educators suggest the following characteristic modes as performance

standards for teaching and assessing knowledge, skills and dispositions that can

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reasonably and validly be associated with the nature of reflective practice: The

researcher summarized them as follows:

1- The mode of reflective practice is technical; the reflective process avails itself

of technology as a way of knowing means for discovering, collecting and

analyzing.

2- The mode of reflective practice is inferential; empirical research beyond

descriptive studies is valuable in deriving technical knowledge of teaching

effectiveness.

3- The mode of reflective practice is intuitive; it involves inductions as a mental

process and the disposition to look beyond simplistic or routine explanations

and answers.

4- The mode of reflective practice is deliberate; professional knowledge and

professional experience are mediated through the context and understandings

of the actual professional situations.

5- The mode of reflective practice is dialectical; it helps educators recast,

reframe past understandings so as to generate fresh appreciations of research

knowledge.

6- The mode of reflective practice is critical; understands diversity in terms of

social relations, equal treatment and equal opportunity as a function of

teaching and learning.

7- The mode of reflective practice is ethical; it is valuing and respecting for all

people, it embraces diversity.

8- The mode of reflective practice is active; it embodies praxis, the complete

and effective use of theory and experience directed into effective practice.

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2.11 Reflection as an Islamic Concept

As Islamic culture covers all aspects of life and deals with all thoughts and

concepts, reflection is one of these concepts which Islam focuses on it as a means of

development for individuals as well as for all Muslims.

As development does not come without intention for change, Islam motivate

us to modify our beliefs, minds, tendencies and emotions to be in the right way, in

order to gain pleasure in both life as well as in the doomsday. So, it can be noticed in

the Holy Quran when Allah says “Allah will not change the (good) conditions of a

people as long as they do not change their state (of goodness)” (The Holy Quran -

Ar ra’d/10) which means that Allah will not change man's situation (either bad or

good) unless he/she wants to engage in the change process. This verse focuses on the

main role of man in his development towards better situations.

A lot of verses in the Holy Quran stimulates man to think deeply in main

topics, such as how Allah creates him, the earth, the sky, the mountains, and the seas.

“Those who remember Allah (always, and in prayers) standing, sitting, and

lying down on their sides, and think deeply about the creation of the heavens

and the earth, (saying): “Our Lord! You have not created (all) this without

purpose, glory to You! (Exalted are you above all that they associate with You

as partners). Give us salvation from the torment of the Fire” (The Holy Quran -

Al-Imran/191) and says “Do they not think deeply (in their ownselves) about

themselves (how Allah created them from nothing, and similarly He will

resurrect them)? Allah has created not the heavens and the earth, and all that is

between them, except with the truth and for an appointed term” (The Holy

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Quran - Ar-Rum/8). So, man is required to reflect on these topics to increase his faith

and to be in harmony with universe.

As it is mentioned earlier in the theoritical framework that reflection notion

depends on self-evaluation, which means how man looks at himself, how he appraise

his actions and deeds. Islam asserts on the concept of self-evaluation, as "one of the

instruments of character building and perhaps the most valuable is Ihtisab or self-

appraisal and self-criticism" (Abu Ameenah).

Our prophet Mohammad (may the blessing and peace of Allah be upon him)

motivates Muslims to appraise themselves according direction of the Holy Quran as

well as his directions "Sunnah". Abu Ameenah says "In appraising our behaviors we

should be harsh on ourselves while being lenient on others. The best method of self-

criticism… is to devote just two or three minutes before going to bed each day for

evaluation". Also, Umar Ibn Al-Khattab (may Allah bless him) says “Hold yourself

accountable before you are held accountable and weigh your deeds before they are

weighed for you”

The researcher thinks that Muslims should ask themselves critical questions

in order to evaluate themselves. Such as, did they offer their five daily prayers

(Salah) on exact time? Are they satisfied with the quality (khusho') of their prayers

(Salah)? and they can ask another questions related to different duties, and then they

can know and measure their levels of practicing and their quality level of these

practices.

Muslim, also is required to offer advise for others, and to accept their ones.

Our prophet Mohammad (may the blessing and peace of Allah be upon him) said:

“Religion is sincerity. We said: To whom? He said: To Allah and His Book, and His

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Messenger, and to the leader of the Muslims and their common folk”. (related by

Muslim),(An-Nawawi, 1979 p.44) It means that Muslim should give guidance for

the other, which the researcher can call it as peer observation which is considered as

a tool of gathering information for self-reflection. In addition to that the Holy Quran

warns Muslims who do not accept the others’ advise “And when it is said to him

“Fear Allah”, he is led by arrogance to (more) crime” (The Holy Quran - Al-

Baqarah/206). It means if the advise is good in its content and presented in a good

way, Muslim has no choice except to accept it, so we can remember Omar Ibn Al-

Khattab when he said “May Allah be merciful towards man who tells me my faults”.

So, it can be said that Islam asserts on observation and its results in order to reflect

on one's behaviors to be changed to the better.

Islam motivates Muslims to correct their behaviors in the light of islamic

rules. So, all Muslims are required to get rid of bad beliefs, bad actions and bad

behaviors and they have to have right and sound ones. Reflection in order to correct

is very necessary in Muslim life, because he/she will be in harmony with the

universe, people and his/her self. Our prophet Mohammad (may the blessing and

peace of Allah be upon him) used to to observe his companions continuously in

order to teach them, to develop their behaviors. He ((may the blessing and peace of

Allah be upon him) tried to correcttheir mistakes and faults either directly or

indirectly.

Abu Daff (2005) mentioned some characteristics of correctness (of man’s

actions and behaviors) in Islam. The researcher summarizes them as foolows:

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- It depends on obligation and commadment, it means that there is choice for

Muslims except to control and correct their behaviors as well as their

families’.

- It depends on self-initiative, it means that every Muslim should evaluate and

better his/her behaviors before asking any one else to do the same.

- It is istant, it indicates that Muslims should correct their wrong behaviors or

faults immediately. The researcher thinks that is similar with “reflection-in-

action” which means the teacher corrects or solves the problem

immediaately in the class.

- It is a collaborative process, that mentions to all Muslims are supposed to

cooperate with each other to correct and modify their actions and behaviors.

- It depends on scientific directions, it means that only knowledge and

experience control it. It does not depend on haphazard directions

Thinking and planning are important principles in Muslim's life. Our prophet

Mohammad (may the blessing and peace of Allah be upon him) advised Muslim to

utilize all possibilities and abilities to better his life. He said "Take advantages of five

things before five others happen: your youth before your grow old, your health

before your fall sick, your money before your become poor, your leisure before you

become busy, and your life before you die" The prophet Mohammad (may the

blessing and peace of Allah be upon him) said this according to Amr Ibn Maymun

as recorded by Tirmidli). This Hadith shed the light on the importance of reflection

and planning. How Muslim should plan for their lives, how they got benefit from

what they have meanwhile the others have not. The researcher thinks that this is a

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clear invitation from our prophet Mohammad (may the blessing and peace of Allah

be upon him) for us to be reflective in our life.

The researcher thinks that Ramadan (month of Fasting) is a very effective

station for reflection. Most of Muslims used to rearrange their life in Ramadan. The

researcher thinks that they try to establish resolutions and habits that they hope to

keep. If they want to continue those habits, they need to take a careful look at

themselves and evaluate where they have been, where they want to go and how to get

there. It can be said that Ramadan is a time of self-evaluation; during it Muslims can

assess their present state in different aspects of life and how they can improve them.

The researcher can conclude that Islam asserts on the reflection nation as a

means for positive change, development for individuals and groups and advancement

in all life aspects. (Ahmed, 2003) asserts that " Islam places a great deal of emphasis

on self-development where an individual takes the responsibilities for understanding

the purposes of human life, and for shaping that life in the best possible manner, for

one's own benefit and the benefit of the society at large; Islam also provides

comprehensive guidance to achieve this goal" . Islam determines that “human

development consists of processes of growth and change that takes place from birth

to the end of life” (ahmad, 2003).

2.12 Reflective Practice: Criticisms and Cautions:

Black (2002) asserts that reflection without an understanding of the rules or

techniques that constitute good practice may lead to a repetition of mistakes, whereas

reflection without philosophical awareness can lead to a preoccupation with

techniques”

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Farrell (2004) asserts that “a number of scholars have urged caution as to the

applicability of reflective practice in education”. Farrell mentions that Jackson argues

that “if they (reflective teachers) did possess the skill for reflection, it is doubtful that

they would perform with greater efficiency in the classroom”.

The researcher can conclude that having the skills of reflection process does not

mean having the key of success. It depends on different factors. So, it should be clear

for teachers who want to develop their practice that they must have skills for

reflection as well as skills for being good teachers.

2.13 Difficulties with Reflective Teaching:

There are many difficulties with reflective teaching to be applied or achieved.

Some scholars mentioned some difficulties. The researcher summarized them as

follows:

v The major problems in reflective teaching would be an over emphasis on

the technical aspects of action research. It almost distracts from the central

questions of the purpose. “Technique of analyzing teaching behavior has been

involved to improve classroom teaching” (Chauhan 1995, p. 139)

v The teachers’ personal and public theories about language teaching may

not harmonize with each other. “I recognize myself as a changing individual

in a changing world; I change my thought as my thought changes me”

(McNiff 1995 p. 15)

v Professional weakness of some teachers may stop them to try reflection in

their performance. “Teacher should have lots of knowledge, not only of his

subject” (Harmer 1998, p. 2)

Gierhinger (1996) mentioned some difficulties as follows:

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v The routine of teaching process (the same school, the same textbook, and

the same level of knowledge) can influence negatively on teachers’ desire to

start reflection.

v Some teachers see reflective teaching as a one-off project not as series of

reflective cycles in which each step is planned with a realistic and local goal

in mind.

v Frustration of some teachers prevents them from involving in any

activities including reflection in their teaching.

v Discouragement of non-reflective teachers may force reflective teacher to

be frustrated.

v Some teachers see reflective practice as another overload job, which

requires time and efforts. This view may force some teachers not to reflect.

v Carelessness of institution administrators or Ministries of Education with

reflection as a valuable approach may force teachers to be more negative

towards it.

2.14 Summary

In the section, the researcher attempts to shed the light on the theoretical

framework of the present study. At the beginning of this section, the researcher

mentioned to the history of the reflective practice and benefit of reflection, its types,

its levels, and its steps. Also, techniques and methods of collecting data were

discussed. In addition to that, the researcher attempts to summarize the

characteristics of reflective teaching as well as reflective teaching. Also, reflection

from Islamic perspective was discussed. At the end of this chapter some criticisms

and difficulties and cautions regarding applying this approach were discussed.

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Section “B"

Literature Review

Introduction

This section aimed at reviewing 21 previous studies related to the current

study. Through investigation, the researcher found that these studies deal with

reflection teaching as a concept and its importance and effects, while the other deal

with its impact of its techniques or tools of gathering information.

Dinkelman’s (2003) study “Self-study in Teacher Education: A Means and

Ends Tool for Promoting Reflective Teaching” advanced a five-part theoretical

rationale for the use of self-study to promote reflective teaching, while selectively

drawing on the experiences of teacher educators and researchers who have reported

results of studying their own practice.

Self-study means an intentional and systematic inquiry into one's own

practice. Included in this definition is inquiry conducted by individual teacher

educators as well as groups working collaboratively to understand problems of

practice more deeply. In this study, an attempt is made to build a broader case

grounded in more than anecdote. The study asserts that self-study is a powerful tool

that can be employed to serve any number of purposes in the preparation of teachers.

The rationale described in this study suggests that self-study by teacher

educators serves some ends better than others. This argument for self-study builds on

the claim, that the ability of teacher educators to support reflective practice in

schools is dependent on the extent to which they operate as reflective practitioners

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themselves. Self-study systematizes, channels, and gives form to such reflection.

Understood in this sense, there is little surprise that the growing interest in self-study

of teacher education practices has paralleled the increasing popularity of reflective

teaching among those educating new teachers.

Giovannelli’s (2003) study “Relationship between Reflective Disposition

toward Teaching and Effective Teaching” determines if a relationship exists

between teacher candidates' reflective disposition toward teaching and the extent to

which they exhibited effective teaching behaviors in the classroom.

Hence, the main research question underlying this study was: Do elementary

education undergraduate teacher candidates who exhibit a reflective disposition

toward teaching also exhibit effective teaching behaviors as perceived by their

university field instructors? The working hypothesis of this study then is that teacher

candidates who use a reflective disposition toward teaching are considered to be

effective teachers by their university supervisors.

The sample for this study comprised elementary education undergraduates

(from a major Urban Public Midwestern University) who were teacher candidates

completing their last semester of work prior to receiving their bachelor of arts degree

in elementary education and becoming certified teachers. The program represented a

2-year commitment. The initial sample consisted of 69 undergraduates.

The study was based on a theoretical framework that explores the possibility

that a reflective disposition toward teaching is related to effective teaching. The

reflective disposition variable for this study was defined as making decisions and

formulating ideas about educational goals, practices, and outcomes that are subjected

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to careful reconsideration in the light of the information from the current theory and

practice.

The results of this study suggest that a reflective disposition toward teaching

made a small but statistically significant contribution to effective teaching. However,

in terms of the standardized coefficients in this study, which were all relatively large,

results suggest that reflective disposition had a fairly strong influence on effective

teaching.

Nonetheless, this study contributed to the literature by affording a better

understanding of the nature of reflective disposition toward teaching and its

relationship to effective teaching and by providing a way in which this can be

measured and facilitated.

Pryke’s (2003) study “Education Officers as Reflective Practitioners”

draws on research literature to address the question: would reflective practice make

education officers more effective in supporting school improvement? Can deep and

rigorous reflection in action, leading to defining of operational methods in action,

add sufficient value to the work of education officers for it to become an element of

their continuing professional development?

The study asserts that Education officers and other professionals do reflect,

without apparent paralysis, as they act. In this way they reinforce their knowledge-

in-practice. Thus they sustain and develop their professionalism

From this it can be argued that practical wisdom is at the heart of the work of

the education officer. Development of that wisdom may be possible through

reflective practice

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If education officers are to gain their proper role in the new scheme of things

and to increase their effectiveness we should explore all avenues, including reflective

practice. In this way, like the carp, education officers could achieve optimum

interaction with their environment.

Stiler and Philleo’s (2003) study “Blogging and Blogspots: an Alternative

Format for Encouraging Reflective Practice among Preservice Teachers”

explored the advantages of experimenting with an online journal. It was the

researchers’ opinion that online journaling offered the following options: a state-of-

the art format that may increase student enthusiasm in journal writing; an increase in

both the quality and quantity of student output; an increased potential for teacher-

mediated input; and the potential for future extensions to include the addition of links

to illustrative websites and other options offered by web-based learning.

After some exploration, an innovative, no-cost online web log service called

Blogger was selected. This study describes the background and approach used in this

initiative, a student evaluation of Blogger, an assessment of student outcomes, and

suggestions on how these experiences may benefit students and preservice educators.

The researchers effort to offer an online journal for preservice teachers came as a

result of our prior experiences with technology-based options.

Journal writing can be a difficult and painful process. The researcher stated

that one of the main objectives of teacher-mediated journaling is to help students

overcome the fear of writing. Once the initial fear is reduced, other objectives of

subsequent importance may be achieved. These objectives include efforts to enhance

student ability to reflect critically on teaching and learning and to promote journaling

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as routine reflective practice. With regard to the application of Blogger to these

objectives, several options are suggested as outcomes of this initial assessment.

Loughran’s (2002) study “Effective Reflective Practice: in Search of

Meaning in Learning about Teaching” examines the value of reflection as a

meaningful way of approaching learning about teaching so that a better

understanding of teaching and teaching about teaching might develop. For reflection

to lead to valuable learning outcomes for teacher educators and their students, the

researcher believes that it must be effective reflective practice.

The study asserts that how a student teacher engages with his or her actions

within the practice setting, through reflection on those actions, must shape the

possibilities for seeing as a result of experience. Reflection on experience enhances

learning through experience such that divergent rather than convergent learning

outcomes are encouraged.

Effective reflective practice involves careful consideration of both "seeing"

and "action" to enhance the possibilities of learning through experience.

This study has attempted to show how an appropriate focus on experience in teacher

education can be influential in the development of effective reflective practice and

how effective reflective practice might be important in the development of one's

professional knowledge.

Challenging this distinction between theory and practice is important, and a

conceptualization of effective reflective practice is one way of beginning to help

teacher preparation programs integrate in meaningful ways.

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Mastrilli and Sardo-Brown’s (2002) study “Novice Teachers' Cases: A

Vehicle for Reflective Practice” proposed that novice teachers would benefit from

the use of cases, which contain a brief description of the practical problems and

related decisions they face as they commence their careers

The purpose of the present study was to contribute to the knowledge base

regarding novice teachers' cases. Recent research has suggested the period of novice

teaching should be considered to span the first five to seven years of practice

The 17 novice teachers who participated in the study all attended the same

mid-sized state university. All 17 attended a three-credit graduate workshop in

educational psychology in which they were required to write case dilemmas during

the summer of 1999.

In the survey the sample shared how this activity could be utilized to aid

novice teachers in their transition into the teaching profession. The survey also asked

the sample to share advice for other novice teachers involved in case dilemma

writing as well as recommendations for how to modify the present assignment.

With regard to how the writing and discussion of case dilemmas could help

novice teachers during the first years of teaching, the sample's most common

response entailed using the dilemmas as a vehicle for discussion between novice

teachers and their assigned mentor teachers. Several subjects of the sample also

proposed that case dilemma writing and discussion could be utilized by a teaching

team in the process of developing strategies for working with difficult students or in

cross-departmental meetings to heighten teacher awareness of issues particular to

certain content areas

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This study seems to indicate that novice teachers may often encounter a wide

variety of dilemmas during the novice period of their careers. If replicated with

larger samples, the nature of these dilemmas may often involve behavioral

management concerns, interventions with students in academic difficulty, and

negotiating with parents who disagree with school policy. These data also suggest

that while novice teachers may be most likely to employ behavioral solutions to the

dilemmas they face, they are more likely than student teachers to involve both other

school personnel and parents in the implementation of these solutions.

The significance of these findings is that in-service teacher educators need to

address the use of multiple solutions to common dilemmas which go beyond the use

of behavioral strategies such as the use of brain-based learning strategies These data

also indicate that in-service programs should stress how to foster better

communication with parents and other school personnel. In addition, it may be useful

for in-service teacher educators to promote the use of culturally relevant techniques

as solutions to classroom dilemmas

This study also suggested that having novice teachers both write and discuss

case dilemmas might serve to facilitate relationships between novice teachers and

mentor teachers.

In addition, this activity may improve decision-making involving either teams

of teachers or teachers and other school support staff. Future studies might

investigate the efficacy of using case dilemmas written by novice teachers in

conjunction with planned in-services as well as the use of case dilemmas to

document longitudinal changes in teacher growth during the first years of teaching.

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Klenowski’s (2000) study “Portfolios: Promoting Teaching” based on the

findings of a study that examined the use of portfolios for assessment and learning

purposes in an initial teacher education course in the Hong Kong Institute of

Education. Progressive refocusing of the research led to an investigation of the extent

to which the use of portfolios for such purposes promoted the development of

reflective practice and teaching skills. Six principles that underpin the use of

portfolios for assessment purposes, that emerged from an analysis of the research

data and findings, are briefly described.

This study has investigated the process of implementing portfolios in pre-

service teacher education for assessment purposes and their impact on teaching and

learning. It started from an assumption that the use of portfolios aligned with the

intended learning outcomes for pre-service teachers.

Analyses were made of documents such as portfolio contents, course outlines,

lecture notes, assessment guides and grade descriptors. Video recordings were made

of performance assessments and to track the skill development of pre-service

teachers throughout the study.

The intermediate phase of data analysis occurred during the compilation of

databases for each source of data. These included: interviews of pre-service teachers

and their lecturers; video recordings of performance assessments; documents;

observations of lectures and teaching sessions; questionnaires.

The study asserts that:

- The use of portfolios in teacher education has benefits for the individual.

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- It is clear that colleagues from the research team are interested in continuing the use

of portfolios for assessment purposes in the development of essential learning

outcomes for pre-service teachers.

-The use of portfolios is a new concept for some staff and for all pre-service teachers

at the Hong Kong Institute of Education. Therefore, there is likely to be increased

interest, motivation and participation of subjects because they find themselves

engaged in new assessment practice.

- The pre-service teachers who were interviewed indicated that the use of portfolios

had helped them to develop reflective thinking.

- Some pre-service teachers indicated that the development of a portfolio, and the

related performance assessments, impacted on their development of classroom

teaching skills. The majority of respondents agreed that the portfolio process

encouraged the development of self-evaluation skills and promoted their thinking

regarding the way they learn. Some pre-service teachers also believed that they were

developing independence in their learning.

- Some pre-service teachers indicated that their lesson planning skills had improved.

The majority of respondents also strongly agreed that there was an impact on their

development of presentation, questioning and teaching skills and strategies for

managing students' behavior in the classroom.

Lally and Veleba’s (2000) study “Language Teacher Observation and

Reflective Diaries: An Alternate Perspective” clarify the actual teaching

experience, and became an agent of behavioral change. It discussed the role of

reflective diaries in teachers’ development.

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It asserts that;

- Observation of student teachers and graduate teaching assistants in the second

language classroom has long-been an essential component of teacher

preparation and assessment. However, the guidance and support given to

novice teachers during the teacher-preparation program is unfortunately a

limited commodity.

- The diary is distinctly suited to the novice teacher because it acknowledges

the fact that we must develop techniques of self-knowledge and self-

discovery that extend beyond the practicum

- Reflective diary can help improve the "normally poor communication

between student teacher and supervisor" by providing an additional channel

of communication.

- A diary can allow the student teachers to identify and examine their attitudes

and beliefs about language learning and provide participants with the

opportunity of identifying areas for further investigation in their own

classroom.

- Reflective diary entries introduce the student-teachers to the complexity of

second-language teaching by helping them to reflect upon the various roles of

the second language teacher, as well as serve as a means of training,

providing student teachers with new skills and methods, and heightening self-

awareness.

- Because the diary is a chronological record of the student teacher's personal

response to the teaching act and environment, any changes in goals and

attitude can be traced through sequential entries.

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- The diary enforces the student teachers to engage in auto- observation by

reflecting upon the teaching experience at the end of each school day.

- Use of the diary also improved communication between the student teachers

and their supervisors, because the diary served as an additional channel of

communication and the diary contained information not only about the

classroom, but about pre- and post-teaching events as well.

- The diary-keeping experience offered the student teachers an opportunity to

identify aspects of teaching and learning that they might want to investigate

in future teaching.

- By keeping a diary the student teachers were able to organize and verbalize

ideas for improving both their immediate and future teaching,

Collier’s (1999) study “Characteristics of Reflective Thought during the

Student Teaching Experience” suggests that novice teachers' thoughts reveal

various reflective dispositions. This study focuses on the nature and character of

novice teachers' thinking and reflective capacities during their student teaching. It

considers reflection in any category important. One main objective that guided this

study is to provide multiple opportunities for interns to examine themselves, their

attitudes, values, and beliefs about teaching. One research question was critical in the

study: What reflective characteristics do four elementary school student teachers

exhibit during their 8-weeks clinical field placement?

The following conclusions emerge from the findings:

* Reflective practice is a unique and individual developmental process.

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* Reflections revealed that three of the four participants typically function from a

reactive versus a proactive stance.

* Student teachers are subjective in their perceptions of clinical experiences. In the

culminating reflections, they indicate a probable personal bias toward certain

teaching characteristics.

* Given multiple and varied opportunities for reflection, all student teachers

demonstrated at least two levels of reflection over the course of the placement,

regardless of their epistemological orientation.

* Given opportunities to write and speak reflectively, student teachers became aware

of the sound and the character of their own voices and learned how they think and

how they convey what they think to others through their words and actions.

The study sets some recommendations for Teacher Education

- If novice teachers can be guided to understand their personal experiences through

the mind of a learner first, they may be more likely to assimilate their understanding

into the process of teaching.

- Teacher educators must sensitize novice teachers to the self-monitoring necessary

to functioning as active, critical, and progressive thinkers.

- Building of a high level of awareness before the student teaching experience by

making self-monitoring an explicit issue is critical.

- Students must have many early opportunities to develop an appreciation for how

their personal concerns fit into the larger context of teaching, learning, and

development.

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Hyatt and Beigy’s (1999) study “Making the Most of the Unknown

Language Experience: Pathways for Reflective Teacher Development” considers

a particular aspect of initial English language teacher education programs and its

potential for the development of reflective teacher education trough the learner-

teachers’ reflective interaction with a previously unknown foreign language.

This investigation was stimulated by the desire to create a learner-teacher

centered and reflective syllabus for the unknown language element of the Trinity

College Certificate initial teacher education course.

If a key aim of reflective approaches is to foster a notion of critical reflection,

then it is appropriate to consider such an approach in light of less supportive

perspectives. The notion that reflecting on practice through writing or discussion will

automatically result in better teachers has been criticized

The findings have been linked as closely as possible to the language-learning

element. It is, however, recognized that this component does not exist in isolation

and other aspects of the course affect the learner-teachers development. The journals,

assessments, feedback and interviews provided rich data which were analyzed for

evidence of the impact of the language experience in raising awareness of major

issues in language learning/teaching and how this awareness was applied to course

participants own teaching.

There needs to be a clear outline of the purpose and aims of the unknown

language experience element, together with explicit statements of the reflective

methodological approach to this teacher development, in order to make such a

language experience a valid one for the learner-teachers.

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Cady’s (1998) study “Reflective Practice Groups in Teacher Induction:

Building Professional Community via Experiential Knowledge” discussed

teacher’s reflection in a collaborative environment enhances professional

development and planning. Members of sample were asked to share a difficult

situation involving students and life in classrooms. The process attempted to

accomplish two primary goals. The first was to unburden teachers from their

unsettling dilemmas in a supportive environment focused on professional growth. A

second goal was to probe and reflect on the following professional practice issues:

1 What are my teaching practices?

2 What are the teaching theories, which drive these practices?

3 How did I come to teach this way?

4 What are my options to better assist students?

The Reflective Practice Group process gave the participants an opportunity to engage

with each other on two distinct but overlapping levels. The participants revealed

examples of classroom events/interactions in which the teacher often appeared

vulnerable or unsure. The group participants then helped each other as they analyzed

the incident

The Reflective Practice Groups (RPGs) provided a systematic way to process

classroom events in a supportive environment focused on professional growth.

The data strongly point out the need for shared reflection as an accepted norm within

the profession. It means that reflection supports teacher growth.

Secondly, the data demonstrate that Reflective Practice Groups provide a structure

by which to probe and reflect on professional practice for all educators--new

teachers, veteran teachers, administrators, and teacher educators. The RPG process

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can build on and extend the preservice development in teacher reflection and

develops professional insights that strengthen and support effective instruction

planning

Rodriguez and Sjostrom’s (1998) study “Critical Reflection for

Professional Development: A Comparative Study of Nontraditional Adult and

Traditional Student Teachers” compares the professional beliefs and teaching

behaviors of traditional and nontraditional adult teacher candidates. Using weekly

student autobiographical critical reflections during student teaching, they built trust

and established authentic needs and purposes for coaching novice teachers in their

professional development.

The study describes major characteristics of the professional development of

a sample of traditional and nontraditional adult teacher candidates during student

teaching. They used critical reflection as a teaching, metacognitive tool to facilitate

their ability to understand how one acquires professional knowledge, develops

teaching practice, and becomes a teacher.

Forty-five elementary education preservice teacher candidates enrolled in a

student teaching course at Rowan University volunteered to participate in the study.

The group ranged in age from 20 to 47 years and included 3 male students and 42

female students; 2 African Americans, I Asian, 1 Latina, and 41 White students.

The study suggests that university supervisors and cooperating teachers

should employ a developmental perspective in which student teachers pass through

stages of growth as they mature professionally.

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The researchers found that critical reflection on autobiographical classroom

experiences was a clear, concise, and authentic process for teaching future teachers

to become reflective practitioners. College and university supervisors must work

more closely with cooperating teachers in providing them with background

information about the differences in the process for the two groups in order to coach

them differently toward professional development; college and university supervisors

must prepare traditional and nontraditional student teachers for the differences,

obstacles, and enhancers in the process of professional development in order to

provide realistic expectations, optimal development, and efficacy for both groups;

and teacher educators must become acquainted with the adult education literature to

better understand the experience of the nontraditional students.

Using critically reflective teaching journal writing and pre- and post lesson

observation interviews, teacher educators can gain insight into the professional

development process of each teacher candidate rather quickly during the student

teaching experience.

Ross-Gordon and Ferry's (1998) study “An inquiry into Schon's

Epistemology of Practice: Exploring Links between Experience and Reflective

Practice” describes a qualitative study that documented the use of reflection-in-

action by adult educators in problematic situations. The focus of the study was to

explore aspects of Schon's theory. The results supported the basic assumption of

Schon's theory that reflecting practitioners use a constructivist decision-making

perspective while non-reflecting educators use an instrumental problem-solving

approach. The findings demonstrated that reflecting educators, whether novice or

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experienced, use reflecting-in-action and reflecting-on-action as a means to develop

expertise. The presence of experienced educators exhibiting minimal reflection and

presence of one highly reflective novice indicates that experience alone is not the

"master teacher" of the reflective process

This study's focus was to investigate unobservable processes. For this reason,

qualitative interviewing using think-aloud problem situations were selected as the

data collection method. The target population of the study was purposely limited to

family living extension educators classified as novice (less than two years

experience) or experienced (more than ten years experience). The study's sample was

all female with similar subject matter teaching responsibilities. The study's novice

adult educators held organizational ranks of assistant and associate agents. The

study's experienced educators ranged from assistant (lowest) to senior agent

(highest). Both the reflecting and non-reflecting groups had assistant agent ranked

participants. All of the study's population had at least a Bachelor of Science degree,

with more of the reflecting and non-reflecting experienced educators having

completed a master's degree. Two of the novice group had completed a master's

degree. Three of the novice non-reflecting group had prior non-extension working

experience that ranged from twelve to twenty years.

A major focus of the research was to identify whether novices or experienced

practitioners exhibited reflection-in-action in their professional practice, thereby

adding to the clarification of Schon's theory and the role of experience in the

emergence of expertise. Analysis of the interview transcripts revealed greater

differences between those educators who were highly reflective and those who were

not, than between novice and experienced practitioners. The similarities between

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novice and experienced reflecting-in-action practice are revealed in specific

categories that are reported here with descriptive illustrations from the participants'

interviews.

The intent of the study was to document the different ways novice and

experienced adult educators use reflection-in-action in resolving practice problems as

well as to provide validation for aspects of Schon's theory of reflection-in-action.

The findings of the study support claims by Schon and other researchers who

propose that practitioners who reflect-in-action use a profoundly different problem-

solving process than those who are non-reflecting. The reflecting educators fluidly

used Schon's reflection in-action decision-making process, while problem-solving for

the non-reflective practitioners was a job to be performed using the steps of a

scientific procedural problem solving approach, with as little personal involvement

as possible. The reflective practitioners were so actively involved in their decision-

making process that the process was viewed as an ongoing cycle, an ever-expanding

learning process that is built upon past experiences.

The study found that use versus non-use of reflection-in-action was a more

significant indicator of how individuals solved problems than years of work

experience.

The study's findings provide strong support for the significant role problem

definition plays in the reflecting educators' problem-solving process; however, it was

found to play a marginal role in the non-reflecting educators' problem resolution.

The study also provides insight into how practitioners deal with unexpected

outcomes to problem solution strategies.

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The study found that not all experienced educators were using reflection-in-action

and that a novice reflective educator exhibited true artistry in his/her use of it

resolving problems.

Borko, Michalec, Timmons and Siddle’s (1997) study “Student Teaching

Portfolios: A Tool for Promoting Reflective Practice” discusses the teaching

portfolios which have recently received increasing attention as tools to promote

reflection among both experienced and novice teachers. The study asserts that

theoretical support for portfolios as reflective tools is strong. Portfolios provide an

opportunity and a structure for teachers to document and describe their teaching;

articulate their professional knowledge; and reflect on what, how, and why they

teach. Portfolios helped student teachers to remember classroom events more fully

and accurately, and focused their reflections on content and contents specific aspects

of their teaching.

The researchers’ plan was to investigate whether student teachers' construction of

portfolios would enhance their reflection on practice.

All 21 students in the fall 1994 cohort had bachelor's degrees; most graduated

from strong undergraduate programs with high grade point averages.

To guide reflection, the study provided a list of sample questions that focused

on issues such as why they selected particular materials for inclusion in the portfolio,

what they learned from the materials, and what the materials illustrated about them

as teachers.

In both written reflections and interview responses, participants commented

most frequently about the benefits of the portfolio experience. Any interpretation of

these positive comments must consider that we explicitly asked participants to

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discuss what they learned from the portfolio experience. Several student teachers felt

strongly that the portfolio assignment competed with student teaching for their time

and energy.

Student teachers offered suggestions for refining the portfolio project in their

written reflections and interviews. The researcher reconceptualized the structure and

role of portfolio groups, taking into account the suggestions to have supervision

groups serve as portfolio groups and to allocate more time for portfolio work in

supervision group meetings and whole-class sessions

The study described the portfolio as a vehicle for advancing teachers’

professional development. The portfolio is intended primarily as a professional

development tool. A secondary purpose of the portfolio is to be used in teachers’

search for teaching positions.

Norton’s (1997) study “Locus of Control and Reflective Thinking in

Preservice Teachers” attempts to promote reflective thinking and teaching

strategies in programs of teacher education. Specifically, this study examined

reflective thinking in preservice teachers as it related to locus of control. Empirical

data from this study identified curriculum structures that may maximize changes in

reflective thinking in preservice teachers. Such information, hopefully, will assist

teacher educators in implementing the principles of reflective practice

A closer look at the study sample reveals the possibility of this assessment of

writing, rather than reflective abilities. Of the five preservice teachers seeking

secondary certification, two were concentrating on English, and three were focusing

on social studies.

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The results of this study show that the sample, as a whole, became more

adept at higher levels of reflective inquiry. All of the participants agreed the

university was strongly committed to developing reflective practitioners, and a

number of components in the teacher education program may have contributed to

this increase in reflective thinking

In summary, the university's teacher education program, and particularly the

clinical field experience, attempts to coordinate and integrate several reflective

components into a complementary, cohesive whole. Each activity supports and

extends the others; each activity forges theoretical principles and experiential-

knowledge; and each activity stimulates and refines skills of reflective thought and

practice. These recommendations concerning the dialogue journals, weekly

university seminar, and faculty professional development seminar may be useful to

teacher educators in redesigning their program of study to meet constantly evolving

educational needs.

Hatton’s (1995) study “Reflection in Teacher Education: Towards

Definition and Implementation” was designed to investigate the nature of

reflection in teaching, to define specific forms of reflection, and to evaluate the

strategies outlined above in terms of the degree to which they facilitated particular

types of reflection in student teachers.

Reflection is claimed as a goal in many teacher preparation programs, but its

definition and how it might be fostered in student teachers are problematic issues. In

this study, a report is provided of a review of literature on reflection, in particular

focusing on strategies that assist its development in preservice programs. Next there

is outlined a research project where types of reflection have been defined and applied

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to an analysis of student writing. Finally, the authors propose a framework for types

of reflection as a basis for further research and development in teacher education.

The researcher mentioned some problems associated with reflection. There

are a number of barriers which hinder the achievement of reflective approaches.

These include existing preconceptions about teaching as a profession, the essential

preconditions which allow student teachers to develop reflective capacities, and their

possible responses being required to undertake reflection.

First, problems can arise because reflection is not generally associated with

working as a teacher.

Second, in order to foster effective reflection, what is needed is time and

opportunity for development, so that the required essential metateaching and

metacognitive skills can be acquired

Third, likely reactions to demands for reflection require some attention.

Responses on the part of students’ part might include feelings of vulnerability, which

follow from exposing one's perceptions and beliefs to others, especially if the locus

of control is not seen to be with the individual, who may tend to self-blame for any

perceived weaknesses uncovered through reflection

Fourth, problems relate not just to the component parts of teacher education

programs, but to the structure and ideology of total programs, in order that the

development of reflection might be encouraged

Centra’s (1994) study “The Use of the Teaching Portfolio and Student

Evaluations for Summative Evaluation” investigated the possibilities and pitfalls

of using portfolios for summative evaluations. A dean and two peers evaluated the

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portfolios prepared by faculty members at a college that required the portfolio for

contract renewal purposes. Because student evaluations were also collected for each

faculty member, this study was able to compare peer and dean judgments of teaching

based on the portfolio contents with appropriate student evaluation scales and items

The results of this study have significance for the construction and use of

faculty portfolios, particularly the descriptions and reflections on teaching, which are

a key aspect of a portfolio. This study also sheds additional light to the validity of

student, peer, and administrator evaluations of teaching.

The evaluations of the portfolios in this study would have undoubtedly

benefit from additional discussion among the evaluators about the criteria and

standard to apply. The ideal portfolio is put together by a teacher over a period of

several years Because of the college's need to make immediate use of portfolios as

part of a total faculty evaluation process, the faculty in this study did not have the

opportunity to do so. Thus the portfolio was more a snapshot of teaching

performance, albeit with much descriptive detail, than a longitudinal, documented set

of changes or results over time.

Nevertheless, when summative decisions are being made, even portfolio

procedures that are not ideally designed can assist evaluators of teaching

performance. When those evaluations are combined with assessments of teaching by

students, which research has shown to be related to student learning in courses, then

a multiple perspective on teaching effectiveness is provided.

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Zubizarreta’s (1994) study “Teaching Portfolios and the Beginning

Teacher” focused on the benefits of the teaching portfolios for the novice teachers.

It asserts that:

- The teaching portfolio is a proven, constructive instrument worth serious

consideration

- Beginning teachers would be smart to stay ahead of a powerful trend in teacher

development.

- Teaching portfolios are becoming perhaps the most effective tool in improving the

instruction of both new and seasoned teachers and in providing a supportive,

convincing method of evaluation.

- Beginning teacher stands to gain even more from a teaching portfolio in that it can

serve as a catalyst for substantive improvement in one's teaching philosophy,

methods, and goals.

- The ability of the portfolio to provide outside evaluators with concise, selective,

evidence-based information from a wide variety of sources gives the novice

instructor a highly individualized, credible, and factual document for the purpose of

evaluation.

- Regardless of the features that make each portfolio unique, the process of putting

together the narrative body of a portfolio always provides teachers with the

opportunity to reflect on what, how, and why they teach. This critical process

culminates in an act of writing that itself enhances the teaching of both novices and

experts.

- Collecting the documentation that supports the narrative is also a valuable exercise

for the teacher compiling the portfolio.

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- The instructor also learns the value of collaboration in defining responsibilities,

discussing values and methods, providing important supportive information, and

delineating goals.

- The beginning teacher becomes more intentional in generating actual products of

good teaching, which makes students the real benefactors of the work that goes into a

portfolio.

Gipe’s (1992) study “Reflective Thinking and Growth in Novices’

Teaching Ability” used field research methodology, specifically analysis of

reflective journals coupled with some descriptive statistics. Research on journal

writing supports the value of journals as a vehicle that promotes and documents

reflective thinking.

The participants were 23 female elementary education majors enrolled in two

reading/language arts methods courses designated as a nearly field experience. The

novice teachers received 6 semester hours of credit for successful completion of the

two courses.

The results of this study highlight the importance of the context of the field

placement with respect to promoting prospective teachers’ reflections about teaching.

A non-challenging field experience may provide few problems to solve. An overly

threatening field placement may promote negativism and stagnation. Reflection

becomes subordinate to survival concerns. A field placement that offers moderate

amounts of ambiguity and dissonance may provide opportunities for problem solving

through reflection and thereby enhance professional growth.

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Griffiths and Tann’s (1992) study “Using Reflective Practice to Link

Personal and Public Theories” asserts that personal theory is too often left

unaffected by the processes of action research and the clue to why this is so is in the

level at which reflection should take place if it is to be most effective in changing

personal practice and public theory. The researcher argues that teachers need to

reflect upon their personal theory and prevailing practice at each of the five levels of

reflection. This will encourage them to articulate their own theory, critically examine

it, check for consistency, coherence and adequacy, compare it with alternative

theories and re-conceptualize it in order to increase the effectiveness of their own

professional thinking.

Gipe, Richards and Levitov’s (1991) study “Psychological and Personal

Dimensions of Prospective Teachers’ Reflective Abilities” discusses the

prospective teachers, which differ in their willingness and abilities to reflect on

teaching. Some novices seem to possess a natural ability to examine and critically

question themselves and their teaching as one novice’s first journal entry of the

semester demonstrates. Other prospective teachers initially appear unwilling or are

unaware of how to reflect about their work.

The results from this research indicate that there may be measurable

psychological and personal characteristics, which describe “reflectors”. The

reflectors in this study can be described as people who “make decisions by attending

to what matters to others, they have an understanding of people, a concern with the

human as opposed to the technical aspects of problems, a need for affiliation, a

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capacity for warmth. Internal attributions and personal responsibility for classroom

events are to successful teaching”

Results of this study support the premise that there may be psychological and

personal characteristics of prospective teachers that distinguish reflectors and non-

reflectors. The results of this study also strongly suggest that teacher education

programs encourage and promote creativity according to Torrance. For Example,

brainstorming, divergent thinking, and problem solving activities in an overall

program, which helps students, develop their creative potential, are implied.

Critical analysis of both the practical and ethical dimensions of education

must be encouraged. Lastly, teacher educators must reevaluate their teacher

education programs to insure that they encourage development of reflective abilities.

Summary

In this section the researcher presented 21 related studies. Although that non

of them deals with measuring levels of the reflective practice, they were very helpful

to the researcher in conducting this study as they enriched his educational

background concerning the theoretical part of this study.

Moreover, they provided guidance in designing the procedures and steps of

the study, especially in preparing the suggested test, questionnaire and observation

card. Also, they were helpful in choosing the tools of the study and the statistical

analysis of the results.

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The researcher categorized the previous studies as follows:

1- Studies discussed the importance of the reflection in teaching

process development.

Study of Giovannelli (2003) asserts that his study contributed to the

literature by affording a better understanding of the nature of reflective

disposition toward teaching and its relationship to effective teaching and by

providing a way in which this can be measured and facilitated. Pryke’s study

(2003) asserts that Education officers and other professionals do reflect, without

apparent paralysis, as they act. In this way they reinforce their knowledge-in-

practice. Thus they sustain and develop their professionalism. Loughran’s study

(2002) has attempted to show how an appropriate focus on experience in teacher

education can be influential in the development of effective reflective practice

and how effective reflective practice might be important in the development of

one's professional knowledge. Ross-Gordon and Ferry's study (1998) supports

claims by Schon and other researchers who propose that practitioners who

reflect-in-action use a profoundly different problem-solving process than those

who are non-reflecting.

2- Studies highlighted the importance and the role of the reflection

tools to enhance the teaching process.

- Studies of Klenowski (2000), Borko, Michalec, Timmons and Siddle (1997), Centra

(1994) and Zubizarreta (1994) mentioned the importance of using portfolio as a tool

for reflection. They described the portfolio as a vehicle for advancing teachers’

professional development. The portfolio is intended primarily as a professional

development tool.

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- Studies of Stiler and Philleo (2003), Lally and Veleba (2000), Collier (1999), Hyatt

and Beigy (1999) and Rodriguez and Sjostrom (1998) discussed the rolt and the

benefits of journal or diary writing as an effective tool for reflection.

Thay asserts that:

- Journal writing increases both the quality and quantity of student teachers

output.

- A diary can allow the student teachers to identify and examine their attitudes

and beliefs about language teaching.

- By keeping a diary the student teachers were able to organize and verbalize

ideas for improving both their immediate and future teaching,

- The notion that reflecting on practice through writing or discussion will

automatically result in better teachers has been criticized.

- Using critically reflective teaching journal writing and pre- and post lesson

observation interviews, teacher educators can gain insight into the

professional development process of each teacher candidate rather quickly

during the student teaching experience.

- Studies of Norton (1997), Cady (1998) and Collier (1999) shed light on the

importance of reflective discussion with other(s). they concluded that :

- Given opportunities to write and speak reflectively, student teachers became

aware of the sound and the character of their own voices and learned how

they think and how they convey what they think to others through their words

and actions.

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- The Reflective Practice Groups (RPGs) provided a systematic way to process

classroom events in a supportive environment focused on professional

growth.

3- studies discussed factors or causes which prevent some teachers to

reflect on their practice

- Studies of Stiler and Philleo (2003), Mastrilli and Sardo-Brown (2002), Hatton

(1995) and Gipe, Richards and Levitov (1991) attempted to find some obstacles

which hinder teachers to reflect on their performance. They mentioned that:

- There are a number of barriers which hinder the achievement of reflective

approaches. These include existing preconceptions about teaching as a

profession, the essential preconditions which allow student teachers to

develop reflective capacities, and their possible responses being required to

undertake reflection.

- There may be psychological and personal characteristics of prospective

teachers that distinguish reflectors and non-reflectors.

- Reflection process may take a lot of time and efforts, so some teachers

become frustrated as result of that.

- Reflection process may need bity high skills which some teachers have not.

General Comment on the Previous Studies

Most of the previous studies may share in the following points:

- They, approximately, followed the descriptive and experimental approach of

research in order to achieve their purposes.

- Most of them were similar in using questionnaire and test as tools of the

studies to achieve their goals.

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- Most of their recommendations concentrated both on the importance of the

reflective teaching for teachers to achieve effective teaching and on the

importance of the reflective tools or procedures to achieve the same goals.

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Chapter III

Methodology

Introduction

This study aims at measuring the level of reflective teaching among the

student teachers of English in Gaza universities. To fulfill this aim and other aims,

the researcher used different tools to collect the needed information. In this chapter,

the researcher will explain the population of the study, the steps that he followed and

the tools that he used to answer the study questions, statistical analysis, research

methodology and procedure of the study.

3.1 Population of the Study:

The population of the study consists of (286) students, who were enrolled on

“Teaching Practice “ or “Practical Training” in the first semester (2004-2005) in

Gaza universities (The Islamic university (IUG) - Al-Azhar university). Table (1)

shows the population of the study.

Table (1) The Population of the Study

Gender IUG AL

Azhar Total

Male 22 10 32

Female 193 61 254

Total 215 71 286

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3.2 Sample of the Study:

The sample of this study consists of (66) male and female students. It was

a random selection, which means that every student has the same chance to

be a subject of this sample. The sample represents 23% of the population.

Table (2) shows the sample of the study.

Table (2) The Sample of the Study

Gender (IUG) AL Azhar Total

Male 4 8 12

Female 31 23 54

Total 35 31 66

3.3 Tools of the Study:

The researcher used three different tools to fulfill the aims of the study and to

answer its questions. These tools consist of a test, a questionnaire, and an observation

card. The test and questionnaire were developed to be answered by the student

teacher himself/herself. The Observation card was constructed to be filled by the

observer of the student teachers.

3.3.1 The First Tool: The Test

The aim of this test is to measure the level of background knowledge

regarding the reflective teaching approach among the student teachers of English in

Gaza universities.

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3.3.1.1 Test Construction:

The researcher constructed the test based on his reviewing literature, and

consultation with specialists. The developed test consists of “12” multiple choice

questions, which cover the definition and the characteristics of reflective teaching

and reflective teacher, steps of reflection process, levels of reflection and steps for

gathering information. (See appendix 1)

3.3.1.2 Levels of Difficulty of the Test Questions:

To calculate the coefficient of difficulty of each question of the test, the

following formula was used:

Co. of difficulty = number of student who gave wrong answer x 100

Total number of students

After applying this formula, the difficulty coefficient of the test questions varied

between (20% & 80%) which indicated its suitability to be used as a tool of this

study. Table (3) shows the difficulty coefficient of each question of the test.

Table (3) Difficulty Coefficient of each Question of the Test

Question Difficulty Question Difficulty

Q1 0.62 Q7 0.78

Q2 0.71 Q8 0.32

Q3 0.35 Q9 0.68

Q4 0.46 Q10 0.70

Q5 0.44 Q11 0.49

Q6 0.52 Q12 0.53

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3.3.1.3 Questions Discrimination:

To calculate the coefficient of discrimination of each question of the test, the

following formula was used:

Co. of discrimination = correct answers number in higher group- correct answers number in lower group x 100

Students’ number of one group

After applying this formula, the discrimination coefficient of the test

questions was more than 25%, which indicates that the test is highly valid to be used

as a tool of this study. Table (4) shows the discrimination coefficient of each

question of the test.

Table (4) Discrimination Coefficient of each Question of the Test

Question Discrimination Question Discrimination

Q1 0.41 Q7 0.36

Q2 0.29 Q8 0.45

Q3 0.38 Q9 0.31

Q4 0. 61 Q10 0.48

Q5 0.76 Q11 0.52

Q6 0.32 Q12 0.37

3.3.2 Validity of the Test:

validity of an instrument is considered to be an important issue that have been

discussed and stressed out by researchers in the field. Validity is defined as “ the

extent to which a measuring instrument measures what it supposed to measure”

(Thorndike, 1997)

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several types of validity evidence were frequently discussed in this study.

They are as follows:

3.3.2.1 Content Validity (Experts Judgment)

Content validity is defined as “the extent to which a test reflects the variable it seeks

to measure” (Thorndike, 1997). So, content validity conducted before data

collections and measured in the terms of expert estimates of the relevance, clarity

and comleteness. Therefore, content validity is a subjective estimate of measurement

rather a statistical analysis, and applied to all relevant parts of the measured data. In

order to validate the instrument, the researcher sent the instrument including items

and operational definitions to ten experts (See appendix 2) including methodology,

TEFL, research and evaluation and linguistics, and asked them to estimate the

relevance, clarity of each item. A creterium of acceptance among experts were used

as a result, some items were modified and others were ommitted.

3.3.2.2 Costruct Validity

it examined the fit between the conceptual definition and the operational definition of

variables. In other words, construct validity discussed how will the instrument

operationalized and qualified.

The researcher used :

a) Internal Consistency Method:

This type of validity indicates the correlation of each question score with the

total scores of the test. The researcher used this method to calculate the correlation of

the test. The researcher used Pearson correlation formula to find the correlation

between the degree of each question in the test and the general degree of the whole

test. Table (5) shows the correlation coefficient of the test.

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Table (5)

Correlation Coefficient of the Test

Question Correlation Sig. Question Correlation Sig.

Q1 .611 sig. at 0.01 Q7 .863 sig. at 0.01

Q2 .632 sig. at 0.01 Q8 .803 sig. at 0.01

Q3 .766 sig. at 0.01 Q9 .734 sig. at 0.01

Q4 .601 sig. at 0.01 Q10 .869 sig. at 0.01

Q5 .465 sig. at 0.01 Q11 .763 sig. at 0.01

Q6 .568 sig. at 0.01 Q12 .865 sig. at 0.01

According to table (5), it can be concluded that the test is highly consistent

and valid to be used as a tool of this study.

b) Discrimination Method (Group Differences):

To examine the test validity, the researcher used Mann Whitney Test. Table

(6) the discrimination validity of the test.

Table (6)

Discrimination Validity of the Test

Group N Mean Ranks

Sum of Ranks

U value

Z value

Sig.

High 10 15.50 155.00

Low 10 5.50 55.00

Total 20

55.00 3.824 Sig at 0.01

After applying the test, the discrimination coefficient of the test questions

proved to be statistically significant, which indicates that the test is highly valid to be

used as a tool of this study.

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3.3.3 Reliability of the Test:

The researcher used Kuder-Richardson Formula 21 to examine the reliability

of this test. According to the result, the test is highly reliable, as coefficient reliability

of Kuder-Richardson Formula 21 is (0.9029)

3.3.4 Instructions of the Test:

The instructions of the test were clearly written in English on an attached

paper with the test. The instructions include the purpose of the test and guiding steps

for the student to answer the questions. (See appendix 1)

3.4 The Second Tool: The Questionnaire:

The aim of this questionnaire is to help the researcher to measure the level of

thinking of the student teachers regarding the value (importance) of the reflective

teaching.

3.4.1 Questionnaire Construction:

The researcher constructed the questionnaire based on his reviewing

literature, and consultation with specialists. The developed questionnaire consists of

ten items which cover some benefits of the reflective teaching and its positive

characteristics. (See appendix 3).

3.4.2 Validity of the Questionnaire:

To examine the questionnaire validity, the researcher used some ways to do

that. These are as follows:

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3.4.2.1 Content Validity (Experts Judgment)

To examine the questionnaire validity, the researcher introduced it to a group

of specialists, including professors and highly qualified long experienced teachers of

methodology, from different universities. Juries modified this questionnaire by

adding, deleting or correcting its items. All juries approved the questionnaire, which

the researcher applied it in his study.

3.4.2.2. Construct Validity:

a) Internal Consistency Method:

This type of validity indicates the correlation of each item degree with the

total average of the questionnaire. The researcher used this method to calculate the

correlation of the questionnaire. The researcher used Pearson correlation formula to

calculate the correlation between the score on each item of the questionnaire with

total score of the questionnaire. Table (7) shows the correlation coefficient of the

questionnaire.

Table (7) Correlation Coefficient of the Questionnaire

Item Correlation Sig. Item Correlation Sig.

Item 1 .802 sig. at 0.01 Item 6 .824 sig. at 0.01

Item 2 .890 sig. at 0.01 Item 7 .843 sig. at 0.01

Item 3 .780 sig. at 0.01 Item 8 .867 sig. at 0.01

Item 4 .810 sig. at 0.01 Item 9 .838 sig. at 0.01

Item 5 .832 sig. at 0.01 Item 10 .860 sig. at 0.01

According to table (7), it can be concluded that the questionnaire is highly

consistent and valid to be used as a tool for this study.

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b) Discrimination Method (Group Difference):

To examine the test validity, the researcher used Mann Whitney Test. Table

(8) the discrimination validity of the questionnaire.

Table (8) Discrimination Validity of the Questionnaire

Group N Mean

Ranks

Sum of

Ranks

U

value

Z

value

Sig.

High 10 15.40 154.00

Low 10 5.60 56.00

Total 20

56.000 3.891 Sig at 0.01

After applying the test, the discrimination coefficient of the questionnaire

items show a statistical significance, which indicates that the questionnaire is highly

valid to be used as a tool of this study.

3.4.3 Reliability of the Questionnaire:

“Cronbach Alpha is considered the most general form of reliability estimates

and it also, concerned with homogeneity of items compromising the scale”

(Thorndike, 1997). The researcher used Alpha Cronbach Formulas to examine the

reliability of this questionnaire. According to the results, the questionnaire is highly

reliable, as Alpha Cronbach coefficient is (0.9129)

3.4.4 Instructions of the Questionnaire:

The instructions of the questionnaire were clearly written in English on an

attached paper. The instructions included the purpose of the questionnaire and

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guiding steps for the student teachers to choose the appropriate answer for every

item. (See appendix 1)

3.5 The Third Tool: The Observation Card:

The aim of the observation card is to measure the level of practicing the

reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in Gaza Universities.

3.5.1 Observation Card Construction:

The researcher constructed the test based on his reviewing literature, and

consultation with specialists. The developed observation card consists of three

phases as follows:

- The first phase (planning) covered the expected student teacher’s role

in preparation for the lesson. Its results showed to what extent the

student teacher followed the reflective approach in his/her planning.

- The second phase (operation and roles) covered the expected student

teacher’s role in the classroom. Its results showed to what extent the

student teacher applied the reflective approach in his/her teaching

performance.

- The third phase (Analysis and reactions) covered the expected

students teacher’s ability to judge the lesson and give clear

perspective concerning this matter.

Each item in every phase has a measuring scale from (1) to (5) where (1) represents

the lowest mark whereas (5) represents the highest one.

3.5.2 Validity of the Observation Card:

To examine the observation card validity, the research applied two types of

validity, the referee validity and internal consistency validity.

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3.5.2.1 Content Validity (Experts Judgment)

To examine the observation card validity, the researcher introduced it to a

group of specialists, which included professors and highly qualified, and experienced

teachers of methodology from different universities. Juries modified this observation

card by adding, deleting or correcting its items. All juries approved of the

observation card, which the researcher applied in his study.

3.5.2.2 Costruct Validity

a) Internal Consistency Method:

This type of validity indicates the correlation of each item degree with the

total average of the phase it is related to. The researcher used this method to calculate

the correlation of the phases of the observation card. The researcher used Pearson

correlation formula to find the correlation between the degree of each item in every

phase and the general degree of the same phase. Table (9), (10) and (11) show the

correlation coefficient of each item in every phase and the general degree of the

same phase. Table (12) shows the correlation coefficient of each phase and the

whole observation card.

Table (9) Correlation Coefficient of (Planning) the First Phase Items

Item Correlation Sig. Item Correlation Sig.

Item 1 .414 sig. at 0.01 Item 6 .715 sig. at 0.01

Item 2 .786 sig. at 0.01 Item 7 .730 sig. at 0.01

Item 3 .786 sig. at 0.01 Item 8 .730 sig. at 0.01

Item 4 .767 sig. at 0.01 Item 9 .836 sig. at 0.01

Item 5 .512 sig. at 0.01

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Table (10) Correlation Coefficient of (operations and roles) the Second Phase Items

Item Correlation Sig. Item Correlation Sig.

Item 1 .854 sig. at 0.01 Item 7 .819 sig. at 0.01

Item 2 .854 sig. at 0.01 Item 8 .570 sig. at 0.01

Item 3 .892 sig. at 0.01 Item 9 .819 sig. at 0.01

Item 4 .854 sig. at 0.01 Item 10 .860 sig. at 0.01

Item 5 .612 sig. at 0.01 Item 11 .647 sig. at 0.01

Item 6 .533 sig. at 0.01 Item 12 .895 sig. at 0.01

Table (11) Correlation Coefficient of (Analysis and reactions) the Third Phase Items

Item Correlation Sig. Item Correlation Sig.

Item 1 .419 sig. at 0.05 Item 5 .844 sig. at 0.01

Item 2 .641 sig. at 0.01 Item 6 .866 sig. at 0.01

Item 3 .844 sig. at 0.01 Item 7 .906 sig. at 0.01

Item 4 .906 sig. at 0.01 Item 8 .906 sig. at 0.01

Table (12) Correlation Coefficient of the Phase and the Whole Observation Card

Phase Correlation Sig.

Planning .921 sig. at 0.05

Operation .964 sig. at 0.01

Analysis .948 sig. at 0.01

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According to the four previous tables (9), (10), (11) and (12), it can be

concluded that the observation card items are highly consistent and valid to be used

as a tool of this study.

b) Discrimination Validity:

To examine the observation card validity, the researcher use Mann Whitney

Test. Table (13) shows the discrimination validity of the observation card.

Table (13) Discrimination Validity of the Observation Card

Phase Group N Mean Ranks

Sum of

Ranks

U value

Z value

Sig.

High 10 15.50 155.00

Low 10 5.50 55.00

Planning

Total 20

55.000 3.842 Sig. at

0.01

High 10 14.40 144.00

Low 10 6.60 66.00

Operations

Total 20

66.000 3.231 sig. at

0.01

High 10 13.20 132.00

Low 10 7.80 78.00

Analysis

Total 20

78.000 2.401 sig. at

0.01

High 10 15.50 155.00

Low 10 5.50 55.00

Total

Total 20

55.000 3.826 sig. at

0.01

After applying this formula, the discrimination coefficient of each item of

every phase of the observation card, as well as the total of the three phases shows

statistical significance, which indicates that the observation card is highly valid to be

used as a tool of this study.

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3.5.3 Reliability of the Observation Card:

The researcher used Cooper coefficient to examine the reliability of the

observation card. The following formula was used:

Reliability Coefficient = N 1 N1+N2

(N1) refers to the number of agreed mark for items between the observers,

and (n2) refers to the number of disagreed mark for items between the observers.

After applying this formula the results were as follows:

- Cooper coefficient for the first phase (Planning) was 92%

- Cooper coefficient for the second phase (operations) was 87%

- Cooper coefficient for the third phase (analysis) was 93%

- Cooper coefficient for the whole observation card was 90.6%

According to the results, every phase is highly reliable as well as the whole

observation card.

3.5.4 Instructions of the Observation Card:

The instructions of the observation card were clearly written in English and

Arabic (the researcher used Arabic to ensure that the instructions are very clear) on

an attached paper with the observation card. The instructions included the purpose of

the observation card and guiding steps for the observers to choose the appropriate

answer for every item, according to the student teachers’ performance. (See

appendix 5).

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3.6 Procedures of the Study:

To fulfill the study, the researcher did the following:

- Collected and reviewed the previous related studies to get benefits

from their procedures, tools, results, thoughts, and recommendations.

- Subscribe at Questia Digital Library (www.questia.com) for three

months.

- Prepared the theoretical framework of the study through reading

some books and searching in previous related studies.

- Prepared the three tools of the study.

- Asked experts to review them and then give approval to be applied.

- Took some permissions to apply the study (See appendix 6)

- Applied the tools of the study on the student teachers of English in

Gaza universities (The Islamic University and Al Azhar University).

- Cooperated with school pricipals and some observers (2 – 3 observers

in every university ) to make sure that the test and the questionnaire

are answered and the observation process is going on.

- The researcher gave every observer clear instructions for his/her

observation.

- Collected the the study tool and corerect the test (giving one mark for

each correct answers and then calculate the marks out of 12 marks).

- cooperated with a statistician to analyse data statistically for the result

of questionnaire and the ibservation card., using SPSS v. 11.

- Concluded the final results of the three tools.

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- Attempted to give some explanations for the results and find some

justifications and then give recommendations and suggestions.

3.7 Statistical Analysis:

To answer the first, the second and the third questions of the study, the

researcher used descriptive statistics like (means, standards deviation and range).

To answer the fourth, the fifth and the sixth questions of the study, the

researcher used T test and Mann Whitney test, because it is used when the sample is

less than 30 individuals.

3.8 Summary

In this chapter the researcher explored the population of the study, and its

tools that used to answer the questions of the study. He also presented the practical

steps of applying those tools in addition to the statistics used to treat the results of the

study.

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Chapter IV

Results of the Study

Introduction

This study aimed to measure the level of reflective teaching among student

teacher of English in Gaza Universities. To achieve this aim, the study attempted to

answer six main related questions through using three tools (a test, a questionnaire

and an observation card). This chapter introduces the results of the study as

statistically treated in addition to the analysis and discussion of the results in the light

of the questions of the study.

4.1 Answer of the First Question

In answering the first research question, which is “What is the

level of background knowledge regarding the reflective teaching

approach among the student teachers of English in Gaza

universities?”, the researcher used a test to measure the level of their

background about the approach, and then analyzed the results of this

test statistically. Means, standard deviations, medians and ranges of

the two universities’ results were computed. Table (14) shows the

levels of background knowledge regarding the reflective teaching

among the student teachers of English in Gaza universities.

Table (14)

Levels of Background about the Reflective Teaching

Univ. N Mean Std.

deviation Median Range

IUG 35 6.31 2.0972 6.0000 9.00

Al Azhar 19 5.36 1.4985 6.0000 5.00

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Total 54 5.98 1.9473 6.0000 9.00

The results of the test showed that the student teachers of English in the two

universities have a little educational background knowledge regarding the reflective

teaching approach. The general mean of this test was (5.98), in other words, it was

less than 50%, which indicates low level of educational background about reflective

teaching approach.

It is obvious from the table (14) that the level of background of student teachers

about the reflective teaching is low. All groups did not pass 50% out of the total. The

researcher justifies the low results for the following reasons:

1- Student teachers might not study this approach during their university

studies.

2- Teachers in universities might not mention this approach directly or

indirectly, during lectures of methodology.

3- Student teachers’ observers might not mention the characteristics or

the values of this approach.

4- Most of host teachers do not apply this approach; therefore they

would not advise student teachers to follow it as a means of teacher

development.

5- Most of materials of methodology courses do not deal with this

approach in depth.

6- Reflective teaching approach is considered as a fairly recent subject to

be a popular approach in methodology.

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4.2 Answer of the Second Question

In answering the second research question which is “What do

the student teachers of English in Gaza universities think about the

value (importance) of the reflective teaching in their teaching

performances?” the researcher used a questionnaire to measure the

level of their thinking regarding the approach, and then analyzed the

results of this questionnaire statistically. Means, standard deviations,

medians and ranges of the two universities were computed. Table (15)

shows the levels of thinking regarding the value (importance) of the

reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in Gaza

universities.

Table (15)

Levels of Thinking Regarding the Value of the Reflective Teaching

Univ. N Mean Std.

deviation Median Range

IUG 35 40.25 4.7362 40.000 21.00

Al Azhar 19 36.57 11.6443 38.000 50.00

Total 54 38.96 7.9739 40.000 50.00

The results of the questionnaire show that the student teachers of English in

the two universities have positive thinking regarding the value (importance) of the

reflective teaching approach. The general mean of this questionnaire was (38.96), in

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other words, it was about 78%, which indicates medium level of positive thinking

regarding the value (importance) of the reflective teaching approach.

It is obvious from table (15) that the level of thinking regarding the value

(importance) of student teachers of the reflective teaching is good. The researcher

thinks that there are some reasons justifying these positive thinking. The researcher

summarizes them as follows:

1- As the student teachers read about the reflective teaching approach

through answering the exam, they think that it is good or important.

2- Eight of ten items of the questionnaire are positive statements, which

means that the student teacher chooses the high mark for those items

as they indicate positive meanings, not because they are related to the

reflective teaching.

3- The student teachers may understand from questionnaire items that

these items indicate the characteristics of the reflective teaching

approach not as their real beliefs about the importance of this

approach.

4- The student teachers may not take care to express their exact beliefs

about the importance of this approach.

4.3 Answer of the Third Question

In answering the third research question which is “What is the

Level of reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in

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Gaza Universities?” the researcher used an observation card to

measure the level of their practicing this approach, and then analyzed

the results of this observation card statistically. Means, standard

deviations, medians and ranges of the two universities results were

computed. Table (16) shows the levels of practicing the reflective

teaching among the student teachers of English in Gaza universities.

Table (16) Levels of Practicing the Reflective Teaching

Univ. Planning Operations Analysis Total

N 35 35 35 35

Mean 27.62 37.01 23.34 87.98

Std.

deviation

7.3157 8.5444 10.0211 23.4396

Median 28.0000 37.5000 26.0000 91.5000 The

Isla

mic

Uni

vers

ity

Range 30.00 39.00 38.00 98.50

N 31 31 31 31

Mean 25.17 34.09 23.29 82.56

Std.

deviation

6.8575 9.2000 7.0896 22.1158

Median 23.5000 33.5000 22.5000 78.0000

Al A

zhar

Uni

vers

ity

Range 28.50 39.00 30.00 89.00

N 66 66 66 66

Mean 26.47 35.64 23.31 85.43

Std. deviation

7.1567 8.9110 8.7021 22.8159

Tota

l

Median 26.5000 37.0000 25.0000 87.0000

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Range 30.50 43.00 38.00 100.00

The results of the observation card showed that the student teachers of

English in the two universities have a low level of practicing the reflective teaching

approach. The general mean of this observation card was (85.43), in other words, the

average weight was about (59%)* which indicates medium level of practicing the

reflective teaching approach.

1It is obvious from table (16) that the level of student teachers’ practicing the

reflective teaching is not high. All groups did not exceed 60% out of the total. The

researcher thinks that there are some reasons justifying these low results. The

researcher summarizes them as follows:

1- The student teachers do not have enough background knowledge

regarding the reflective teaching approach. Farrell (2004) mentions

that Jackson argues that “if they (reflective teachers) did possess the

skill for reflection, it is doubtful that they would perform with greater

efficiency in the classroom”.

2- They are in the training stage; they still have not the required

experience to practice this approach.

3- They and their teachers might not practice this approach during

methodology syllabuses.

* The researcher calculates the average weight by multiplication every total mean of every university

by its sample number and then divides the total of two results on two. Finally, finds the portion of the

result out of the total score. (87.98 × 35) + (82.56 × 31) ÷ 66 = 85.43 ÷ 145 × 100 = 58.9% = 59 %

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4- Some of them might not be interested in teaching as a career.

5- Most of host teachers and their observers might not mention the

characteristics or the values of this approach.

7- Most of the student teachers may care for marks rather than caring for

the quality of their performance.

8- They may have differences between their theory and their pracice. As

(McNiff 1995 p. 15) mentioned that the teachers’ personal and public

theories about language teaching may not harmonize with each other.

Loughran (2002) asserts that “Challenging this distinction between

theory and practice is important, and a conceptualization of effective

reflective practice is one way of beginning to help teacher preparation

programs integrate in meaningful ways”.

9- The major problems in reflective teaching would be an over emphasis

on the technical aspects of action research. (Chauhan 1995, p. 139) ,

whereas the student teachers have not these technical aspects.

10- May the routine of teaching process (the same school, the same

textbook, and the same level of knowledge) can influence negatively

on teachers’ desire to start reflection.

11- Some teachers see reflective teaching as a one-off project not as series

of reflective cycles in which each step is planned with a realistic and

local goal in mind.

12- Frustration of some teachers prevents them from involving in any

activities including reflection in their teaching.

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13- Discouragement of non-reflective teachers may force reflective

teacher to be frustrated.

14- They may were not in a good psychological case, as psychological

factor play a great role in reflection process. Gipe, Richards and

Levitov’s (1991) study support the premise that there may be

psychological and personal characteristics of prospective teachers that

distinguish reflectors and non-reflectors.

15- Some teachers see reflective practice as another overload job, which

requires time and efforts. This view may force some student teachers

not to reflect.

16- Professional weakness of some teachers may stop them to try

reflection in their performance. “Teacher should have lots of

knowledge, not only of his subject” (Harmer 1998, p. 2)

17- They may have not enough continuous priod to reflect, as time is

essential factor in reflection. Hatton’s (1995) says “in order to foster

effective reflection, what is needed is time and opportunity for

development, so that the required essential metateaching and

metacognitive skills can be acquired”

4.4 Answer of the Fourth Question

To answer the fourth research question which is stated as follows:

“Are there statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level in the levels

of background knowledge regarding the reflective teaching among student

teachers of English in Gaza universities due to the university variable?” the

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researcher formulated the first null hypothesis of the study which was stated

as follows: “There are no statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05)

level between averages of levels of background knowledge regarding the

reflective teaching among student teachers of English in Gaza universities

due to the university variable.

The researcher used Mann-Whitney Test to know if there are

statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of the

two universities in the levels of background about the reflective teaching. The

results of the tests were computed. Table (17) shows the differences in the

levels of background knowledge regarding the reflective teaching among the

student teachers of English in Gaza universities.

Table (17) Differences in the Levels of Background about the Reflective Teaching

Univ. N Mean Ranks

Sum of

Ranks

U value

Z value

P value

Sig.

IUG 35 30.06 1052.00

Al-Azhar 19 22.79 433.00

Total 54

433.00

1.664

0.096

Not sig.

According to table (17), it is obvious that there are no statistically

significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of levels of

background knowledge regarding the reflective teaching among student

teachers of English in Gaza universities due to the university variable.

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4.5 Answer of the Fifth Question

To answer the fifth research question which is stated as follows: “Are

there statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level in the levels of

thinking regarding the value (importance) of the reflective teaching among

student teachers of English in Gaza universities due to the university

variable?” the researcher formulated the second null hypothesis of the study

which was stated as follows: “There are no statistically significant differences

at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of levels of thinking regarding the value

(importance) of the reflective teaching among student teachers of English in

Gaza universities due to the university variable

The researcher used Mann-Whitney Test to know if there were

statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of the

two universities in the levels of thinking regarding the value (importance) of

the reflective teaching. The results of the questionnaire were computed. Table

(18) shows the differences in the levels of thinking regarding the value

(importance) of the reflective teaching among the student teachers of English

in Gaza universities.

Table (18) Differences in the Levels of Thinking Regarding the Value (Importance)

of the Reflective Teaching

Univ. N Mean Ranks

Sum of Ranks

U value

Z value

P value

Sig.

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IUG 35 29.21 1022.50

Al-Azhar 19 24.34 462.50

Total 54

462.50

1.090

0.279

Not sig.

According to table (18), it is obvious that there are no statistically significant

differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of levels of thinking regarding the

value (importance) of the reflective teaching among student teachers of English in

Gaza universities due to the university variable.

4.6 Answer of the sixth Question

To answer the sixth research question which was stated as follows:

“Are there statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level in the levels

of practicing the reflective teaching among student teachers of English in

Gaza universities due to the university variable?” the researcher formulated

the third null hypothesis of the study which was stated as follows: “There are

no statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of

levels of practicing the reflective teaching among student teachers of English

in Gaza universities due to the university variable”

The researcher used T test to know if there are statistically significant

differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of the two universities in the

levels of practicing the reflective teaching. The results of the observation card

were computed. Table (19) shows the differences in the levels of practicing

the reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in Gaza

universities.

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Table (19) Differences in the Levels of Practicing the Reflective Teaching

Sig. T.

Value

Std.

Deviation Mean N UNIV Fields

7.316 27.629 35 IUG Not Sig. 1.399

6.858 25.177 31 Al-Azhar Planning

8.544 37.014 35 IUG Not Sig. 1.335

9.200 34.097 31 Al-Azhar Operation

10.021 23.343 35 IUG Not Sig. 0.024

7.090 23.290 31 Al-Azhar Analysis

23.440 87.986 35 IUG Not Sig. 0.963

22.116 82.565 31 Al-Azhar Total

According to table (19), it is obvious that there are no statistically significant

differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of levels of practicing the reflective

teaching (in all three phases) among student teachers of English in Gaza universities

due to the university variable.

4.7 Comments on the Results of the Last Three Questions and

Hypotheses:

The results of the last three questions and the three hypotheses

showed that there no statistically significant differences in the levels of

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background knowledge, in the levels of thinking and in the levels of

practicing the reflective teaching approach.

The researcher thinks that although the similarity of the two programs

of teachers education in both universities (The Islamic University of

Gaza – Al-Azhar University), nevertheless there are some differences

between the two groups. Regarding the reflective teaching there are

no differences because the reasons which mentioned before in pages

(104), (106) and (108).

4.8 Summary

This chapter answered the six questions of the study by presenting the results

of the three tools (the test, the questionnaire and the observation card). Regarding

these results within its conditions of application, it can be concluded that this study

reveals a low level of background and positive thinking regarding reflective teaching.

In addition to that it reveals a medium level of practicing the approach itself. All of

the results of the hypotheses of the study showed that there were not statistically

significant differences between the two universities in all what the hypothesis deal

with.

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Chapter V

Discussion and Recommendations

Introduction

This study has been accomplished through five chapters aimed at measuring

the level of reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in Gaza

universities. In the light of the educational literature reviewed and discussed

throughout the study in addition to the practical experience of applying the tools of

the study, this chapter aimed at discussing the results of the study, giving

interpretation for them and providing valuable recommendations and giving further

researches.

5.1 Discussion

The descriptive analysis of the study results expressed that there were no

serious interests in the reflective teaching approach as an approach that helps student

teachers to develop their performance. The results of the test showed not high

background knowledge regarding the characteristics and the elements of this

approach. The questionnaire results revealed a positive thinking regarding the value

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(importance) of such approach. The observation card which consisted of three

phases, showed a medium level of practicing reflective teaching approach.

The researcher thinks that these results are acceptable as a result of the state

of education (teaching and learning) in the Gaza Strip in general and the lack of

interests in methodology in particular.

If we want to focus on the causes of these levels, we should mention the level

of the teaching quality in Palestine in general, and in the Gaza Strip in particular.

There is no doubt that teaching quality in the Gaza Strip is not high especially in

schools. This is due to some factors which hinder teachers to improve their practice

and performance, such as carelessness of some teachers who are supposed to

improve their abilities and posaibilities, their economic situations they suffer from.

They may not apply the reflective teaching approach as a reuslt of frustration

“Frustration of some teachers prevents them from involving in any activities

including reflection in their teaching.” (Gierhinger, 1996) , or a reuslt of routine “The

routine of teaching process (the same school, the same textbook, and the same level

of knowledge) can influence negatively on teachers’ desire to start reflection.”

(Gierhinger, 1996). Many factors can sontribute to prevent or discourage teachers not

to reflect (see page )

During the researcher’s training period in schools and his visits to smany

schools to observe some student teachers , he noticed that most of teachers may not

care about their development as a result of the bad political and economic situations

they suffer from. Therefore they do not search for a suitable approach to improve

their skills and performance, in other words, they will not recognize the

characteristics and the importance of the reflective approach.Those teachers will be

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in a stable performance level without any change, unless they intend to change, or be

forced to change by supervisors.

Supervisors and school principals also have a great role to better these bad

situations, since they can stimulate their teachers to apply the reflective approach in

their practice. The researcher thinks that the supervisors may not mention the

reflective approach during their supervision because most of them may not aware of

such valuable approach.

This study is supposed to formulate a clear picture for the reflective approach

as an approach for improvement, and development of the teaching process as well as

teachers’ performance. Reflective teaching “can positively affect professional growth

and development by leading to greater self awareness to the development of new

knowledge about professional practice” (Imel 1992).

The researcher expects that if this approach is applied on in our educational

institutions (colleges, schools), a distinguished step will happen in the educational

field. Some of the previous studies asserted the connections between applying

reflective approach with the teaching effectiveness. For example, Giovannelli’s study

(2003) contributed to the literature by affording a better understanding of the nature

of reflective disposition toward teaching and its relationship to effective teaching and

by providing a way in which this can be measured and facilitated.

So, it would be clear for teachers, school principals, supervisors and

educational principals that they should focus on this approach in order to improve the

teachers’ abilities and skills as well as the students' achievement and possibilities. All

of them should cooperate with each other to enhance the teaching process in addition

to the teachers practice. Besides that they should facilitate the reflection process and

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do their best to get rid of th difficulties and the obstacles which face reflective

teachers.

The researcher, also thinks that this study is an announcement for every

interested person in the educational process (teaching and learning) to highlight this

approach, to hold workshops to discuss its impact, to read more about what the

scholars say about it and to apply this approach in our schools and colleges “These

recommendations concerning the dialogue journals, weekly university seminar, and

faculty professional development seminar may be useful to teacher educators in

redesigning their program of study to meet constantly evolving educational needs”

(Norton, 1997).

Finally, the researcher hopes this study gives sufficient information about the

reflective teaching, its characteristics and its impact. Besides, he hopes this study

gives a clear description about the level of this approach in Gaza Universities which

reflects approximately its existence in Gaza colleges and schools.

The researcher hopes all teachers of all syllabuses apply this approach and

learn more and more about it in order to develop their performances as well as their

students’. “Engaging in reflective teaching takes time and efforts but the rewards can

be great” (Ruth, 1992) The researcher is strongly convinced that the reflective

teaching approach should be inseparable from the teaching of English in the Gaza

Strip schools and colleges in order to get the utmost benefits for teaching English.

5.2 Recommendations

After exposing the teachers’ needs of English for the reflective teaching

approach and explaining its characteristics and values, the researcher finds it

important to give some recommendations for some groups.

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5.2.1 Recommendations for Pre-service and In-service Teachers of

English.

-They should be more aware of their levels of their performance and look again into

their work and try to employ the reflective approach.

- They should assume their roles in improving education and teaching in their

institutions.

- They should know that the reflective approach is one of the keys of their advance in

their work.

- They should train themselves to work in pairs and groups to avail of their practice

and experiences and engaging in reflective group discussion or cooperative teaching.

- They should discuss and highlight the difficult problems in the class through

reflective thinking to solve them

- They should read a lot about methodology and to try models of different approaches

of teaching.

5.2.3 Recommendations for Supervisors and School

Principals.

- They should draw the attention of teachers and student teachers of English to the

positive utilities of reflective teaching in developing their performance.

- They should ask teachers and student teachers of English to become reflective ones

in English language teaching by critically reflecting on their teaching and taking

actions to improve their teaching.

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- They should encourage collaborative and cooperative meetings to promote the

adoption of the reflective teaching approach and to make changes in teaching

practices and attitudes in a supportive environment.

- They should remove the obstacles or the causes of some difficulties to practice

reflective teaching.

- They should provide real motives for the teacher who seeks to develop his/her

performance and recompense the successful and the active reflective teachers.

- They should allow teachers and student teachers of English to exchange visits in

their classrooms to reflect on their performance in pairs or in groups and facilitate

their meeting in the school by decreasing the teachers’ load.

- They should allow the university professors of English to visit schools to hold

discussion with the teachers of English concerning recent and valid methods of

teaching including the reflective teaching approach.

5.2.2 Recommendations for Faculties of Education.

- They should draw the attention of student teachers of English to the advantages of

reflective teaching in their professional development by explaining the real meaning

of reflective teaching and its principles for them.

- They can invite teachers to attend or participate in conferences to keep them in

touch with the recent methodology studies.

- They should enable student teachers to become reflective ones in English language

teaching by critically reflecting on their training and taking actions to improve their

practice through examinations and analysis of their roles and responsibilities.

- They should help student teachers to engage themselves in analyzing, reflecting on

and suggesting changes in teaching practices in a supportive environment.

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- They should motivate lecturers to teach the reflective teaching approach in

methodology courses and motivate the student teachers to practice it.

- They should motivate their teachers to discuss the reflective teaching approach with

each other to build positive attitudes towards it.

- They should reduce the academic loads of lecturers of English to give them

opportunity to be reflective teachers.

- They should ask for help from famous experts either in designing methodology

courses or in holding training courses related to the reflective teaching approach.

- They should contribute effectively in developing the competence of teachers and

student teachers in using reflective teaching approach by offering workshops,

conferences and training courses.

- They should motivate teachers to conduct some researches concerning the reflective

teaching approach either individually or group-works to investigate the possibilities of

applying this approach.

- Moreover they should supply the schools and Ministry of Education with empirical

researches to improve the teaching process.

5.2.4 Recommendations for the Palestinian Ministry of Higher

Education

- It should stimulate and help teachers to look again into their work and try to give

them some encouragements to employ this approach.

- It should recognize that applying the reflective teaching approach is a step towards

positive changes in higher education leading to the Total Quality Management.

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- It should encourage teachers to conduct some researches to investigate the

possibilities of applying this approach and discuss its benefits.

- It should facilitate the process of teaching English by holding workshops and

training courses discussing the reflective teaching approach

- It should provide schools with needed equipment for self-reflection for teachers.

- It should encourage school principals to cooperate with their teachers to apply the

reflective teaching approach.

- It should link the schools with the local universities to enrich the experience of the

teachers in applying different valid and recent teaching methods including the

reflective teaching approach.

- It should reduce the academic loads of teachers to give them opportunity to be

reflective teachers.

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Appendix (1) Test construction

Instructions of the test and the questionnaire (3 pages)

Dear trainee teacher

The researcher is working on a research that aims at measuring the level of reflective teaching among trainee teachers of English in Gaza Universities. As a trainee teacher, you are kindly requested to answer the questions of both the test and the questionnaire. The test aims at knowing to what extent the trainee teachers of English in Gaza universities are familiar with the concept of the reflective approach. The questionnaire aims at knowing what do the trainee teachers of English in Gaza universities think about the value of reflective practice in their teaching performance. Please, answer both the test and the questionnaire very carefully in order to help the researcher to obtain correct and true information. Be sure that all information which the researcher collect will be secret and for scientific purposes. Thank you very much for your kind help and serious cooperation. Researcher Mamdouh Khader Ferwana

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Please circle the appropriate answer from a, b, c, and d 1) Reflection in teaching is a process that helps teachers to a) think only about what happened in the classroom. b) think about what happened in the classroom, why it happened and what else could have been do to reach their goals. c) think about what will happen in the classroom. d) think about why it happened in the classroom. 2) The real reflective teacher is a teacher who a) examines, frames and attempts to solve dilemmas in classroom practice. b) takes responsibility for his/her own professional development. c) is attentive to the institutional and cultural contexts in which s/he teaches d) a & b & c. 3) A reflective teacher does not a) discuss teaching events with expertise. b) believe that he can change to the better. d) connect emotion with the teaching events. c) spend much time thinking about new ideas for teaching 4) reflective teachers …… a) should be able to imitate other teachers b) can theorize from their own practice. c) can be provided with some theories, so they can apply them in real teaching situation. d) a & b 5) Active reflection allows teacher to a) plan, decide a course of action and anticipate future consequences of the action.

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b) make sense of past experiences and give new, deeper insight into the meaning of those experiences. c) make immediate right decisions during class. d) b & c 6) Circle the letter of the most appropriate statement. a) there is only one level of reflection in teaching called "the level of teacher's action" b) there are three levels of reflection in teaching. c) there are two levels of reflection in teaching "the theoretical level and ethical/moral one". d) there is not any level for reflection in teaching 7) Which is not a reflective step? a) creating a plan that incorporate new insight b) considering how the situation or activity could have been different c) connecting between emotion and reflection for teaching events d) collecting descriptive data about teaching. 8) Observation of your teaching by yourself is …. a) useful to compare what you did in class with your beliefs about what you should do. b) beneficial to get positive feedback c) very useful to become more aware of what you actually do in the classroom d) a & b & c 9) "Peer observation …… a) is a means to collect only information about teacher's practice. b) I do not know what it means. c) is a very difficult process. d) is a means to develop teacher's practice. 10) Gathering information about teaching practice a) takes a lot of time and effort b) helps to motivate your memory c) is very essential for reflect teachers' practice. d) a & b 11) Are you used to discussing what happened inside the classroom with you colleagues? a) Yes, when we want to spend our spare time. b) Yes, because I follow the reflective approach. c) No, because it will be a tedious conversation. d) No, because I do not want anyone to know my weakness. 12) If you face a problem during teaching, you will a) think which is the best solution for it b) ask some students to solve it.

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c) solve it immediately without thinking d) neglect it

Appendix (2) List of Experts

(1 page)

1. Akram Habib Ph.D in English Literature The Islamic University

2. Awad Keshta Ph.D in Methodology The Islamic University

3. Ezzo Afana Ph.D in Methodology The Islamic University

4. Kamal Mortaja Ph.D in TEFL The Islamic University

5. Mohamad hamdan Ph.D in Methodology Al Aqsa University

6. Nazmi Al Masri Ph.D in TEFL The Islamic University

7. Sadeq Ferwana M.A in TEFL The Islamic University

8. Sanaa Abou Dagga Ph.D in Research and Evaluation The Islamic University

9. Sara Philpot M.A in TEFL London University

10. Walled Amery PhD in Linguistics The Islamic University

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Appendix (3) Questionnaire construction

(1 page) Please check (√) in the appropriate column.

No.

ITEM

Strongly agree A

gree N

o comm

ent D

isagree Strongly

1. Teachers can get a real picture about their performance by practicing reflection in their teaching.

2. Right reflective practice leads to better changes. 3. Professionalism is one on reflective practice aims. 4. Practicality and flexibility can be achieved by

implementing reflection in teaching.

5. when teachers combine experience with reflection, professional growth is certain resulting in effective teaching and learning.

6. there is a positive correlation between reflective teaching and teacher's effectiveness.

7. it is beneficial for teachers to devote time to sit down and think about what they do inside and outside their classroom.

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8. students can benefit as a result of teachers' increased level of reflection.

9. Reflective practice takes time and efforts for little benefits.

10. it is useless to write down about teaching events you face

Appendix (4) Observation card construction:

(2 pages)

Observation card (The first/ second visit)

Student name: ………………….. University: ………………….. Level: ………………….. Date of visit: ………………….. 1- Planning Depending on the trainee teacher's lesson plan, it can be noticed that the trainee teacher…… No. ITEM 1 2 3 4 5 1. Gives a clear idea about the role s/he will take on

during this class.

2. Determines exactly what students should learn from this lesson.

3. Decides what activities will be included in the lesson.

4. Builds on students' previous experience with new material /aims/ challenges.

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5. Organizes the lesson into stages or sections. 6. Determines sufficient time for every stage. 7. Use good evaluation methods to check on students'

understanding.

8. Has alternative plan(s) if problems arise at some phase of the lesson.

9. Makes good use of some past teaching events 2- Operations and roles The observer can attend a class for the trainee teacher and then he can notice that the trainee teacher …….. No. ITEM 1 2 3 4 5 1. Gives clear and easily-understood instructions. 2. Interacts openly with students. 3. Manages discussion and work groups effectively. 4. Has the skill of getting useful feedback. 5. Has the skill to improve his/her teaching according

to the feedback.

6. Directs questions to groups skillfully. 7. Takes some risks by posing provocative questions. 8. Asks students additional reflective questions. 9. Uses technique/s to gather information about his/her

performance. (Such as writing a diary, recording audio or video tapes, using portfolios… etc

10. Spends suitable time on each stage. 11. Can manage students with different ability levels in

the class.

12. Attempts to solve problems that arise in the classroom.

3- Analysis and reactions

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Depending on a discussion with the trainee teacher, it can be noticed that the trainee teacher…… No. ITEM 1 2 3 4 5 1. He is able to judge lesson success or failure. 2. Can determine the strengths and weaknesses of the

lesson.

3. Has the ability to recall gathered information. 4. Has the ability to analyze gathered information. 5. Can benefit from gathered information to develop

his/her professional performance.

6. Decides whether s/he makes sufficient preparation for the lesson.

7. Is able to employ alternative teaching strategies each time he/she meets students.

8. follows supervisors' recommendations.

Appendix (5) Instructions of the observation card:

(4 pages)

بسم اهللا الرحمن الرحيم

السادة المالحظون في التربية العملية حفظهم اهللا السالم عليكم ورحمة اهللا وبركاته

مالحظة طلبة التربية العملية تخصص لغة إنجليزية/ الموضوع

: نجليزية بعنوان يقوم الباحث بإعداد بحث تكميلي لنيل درجة الماجستير في طرق تدريس اللغة اإل

" Level of Reflective teaching among trainee teachers of English in Gaza Universities"

"مستوى التدريس التأملي لدي الطلبة معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة"

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حظـة إنه لمن دواعي سرور الباحث أن تكون أحد المالحظين الذين سيساعدون الباحـث فـي مال معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية في كليات التربية في جامعات غزة ، والمـسجلين لمـادة ) طالب وطالبات ( الطلبة

.م2005م ـ 2004التربية العملية لهذا العام كما ويرجى التكرم بالعلم بأن الباحث قد أعد ثالث بطاقات ، تقيس كل منها أحد جوانب الدرس، وهي

:على النحو التالي ، ويقصد Planning وهي مرحلة ما قبل الدرس )analysis content sheet(ة تحليل للمحتوى بطاق -1

.بها التخطيط للدرس

، ويقـصد Operations and roles وهي مرحلة أثناء الدرس )observation card(بطاقة مالحظة -2 .بها تنفيذ خطة الدرس داخل الفصل

، ويقصد بها Analysis and reactionsا بعد الدرس وهي مرحلة م)meeting sheet(بطاقة مقابلة -3 .النظرة التأملية لما تم تنفيذه

وقد اهتم الباحث بأن تكون معظم بنود بطاقة المالحظة في المراحل الثالث السابقة كلهـا متعلقـة

)يمكن مراجعة مفهوم التدريس التأملي في نهاية هذا الخطاب( بأسلوب التأمل في التدريس

باستطاعة المالحظ تحديد مستوى التأمل لدى الطالب المعلم من خالل االطالع لمرحلة األولى اففي ، ومن ثم تحديد مستوى التأمل وبأي درجة تبعا للدرجات المعطـاة فـي بطاقـة سعلى دفاتر تحضير الدرو

.)analysis content sheet(تحليل المحتوى اخل الفصل أثناء الدرس ، ومن ثم تحديد مستوى التأمل ، فتكون المالحظة د المرحلة الثانية أما في

.)observation card(وبأي درجة تبعا للدرجات المعطاة في بطاقة المالحظة يمكن للمالحظ قياس المستوى التأملي لدى الطالب المعلم من خالل نقـاش المرحلة األخيرة أما في

مستوى التأمل وبأي درجة تبعا للدرجات المعطاة فـي وحوار يدور حول بنود هذه المرحلة ، ومن ثم تحديد )meeting sheet(بطاقة المقابلة

وبإمكان المالحظ تحديد مستوى التأمل لدى الطلبة المعلمين في المراحل الثالث الـسابقة مـن خـالل :الخيارات الخمس المتاحة في البطاقات ، وهي كالتالي

.بيرة جدا في أداء الطالب المعلم ويعني أن هذه البند متوفر بدرجة ك5رقم - . ويعني أن هذه البند متوفر بدرجة كبيرة في أداء الطالب المعلم 4رقم - . ويعني أن هذه البند متوفر بدرجة متوسطة في أداء الطالب المعلم 3رقم - . ويعني أن هذه البند متوفر بدرجة قليلة في أداء الطالب المعلم 2رقم - .لبند متوفر بدرجة قليلة جدا في أداء الطالب المعلم ويعني أن هذه ا1رقم -

، وذلك حتى تكون عمليـة كما وينبغي مالحظة كل فرد من الطلبة المعلمين مرتين في زيارتين منفصلتين

ويمكن للمالحظ حفظ بطاقة المالحظة لكل طالب في المرتين، وعليه يمكن كتابـة . المالحظة صادقة وثابتة

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وكذلك ضرورة حتى يتم تجميع ومقارنة كل البطاقات الخاصة بكل طالبطاقة المالحظة على باسم الطالب ..اسم الجامعة ، الجنس والمعدل التراكمي) اختياري ( تعبئة البيانات المطلوبة مثل االسم

ويمكن االستعاضة عن األسماء باستخدام الرموز أو األرقام في حال وجود حرج أو إشكاليات معينـة عنـد .تخدام األسماءاس

أعـد كما ويود الباحث أن يلفت انتباه االخوة المالحظين واألخوات المالحظات بأن الباحـث قـد المفهوم ( سؤاال وذلك للتعرف على مدى معرفة الطلبة المعلمين بالتأمل في التدريس 12 مكونا من اختبارا

لبة المعلمون عن جدوى وأهمية تطبيق أسلوب التأمل لمعرفة ماذا يعتقد الط أعد استبيانا ، وكذلك ) والتطبيق .في التدريس وتأثيره على األداء المهني

ويتمنى الباحث أن يقوم الطلبة المعلمون باإلجابة على أسئلة االختبـار واالسـتبيان بكـل صـدق .ظةوموضوعية حتى يخرج الباحث بنتائج صادقة وموضوعية ومتناغمة ومنسجمة مع نتائج بطاقات المالح

وعليه يرجى التكرم بالتأكيد على الطلبة المعلمين بضرورة اإلجابة على أسئلة االختبار واالسـتبيان بكـل .صدق وموضوعية ، وذلك في أول لقاء فقط

..، اسم الجامعة، الجنس والمعدل التراكمي) اختياري ( وكذلك ضرورة تعبئة البيانات المطلوبة مثل االسم

هذه المالحظات موضع اهتمام من جميع المالحظـين والمالحظـات ، وأن يأمل الباحث أن تكون .تكون واضحة بما فيه الكفاية إلنجاح عملية المالحظة على أتم وجه

وال يسع الباحث في الختام إال أن يتقدم بخالص الشكر والتقدير لجميع االخوة المالحظين واألخوات

ائال المولى عـز وجـل أن يجعـل ذلـك فـي ميـزان المالحظات على ما سيذلونه من جهد مشكور ، س .ـن وأن يتقبل من الجميع صالح األعمال/حسناتهم

والسالم عليكم ورحمة اهللا وبركاته

/ الباحث ممدوح خضر فروانة

.يمكن االستزادة من التعرف على التدريس التأملي بقراءة هذه الفقرات

What does Reflective teaching mean?

1- 'Reflective teaching means looking at what you do in the classroom,

thinking about why you do it, and thinking about if it works - a process

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of self-observation and self-evaluation. By collecting information about

what goes on in our classroom, and by analyzing and evaluating this

information, we identify and explore our own practices and underlying

beliefs. This may then lead to changes and improvements in our teaching.'

2- This term is used to describe the way teachers observe their own work and

develop a questioning attitude towards what they do. It encourages them to consider

modifying their teaching strategies, approaches and materials, and to take

responsibility for their own professional development

3- Reflection as process that "helps teachers to think about what happened, why it

happened and what else could have been done to reach their goals"

يعنى التدريس التأملي في األساس بالعملية التعليمية في مراحلها المختلفة ، إذ يعمد المدرس إلـى طريقـة ، ) المالحظـة الذاتيـة ( وضعه خطة الدرس بناء على تأمله لطريقة تدريسه وجمع المعلومات الكافية عنها

.يقة التدريس لديهومن ثم القيام بتحليل تلك المعلومات وتوظيفها في عملية تحسين طروهناك العديد من المهارات التأملية ومنها على سبيل المثال ، المهارة في كيفية جمع المعلومات عن طريـق كتابة وتدوين بعض المالحظات اليومية ، أو التسجيل الصوتي أو المرئي أو استخدام ملف للتوثيق لألمـور

الخ.... التي تحدث في الفصل . يفية إعداد خطة درس مرنة ، وتقسيمها إلى مراحل وإعطاء الوقت الكافي لكل مرحلة وهناك المهارة في ك

ومن المهـارات . وكذلك مهارة التواصل مع الطلبة وحسن استخدام التغذية الراجعة اآلنية في تحسين األداء يلهـا بـشكل المميزة للتدريس التأملي هي القدرة على استرجاع المعلومات عن كل ما حدث في الفصل وتحل

موضوعي على أن يتم االستفادة منها في وضع خطط وبرامج لتحسين األداء والتخلص من السلبيات وتنميـة .اإليجابيات قدر المستطاع

فالتأمل في التدريس البد من قياسه قبل وأثناء وبعد الدرس حتى يتم تحديد مـستوى التأمـل لـدى الطالـب ن ما يقوم به الطالب المعلم هو من خالل تطبيقه لمفهـوم التأمـل فـي المالحظ بدقة ، بحيث يتم التأكد من أ

.التدريس ، وليس تطبيقا عفويا

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Appendix (6) Permissions for applying the study

Official Letters for applying the study (5 pages)

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ملخص باللغة العربیة

"مستوى التدريس التأملي لدى الطلبة معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة"

ممدوح خضر فروانة/ الباحث إشراف

عوض قشطة/ عزو عفانة الدكتور/ األستاذ الدكتور

في جامعات غزة تهدف هذه الدراسة إلى معرفة مستوى التدريس التأملي لدى الطلبة معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية :وذلك من خالل اإلجابة على هذه األسئلة) الجامعة اإلسالمية ـ جامعة األزهر(

ـ ما مدى معرفة الطلبة معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة بالتدريس التأملي؟1 ـ ما اعتقادات الطلبة معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة حول التدريس التأملي؟2 وى التدريس التأملي لدى الطلبة معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة؟ ـ ما مست3 بين مستويات معرفة الطلبة معلمـي (α ≤ 0.05)ـ هل هناك فروق ذات داللة إحصائية عند مستوى 4

اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة بالتدريس التأملي؟ بين مستويات اعتقادات الطلبـة (α ≤ 0.05)ـ هل هناك فروق ذات داللة إحصائية عند مستوى 5

معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة حول التدريس التأملي ؟ بين مستويات ممارسة الطلبة معلمي (α ≤ 0.05)ـ هل هناك فروق ذات داللة إحصائية عند مستوى 6

اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة للتدريس التأملي؟اسـتعمل الباحـث أدوات مختلفـة لجمـع . ع الباحث المنهج الوصفي التحليلـي لتحقيق أهداف الرسالة ، اتب

فأعد اختبارا لإلجابة عن السؤال األول ، واستبانه لإلجابة عن السؤال الثاني ، وبطاقـة . المعلومات المطلوبة .مالحظة مكونة من ثالث مراحل لإلجابة عن السؤال الثالث

استخدم الباحث النسب . طالبا وطالبة ) 66(شوائية من الطلبة بلغت طبق الباحث أدوات الدراسة على عينة ع ، اختبار كوبر، اختبـار ت ، 21المئوية ، المتوسطات، معامل بيرسون ، ألفا كرونباخ ، كودر ريتشاردسون

.واختبار مان وتني ،وذلك لتحليل المعلومات إحصائيا : توصل الباحث إلى النتائج التالية

.لطلبة الجامعتين في مستوى معرفتهم بالتدريس التأمليوجود مستوى متدن - .وجود اعتقاد إيجابي مرتفع حول التدريس التأملي لدى طلبة الجامعتين -

.وجود مستوى متدن لطلبة الجامعتين في مستوى ممارستهم للتدريس التأملي في مراحله الثالثة -

ين مستويات معرفة الطلبـة معلمـي ب(α ≤ 0.05) ال يوجد فروق ذات داللة إحصائية عند مستوى - اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة بالتدريس التأملي

بين مستويات اعتقادات الطلبة معلمـي (α ≤ 0.05) ال يوجد فروق ذات داللة إحصائية عند مستوى - اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة حول التدريس التأملي

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بين مستويات ممارسة الطلبة معلمي (α ≤ 0.05)وى ال يوجد فروق ذات داللة إحصائية عند مست - اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة للتدريس التأملي؟

وقدم الباحث عدة توصيات هامة للطلبة معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية بكليات التربية ، والمـوجهين ومـدراء :المدارس ، ولوزارة التربية والتعليم، وكان من أهم هذه التوصيات ما يلي

التـدريس ( ـ توجيه المعلمين أن يعيدوا النظر في طرق تدريسهم ، وأن يحاولوا تجريب هذا الطريقة 1 .في التدريس الصفي) التأملي

.ـ زيادة اهتمام المعلمين للتعرف على التدريس التأملي على أنه مفتاح لتقدمهم في عملهم2

في مساقات طـرق التـدريس الخاصـة ) التدريس التأملي (ـ تركيز كليات التربية على هذه الطريقة 3 .بإعداد معلم اللغة اإلنجليزية

ـ اهتمام الموجهين ومدراء المدارس بلفت انتباه المعلمين إلى التدريس التأملي ومزاياه وفوائد تطبيقـه 4 .في مجال التدريس

والوقـوف علـى ـ اهتمام وزارة التربية والتعليم بتكثيف األبحاث التربوية لتتناول التدريس التأملي، 5 .مدى أهمية تطبيقه في مدارسنا

ـ إدراك وزارة التربية والتعليم لفوائد التدريس التأملي كخطوة نحو التغييـر اإليجـابي فـي مهنـة 6 .التدريس للوصول إلى الجودة الشاملة في التدريس