levy no time to think

7/30/2019 Levy No Time to Think

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NOTIMETOTHINK:

ReflectionsonInformationTechnology

andContemplativeScholarship

DavidM.Levy

TheInformationSchool

UniversityofWashington

[email protected]

PrepublicationVersion

December,2007

Thefinalpublication(DOI10.1007/s1067600791426)isavailableonlineat

http://www.springerlink.com/content/q5154248132321tn/.

ItwillalsoappearinprintinEthics&InformationTechnology9(4)2007.

Abstract.Thispaperarguesthattheacceleratingpaceoflifeisreducingthetimefor

thoughtfulreflection,andinparticularforcontemplativescholarship,withinthe

academy.Itnotesthatthelossoftimetothinkisoccurringatexactlythemomentwhen

scholars,educators,andstudentshavegainedaccesstodigitaltoolsofgreatvalueto

scholarship.Itgoesontoexplorehowandwhybothofthesefactsmightbetrue,whatit

saysaboutthenatureofscholarship,andwhatmightbedonetoaddressthisstateof

affairs.

Theworldhasarrivedatanageofcheapcomplexdevicesofgreatreliability;andsomethingis

boundtocomeofit.(VannevarBush,AsWeMayThink1)

1.Introduction

InherbiographyoftheNobelPrizewinninggeneticistBarbaraMcClintock,EvelynFox

Kellerasks:WhatenabledMcClintocktoseefurtheranddeeperintothemysteriesof

geneticsthanhercolleagues?(Keller,1983,p.197)KelleranswersthatMcClintockwas

ableto

take

the

time

to

look

and

to

hear

what

the

material

had

to

say

to

her.

The

material,inthiscase,wascorn,andMcClintockstudiedeachofhercornplantswith

1VannevarBushsfamousarticle,AsWeMayThink(Bush,1945),hasbeenrepublisheda

numberoftimes.Pagenumberscitedinthepresentarticlecomefromareprintingthatappeared

inFromMemextoHypertext(Nyce&Kahn,1991),acollectionofessaysbyandaboutBush.
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]://www.springerlink.com/content/q5154248132321tn/http://www.springerlink.com/content/q5154248132321tn/mailto:[email protected]


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greatconcentration,patience,care,andevenlove;shekneweachofthemintimately.

Hermethodwastoseeonekernel[ofcorn]thatwasdifferent,andmakethat

understandable.AftergivingalectureatHarvard,Kellertellsus,McClintockmet

informallywithagroupofgraduateandpostdoctoralstudents.Theywereresponsiveto

herexhortationthattheytakethetimeandlook,buttheywerealsotroubled.Where

doesonegetthetimetolookandtothink?Theyarguedthatthenewtechnologyof

molecularbiologyisselfpropelling.Itdoesntleavetime.Theresalwaysthenext

experiment,thenextsequencingtodo.Thepaceofcurrentresearchseemstopreclude

suchacontemplativestance.(Keller,1983,p.206)

McClintocksmeetingwithgraduatestudentstookplaceintheearly1980s.Ifquestions

couldbejustifiablyraisedmorethantwodecadesagoaboutthepaceoflifeandits

consequencesforlookingandthinking,howmuchmoreurgentlymightsuchquestions

beraisedtoday?Forintheinterveningyears,wehaveinarguablywitnessedafurther

speedupinthepaceoflife.BookswithtitleslikeFaster:TheAccelerationofJustAboutEverything(Gleick,1999)andNoTime:StressandtheCrisisofModernLife(Menzies,2005)

nowattempttodocumentthephenomenon,andmovementssuchasSlowFoodandTake

BackYourTimehavearisentomountaresponse.Theacademicworldhashardlybeen

shieldedfromthisacceleration,astodaysacademicscanreadilyattest.Todayspaceof

researchwouldmaketheHarvardstudentspracticesseemleisurelybycomparison.Yet

duringthissameperiodoftimearemarkablesuiteoftoolshasbeendevelopedfor

researchandscholarship.Thankstonetworkeddigitalcomputers,email,andtheWorld

WideWeb,accesstoscholarlyinformationandresearchresultshasneverbeeneasier;

andthankstothevastcomputationalpowernowreadilyavailable,wholenewareasof

scholarlyinvestigationhavebeenopenedup.(Itisimpossible,forexample,toimagine

thedecodingofthehumangenomewithouttheuseofsuchtools.)

Wewouldseem,then,tobelosingthetimetolookandtothinkattheverymoment

wehaveproducedextraordinarytoolsforinvestigatingtheworldandourselvesandfor

sharingourfindings.Howmightweunderstandthisseemingparadox?Thequestion

becomesallthemoreintriguing,andperhapspuzzling,inthefaceofthisfact:Muchof

theinspirationfortodaysdigitaltoolscamefromaproposalmadebyamannamed

VannevarBushsixtyyearsago;hisaimwastoaugmentthescholarsabilitytothink.By

proposingtechnologies

to

automate

the

more

routine

aspects

of

thought,

Bush

hoped

to

freeupmoretimeforscholarstodevotetothecreativeaspectsoftheirwork.Howhasit

cometopassthattechnologiesdevelopedtomakemoretimetothinkhaveseemingly

hadtheoppositeeffect,andwhatdoesitmeanfortheacademy?

NoTimetoThink*DavidM.Levy*Page2


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IwillapproachthesequestionsfirstbyexploringBushscelebratedproposalandby

contrastinghisideaswiththoseofJosefPieper,aGermanphilosopherwhoargued,from

averydifferentperspective,fortheneedtoreclaimthetimeforreflectionand

contemplation.Iwilllocatetherootsofbothmensconcernsinacenturieslong

commitmenttomorefasterbetter,apowerfulphilosophythatprivilegesfasttime

activitiesoverslowtimeactivities,suchasthinking.BothBushandPieper,itturns

out,distinguishedbetweentwomodesofthinkingoneroutineorrational,theother

matureorcreative;Iwillexploresomeofthewaysthatphilosophers,artists,and

scientistshavecharacterizedthisdifference.AndIwillconcludebyexamininghowthe

accelerationandoverloadingofacademiclifeisdeprivingfacultyandstudentsoftime

tothink,andwhatwemightdoaboutit.

2.AsWeMayThink

VannevarBushwastrainedasanelectricalengineer.HereceivedhisPh.D.atMIT,taughtthere,andin1931becameitsvicepresidentaswellasthedeanofitsSchoolof

Engineering.Hisgreatesttechnicalcontributionscameintheareaofanalogcomputing.

ButBushmainlymadehismarkontheworldnotasaworkingengineerorasateacher

butasaskilledadministratorandpoliticaloperator:hewasarguablythefirstAmerican

technocrat.In1940,withAmericasentryintothewaronthehorizon,Bushapproached

PresidentRooseveltwithaproposal:tocreateanorganizationthroughwhichAmerican

scientistscoulddevelopnewweaponsystemsandothercriticaltechnologiesthatwould

givetheAlliestheedgeovertheAxispowers.Rooseveltapprovedtheplanfirstcalled

theNationalDefenseResearchCommittee,andlatertheOfficeofScientificResearchand

Development(OSRD)andBushoversawanextensivenetworkofacademicscientists

whocollaboratedwithmilitaryandcorporatepartners.Bushwasdeeplyinvolvedin

Rooseveltsdecisiontoauthorizethecreationofthefirstatomicbomb.Andbasedonhis

wartimesuccessesasaresearchadministrator,hewasoneofthefirsttoimaginea

peacetimesuccessortoOSRD,whichbecametheNationalScienceFoundation.During

theseintenselyproductiveyears,Bushwasfamousenoughtoappearonthecoverofthe

April3,1944issueofTimemagazine,whichdescribedhimasalean,sharp,salty,54

yearoldYankeepossessedofinsatiablecuriosityandaprodigiousmemory.

(YankeeScientist ,1944)

Thisisastunningrecordofachievement,yettodayBushisprobablybestremembered,

especiallywithinthecomputerandinformationsciences,fortheessayhepublishedin

theJuly1945issueofTheAtlanticMonthly.Attheheartofthearticleishisproposalfor

thememex,adevicethatwouldallowresearcherstoreadmaterialsstoredinmicrofilm

formatandtocreateassociativeindexes,thebasicideaofwhichisaprovisionwhereby



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anyitemmaybecausedatwilltoselectimmediatelyandautomaticallyanother(Bush,

1991,p.103).Butinadditiontoimagining,andpossiblyinventing,hypertext,Bush

proposedhighlycompactstorage,headmountedcompactmicrocameras,andvoice

inputdevices.

Bushhasbeenjustifiablycelebrated,evenvenerated,fortheinfluenceheexerted.The

centralsectionofAsWeMayThink,inwhichhedevelopstheideaofthememex,is

certainlythemoststudiedandbestknownsectionofthepaper.Whathasreceived

considerablylessattentionisjusthowBushframedhisproposal,specificallythereasons

hegaveforcreatingthememex.Ineightparagraphsatthebeginningandtwo

paragraphsattheend,Bushlaysoutaclearandpowerfulargument:

Adevastatingperiodisnowcomingtoanend,heobserves,aterriblewarinwhich

scienceandtechnologyhaveenabledpeopletodeploycruelweaponsagainstone

another.Thesurvivalofthehumanracedependsonitsabilitytotranscendsuchbehaviorandtogrowinthewisdomofraceexperience.Suchwisdommayperhapsbe

hadbybetteruseoftherecordofhumanachievement,forifpeoplehavebetteraccessto

therecord,theywouldbeabletobetterreview[their]shadypastandanalyzemore

completelyandobjectively[their]presentproblems.(Bush,1991,p.106)Butthereare

obstaclestodaypreventingpeoplefrommakingthebestuseoftherecord:

Thereisagrowingmountainofresearch.Butthereisincreasedevidencethatwe

arebeingboggeddowntodayasspecializationextends.Theinvestigatoris

staggeredbythefindingsandconclusionsofthousandsofotherworkers

conclusionswhichhecannotfindtimetograsp,muchlesstoremember,asthey

appear.Yetspecializationbecomesincreasinglynecessaryforprogress,andthe

efforttobridgebetweendisciplinesiscorrespondinglysuperficial....

Thedifficultyseemstobe,notsomuchthatwepublishundulyinviewofthe

extentandvarietyofpresentdayinterests,butratherthatpublicationhasbeen

extendedfarbeyondourpresentabilitytomakerealuseoftherecord.The

summationofhumanexperienceisbeingexpandedataprodigiousrate,andthe

meansweuseforthreadingthroughtheconsequentmazetothemomentarily

importantitem

is

the

same

as

was

used

in

the

days

of

square

rigged

ships.

(Bush,

1991,pp.8889)

Inlightofthesedifficulties,Bushsuggests,scientists,whoseenergieshavebeen

concentratedonaidingthewareffort,shouldnowdevotethemselvestomorepeaceful

ends.Iftheyweretofocusondevelopingtechnologiesthatremovedtheseinformation



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obstacles(beingboggeddownbytheamountandinaccessibilityofspecialized

knowledge),theywouldmakeamajorcontributiontohumansurvivalandflourishing.

TheproblemBushwashopingtosolve,inotherwords,wasthatofinformation

overload2andtheincreasingspecializationandinaccessibilityofinformation.Hewasnt

aloneinthisconcern.BytheendofWorldWarI,themanagementofscientific

informationhadbeenrecognizedasawidespreadandlargelyunsolvedproblem.For,

accordingtoColinBurke,improvementsinprinting,communicationsand

transportation[had]createdabundleofopportunitiesandfrustrationsthat...beganto

becalledthelibraryproblem(Burke,1994,p.99).Thisproblemmanifesteditself

differentlytodifferentconstituencies.Forthegeneralpublic,theissuewasunequal

accesstobooksandthecostoflibrarymaterials.Forscientists,itwastheinabilityofthe

traditionallibrarytoserveitsmostimportantclient,thescientificresearcher(Burke,

1994,p.100).BytheendofWorldWarIscientistswerevoicingtheirfrustrationsand

soughttoestablish...aninformationsystemforscience(Burke,1994,p.110).

BushsproposalinAsWeMayThinkwashisattempttoaddressthelibrary

problemwhichlatercametobecalledtheinformationproblembyattendingtothe

informationneedsofscientistsandotherresearchers.Arecord,ifitistobeusefulto

science,Bushobserved,mustbecontinuouslyextended,itmustbestored,andabove

allitmustbeconsulted.(Bush,1991,p.90)Heworriedthattheincreasingamountsof

informationavailablemeantthattrulysignificantattainments[weremorelikelyto]

becomelostinthemassoftheinconsequential.(Bush,1991,p.89)Bushwanteda

fundamentalreformofthelibrary,Burkesays,tomakeitconformtotheconceptsof

thenewscientistandengineers.Helookedforwardtothetimewhenmachineswould

allowpracticingscientiststotakechargeof,ifnottobypass,thelibrary(Burke,1994,p.

119).

Bushwasalsoexplicitaboutwhyinformationoverloadwasathreattotheresearch

enterprise:Byenmeshingscholarsintheendlesspracticaldetailsofmanagingthe

record,includingtheselectionofrelevantmaterials,asurfeitofinformationwouldleave

themlesstimetothink.HereBushwascarefultodistinguishbetweentwokindsor

modesofthought.Onewasroutineorrepetitive:logicalprocessesofthoughtthatran

alongan

accepted

groove.

(Bush,

1991,

p.

98)

Arithmetic

was

such

an

instance,

for

2Bushdoesntuseandcouldnthaveusedthephraseinformationoverload,fortheterm

wasntcoineduntiltheearly1960s(Levy,2008).AlsoseeHimmasarticle(thisvolume),wherehe

claimsthattheproblemBushidentifiedshouldnotbeconsideredafullinstanceofthe

phenomenonofinformationoverload.



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[a]ddingacolumnoffiguresisarepetitivethoughtprocess.(Bush,1991,p.95)The

othermodeofthoughthedescribedasmatureandcreative:therealworkofdeep

andoriginalthinking.Thefirsthebelievedcouldbeautomated,butnotthesecond:For

maturethought,hesaid,thereisnomechanicalsubstitute.Butcreativethoughtand

essentiallyrepetitivethoughtareverydifferentthings.Forthelatterthereare,andmay

be,powerfulmechanicalaids.(Bush,1991,p.95)Bushsintentionwasclear:by

automatingtheroutineaspectsofthinking,suchassearchandselection,hehopedto

freeupresearcherstimetothinkmoredeeplyandcreatively.

3.Leisure:TheBasisofCulture

AtthesametimethatBushsarticleappeared,anotherthinkerwasalsoexpressing

concernoverthelossoftimeforreflectionand,ashecalledit,contemplation.Hetoo

wasconsideringhowsocietyshouldproceedintheaftermathofthewar,albeitfroma

verydifferent

vantage

point.

For

whereas

Bush

was

an

engineer

and

atechnocrat,

Josef

PieperwasaphilosopherandaRomanCatholictheologian.AndwhileBushwas

writingfromtheperspectiveofthevictor,theGermanPieperwaswritingasamember

ofavanquishednationjustbeginningtoaddresstheproblemsofeconomicandsocial

reconstruction.Both,however,wereconcernedwiththechallengeofmakingthe

transitiontoamorepeacefulandprosperousworld.Eachidentifiedaproblem,and

althoughnotexactlythesameproblem,theybearasufficientresemblancetosuggest

thatthesetwomenwereseeingsomeofthesamephenomena,ifnotproposingthesame

solution.

JosefPieperwasbornin1904andeducatedattheUniversityofBerlinandthe

UniversityofMuenster;heservedintheGermanarmyfrom1940to1945.Hepublished

morethanfiftybooks,establishingareputation,inthewordsofoneobituary,notonly

asaclearexpositoroftheclassicaltraditionanditsrelevanceforcontemporary

discussionbutasanincisivecriticofwhathetooktobedehumanizingphilosophical

trendsfrompositivismtoabsoluteidealism.(Noone,1997)Afterthewarhewasa

visitingprofessorattheUniversityofNotreDameandStanford,amongother

institutions.

Hefirst

came

to

the

attention

of

English

and

American

readers

through

asmall

volume

calledMusseundKult.OriginallypublishedinGermanyin1948,itfirstappearedin

EnglishasLeisure:TheBasisofCulture(Pieper,1952)withanintroductionbyT.S.Elliot,

andin1998inanewtranslation(Pieper,1998).Thetwoessayscollectedinthevolume

werefirstpresentedaslecturesin1947.WhereasVannevarBush,writingin1945,had

askedwhatAmericanscientistsshoulddevotethemselvestointheimmediateaftermath



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Pieperclearlyrealizedthatthisreversalofprioritiesmightseemshockingtohispostwar

audience,thatitmightwellappeartobeacelebrationoflazinessandidleness.Sohe

invokesThomasAquinastoarguethatleisure,rightlyunderstoodandpracticed,is

hardlyidleness;onthecontrary,itisfreneticoverworkthatconstitutesaformof

idleness,anditisoverworkortherestlessnessofaselfdestructiveworkfanaticism

(Pieper,1998,p.27),ashesodramaticallyputsitthatisthetruemorallapse.Here

Pieperwantstounderstandidlenessnotasdawdlingorslackingoffinthemodern

sense,assimplylazilylyingabout,butrather,followingthemedievalscholastics,asa

failuretoengagefullyandresponsiblywithoneselfandtheworld.Inthisolder

understanding,idlenessoracedia,touseanowlargelyforgottenwordmeantthat

thehumanbeinghadgivenupontheveryresponsibilitythatcomeswithhisdignity:...

thathedoesnotwanttobewhathereally,andintheultimatesense,is(Pieper,1998,p.

28).

Idlenessoracedia,inthisunderstanding,isadisengagementfromreality.Leisure,by

contrast,isanopennesstotheworld,tothingsastheyare,ratherthanaswewishthem

tobe.AsPieperputsit:

Leisureisaformofthatstillnessthatisthenecessarypreparationforaccepting

reality;onlythepersonwhoisstillcanhear,andwhoeverisnotstill,cannothear.

Suchstillnessasthisisnotmeresoundlessnessoradeadmuteness;itmeans,rather,

thatthesoulspower,asreal,ofrespondingtotherealacorespondence,eternally

establishedinnaturehasnotyetdescendedintowords.Leisureisthedisposition

ofreceptiveunderstanding,ofcontemplativebeholding,andimmersioninthereal.

(Pieper,1998,p.31)

LikeBush,Pieperwasconcernedwiththefutureofthinkingandscholarship.LikeBush,

hedistinguishedbetweentwokindsormodesofthinking.ButwhereasBushmadeuse

ofcommonsensetermslikeroutineandcreativethinking,Pieperborrowedhislanguage

fromtheancientGreeksandthemedievalscholastics:

Themedievalsdistinguishedbetweentheintellectasratioandtheintellectas

intellectus.Ratio

is

the

power

of

discursive

thought,

of

searching

and

re

searching,

abstracting,refining,andconcluding[cf.Latindiscurrere,toruntoandfro],

whereasintellectusreferstotheabilityofsimplylooking(simplexintuitus),towhich

thetruthpresentsitselfasalandscapepresentsitselftotheeye.Thespiritual

knowingpowerofthehumanmind,astheancientsunderstoodit,isreallytwo

thingsinone:ratioandintellectus:allknowinginvolvesboth.Thepathofdiscursive



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reasoningisaccompaniedandpenetratedbytheintellectusuntiringvision,whichis

notactivebutpassive,orbetter,receptiveareceptivelyoperatingpowerofthe

intellect.(Pieper,1998,p.11)

Piepersconcernforthinkingandscholarshipwasintimatelyconnectedwithhiscritique

ofwork.IfGermanyandtheWestweredescendingintoaleisurelessworldoftotal

work,thisstateofaffairswouldaffectintellectualworkersor,aswemightsaytoday,

knowledgeworkersaswellasmanuallaborers.Forintellectualactivitytoowouldbe

seenmerelyaseffortfullabor.Butthiswouldmissthefundamentalinsightofthe

medievalscholastics,thatratioisakindofwork,butintellectusisnt,becauseintellectusis

aformofcontemplation,alightninglikeinsightwhichcomestoonelikeagift[and

is]effortlessandnotburdensome.3(Pieper,1998,p.18).Inotherwords,deprivedof

intellectus,thinkingandscholarshipwouldretaintheirshellofrationalitybutlosetheir

vitalcore.

Lookingataworldengagedinpostwarreconstruction,Piepercouldseehowthe

obsessivedrivetoworkeverfasterandhardermightrobpeopleoftheirhumanity,their

responsibilitytofamilyandcommunityhowharriedanddrivenworkersmightbe

distractedandabsent.Andso,hisproposaltorecoverthecontemplativedimensionof

lifewasaimedathelpingGermanytoreconstructitselfbyrecoveringitsethicaland

spiritualgrounding.

WiththeclarityofhindsightwecanseethatVannevarBushandJosefPieperwereeach

rightinvariousways.Bushwascertainlyrighttohaveworriedabouttheproblemof

informationoverloadandthespecializationofdisciplines.Hewasalsorightin

foreseeingthepossibilityofdevelopingbrilliantandpowerfultechnologicalsystemsfor

managingthehumanrecord.AsWeMayThinkwasimmediatelyhailedasa

visionarystatement.ItwasrepublishedinabbreviatedforminLifeMagazinelaterthe

sameyear,thistimewithillustrationsoftheimagineddevice.Andthearticleimpressed

itselfontechnologistsaswellasthelayreader.Inthelasttwodecadesespecially,ithas

beenendlesslycitedandcelebrated.Amajorsymposium,FiftyYearsAfter,washeld

atMITinOctober1995.ThereisadirectlineofinfluencethatstretchesfromBushtoTim

BernersLee

(recently

knighted

for

his

invention

of

the

World

Wide

Web),

alineage

that

3AsKellerdescribesitinherbiographyofBarbaraMcClintock:Thenatureofinsightinscience,

aselsewhere,isnotoriouslyelusive.Andalmostallgreatscientiststhosewholearntocultivate

insightlearnalsotorespectitsmysteriousworkings.Itisherethattheirrationalityfindsits

ownlimits.Indefyingrationalexplanation,theprocessofcreativeinsightinspiresaweinthose

whoexperienceit.Theycometoknow,trust,andvalueit.(Keller,1983,p.103)



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includesothertechnologicalluminaries,suchasDouglasEnglebart,thedeveloperofthe

firsthypertextsystem,atSRIinthelate1960s;TedNelson,inventoroftheterms

hypertextandhypermedia;andAlanKay,whoseimaginedDynabookwasa

majorinfluenceonthedesignofthefirstnetworkedpersonalcomputeratXeroxPARC.

Dueinlargemeasuretothischainofinfluence,headmountedcameras,andevenmore

radicalformsofwearablecomputing,nowexist.Thepersonalcomputer,whichmight

beconsideredamorepowerfulrealizationofthememex,iseverywhere.AndtheWorld

WideWebhasmadehypertextasordinaryasthetelevisionorthetelephone.

Pieperwasrighttootoworryabouttheacceleratingpaceofworkandthereductionof

workerstocogsinamachine.Indeed,morethanatanytimesincePiepersbook

appeared,weareinapositiontounderstandtherestlessanddestructivesideofwork

fanaticism.IntheUnitedStates,weseethisinthetotalnumberofhoursthatmost

peopleworkperyearandinthecorrespondinglysmallnumberofweeksofvacation

mostworkersarepermitted(andtheevensmallernumberofweeksworkerstake).Weseethisinthefeveredpitchofmultitasking,inthedevotiontoconsumptionduring

leisuretime,andintheaccelerationofmostaspectsoflife.Andweevenseethisin

certainexamplesthatwouldseempreposterousiftheywerentdocumented,suchasthe

movementtoeliminaterecessinelementaryschools,theargumentbeingthatchildren

shouldbetrainedearlytoslotthemselvesintothefastmovinginformationeconomy. 4

WhereBushwasclearlywrong,however,wasinbelievingthatthekindsoftoolshe

envisionedwouldsolvetheproblemofinformationoverloadandtheincreasing

specializationofdisciplines,orthatbymechanizingtheroutineaspectsofthinking

peoplewouldendupwithmoretimetothinkcreatively.Indeedonthefaceofit,the

developmentofpersonaldigitalinformationsystemsandglobalhypertextseemsnotto

havesolvedtheproblemsBushidentifiedbutrathertohaveexacerbatedthem.Why

didntBushsproposedsolutionwork?Coulditbethathisimaginedtoolsplayedinto

thescenarioPieperfeared?

4.MoreFasterBetter

Answerstothesequestionsmustsurelytakeintotheaccountthewidespread

accelerationin

the

pace

of

life,

and

increasing

expectations

of

the

amount

of

work

that

4See,forexample,TacomaElementariesEnforceBanonRecess(Roberts,2004),whereitis

suggestedthatschooldistrictsacrossthecountryhavejoinedthenorecesswave,withsurveys

indicatingthatasmanyasfourin10districtshaveeitherdroppedrecess,scaleditbackor

thoughtaboutdoingso.



11/24

mustbeaccomplishedinagivenperiodoftime.Butitwouldbenavetothinkthatthe

accelerationoflifeandworkwassimplyinauguratedbythelatesttechnological

developments,forwidespreadsocialandeconomicaccelerationemergedwellbeforethe

computerera.AsHartmutRosanotesinarecentarticle,SocialAcceleration:Ethical

andPoliticalConsequencesofaDesynchronized,HighSpeedSociety:

In1999,JamesGleick,exploringeverydaylifeincontemporaryAmericansociety,

notedtheaccelerationofjustabouteverything:love,life,speech,politics,work,TV,

leisure,etc.Withthisobservationhecertainlyisnotalone.Inpopularaswellas

scientificdiscourseaboutthecurrentevolutionofWesternsocieties,acceleration

figuresasthesingleandmoststrikingfeature.Butalthoughthereisanoticeable

increaseinthediscourseaboutaccelerationandtheshortageoftimeinrecentyears,

thefeelingthathistory,culture,society,oreventimeitselfinsomestrangeway

acceleratesisnotnewatall;itratherseemstobeaconstitutivetraitofmodernity

itself.AshistorianslikeReinhartKoselleckhavepersuasivelyargued,thegeneralsenseofaspeeduphasaccompaniedmodernsocietyatleastsincethemiddleof

theeighteenthcentury.Andindeed,asmanyhaveobservedandempiricalevidence

clearlysuggests,thehistoryofmodernityseemstobecharacterizedbyawide

rangingspeedupofallkindsoftechnological,economic,social,andcultural

processesandbyapickingupofthegeneralpaceoflife.(Rosa,2003,p.3)

Inhisbook,TheControlRevolution:TechnologicalandEconomicOriginsoftheInformation

Society,JamesBenigerdocumentstherolesplayedbynewtechnologiesand

organizationalpracticesinspeedinguptheAmericaneconomy,beginninginthe

nineteenthcentury.Thankstotheinventionofsteampower,itbecamepossibletomine

rawmaterials,tomanufacturefinishedproducts,andtodistributethemmorequickly

thaneverbefore:UntiltheIndustrialRevolution,eventhelargestandmostdeveloped

economiesranliterallyatahumanpace,withtheprocessingspeedsenhancedonly

slightlybydraftanimalsandbywindandwaterpower,andwithsystemcontrol

increasedcorrespondinglybymodestbureaucraticstructures.Byfarthegreatesteffect

ofindustrialization,fromthisperspective,wastospeedupasocietysentirematerial

processingsystem...(Beniger,1986,p.vii)Withincreasingspeed,ofcourse,camenew

challenges.Bythelatenineteenthcentury,existingmanagementmethods,largelybased

onon

site,

face

to

face

interactions,

were

no

longer

up

to

the

task

of

controlling

the

new

fastermoving,distributedorganizations,suchastherailroads.Thisprecipitatedwhat

Benigercallsacrisisofcontrol,aperiodinwhichinnovationsininformation

processingandcommunicationstechnologieslaggedbehindthoseofenergyandits

applicationtomanufacturingandtransportation.(Beniger,1986,p.vii)



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JoAnneYatesfillsoutthisstoryoflatenineteenthcenturycrisisandinnovationinher

book,ControlThroughCommunication:TheRiseofSysteminAmericanManagement.She

traceshow,overthecourseofseveraldecades,anewmanagementmethodemerged,

calledsystematicmanagement,whichpromotedrationalandimpersonalsystemsin

preferencetopersonalandidiosyncraticleadershipformaintainingefficiencyinafirms

operation.Thisgeneralphilosophyspawnedmanyspecifictechniquesandmovements.

Systematicmanagementattemptedtoimprovecontroloverandthustheefficiency

ofmanagers,workers,materials,andproductionprocesses.(Yates,1989,p.1)The

newmanagementmethodsarosehandinglovewithnewinformationand

communicationtechnologies,suchasthetypewriter,carbonpaper,andverticalfiles,

andnewgenresofbusinesscommunication,suchasthememo,thefillintheblank

form,andtheexecutivesummary.Theresultwasanewformofinstitutionalstructure,

themodernhierarchicalorganization,whichwascapableofexertingamuchgreater

degreeofcontrolthroughcommunication.

Theselatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturyinnovationsmayhaveresolvedthe

immediatecontrolcrisis,buttheirverysuccessprecipitatedthenextone:bytheearly

1920s,therewasgrowingconcernaboutoverproduction.Industrywasindeedableto

producemorefaster,butconsumersapparentlyfeltnoneedtoconsumelarger

quantitiesatafasterpace.Asoneobserveratthetimenoted,weareequippedto

producemoreofthegoodsthatsatisfyhumanwantsthanwecanuse;another

commentedthatexperiencedbusinessmenallovertheworldrealizethatthemarket

doesnotexpandrapidlyenoughtokeepupwithdemand.5

Whatfollowedwasavigorousdebateamongbusinessandlaborleadersabouthowto

resolvethiscrisisofproduction.Forlabor,itwasanargumentforreducedhoursand

greaterleisuretime:ifmorewasbeingproducedthanwasneeded,whynotslowdown?

Business,however,balkedatthissuggestion,fearingthatmoretimeoffwould

encourageviceandslothand,ofcourse,wouldreduceprofits.JohnE.Edgerton,

presidentofNationalAssociationofManufacturers,spokeformanyinthebusiness

worldwhen,in1926,hesaid:

[I]tistimeforAmericatoawakefromitsdreamthataneternalholidayisanatural

fruitof

material

prosperity,

and

to

reaffirm

its

devotion

to

those

principles

and

laws

oflifetotheconformitywithwhichweoweallofournationalgreatness.Iamfor

everythingthatwillmakeworkhappierbutagainsteverythingthatwillfurther

subordinateitsimportance...theemphasisshouldbeputonworkmoreworkand

5Quotedin(Hunnicutt,1988,p.37).



13/24

betterwork,insteadofuponleisuremoreleisureandworseleisure...theworking

masses...havebeenprotectedintheirnaturalgrowthbytheabsenceofexcessive

leisureandhavebeenfortunate...intheirAmericanmadeopportunitiestowork.6

Thedebatewasultimatelydecidedthroughanewunderstandingofconsumption.The

naysayerswhothoughtthathumanneedshadreachedthesaturationpointwerewrong;

thedesiretoconsumecouldbefurtherstimulated.The1929reportofHerbertHoovers

CommitteeonRecentEconomicChangescapturedthetoneofgleefuldiscovery:the

surveyhasprovedconclusivelywhathaslongbeenheldtheoreticallytobetrue,that

wantsarealmostinsatiable;thatonewantsatisfiedmakeswayforanother.The

conclusionisthateconomicallywehaveaboundlessfieldbeforeus;thattherearenew

wantswhichwillmakewayendlesslyfornewerwants,asfastastheyaresatisfied.7

Evenifconsumersprimaryneedsforfood,clothingandshelterweremet,optional

consumptionwasvirtuallylimitless,optionalinthesensethatthisportionofthe

incomemaybesavedorspent,andifspentthemannerofthisspendingmaybedeterminedbythetastesoftheconsumerorthenatureoftheappealsmadetohimby

theindustriescompetingforhispatronage.8Fromthisfertilesoilmodernadvertising

wasborn,andthuswasthecrisisofproduction,reframedasaproblemofconsumption,

resolved.

Viewedinthishistoricallight,todaysconcernsaboutbusyness,abouttheaccelerating

paceoflife,andaboutthesurfeitofinformationandthedifficultyofmanagingitarea

fairlystraightforwardextrapolationofpasttrendsthelatestmanifestationofamore

fasterbetterphilosophyoflife.Digitaltechnologieshaveclearlymadepossiblea

furtheraccelerationofthepaceofproductionandconsumption.Andonceagainsociety

iswonderingifithashitsomesortofinherentlimit,orifwewillonceagainfindclever

solutionsthatwillallowustoproceedevenfaster.

Theproblemofinformationoverloadmaywellbeamenabletoacombinationofsocial

andtechnologicalsolutions,muchlikethemanagementcrisisofthelatenineteenth

centurythatBenigerandYatesdescribe.Thereinnovationsinsocialandorganization

practice(hierarchiesofjobs,formalreportingrelationships,etc.)andinformationand

communicationmediaandtechnologies(thetypewriter,verticalfiles,thememo,etc.)

createdinstitutions

that

could

not

only

manage

but

further

accelerate

the

pace

of

productionandconsumption.Alreadytoday,weseearangeofinnovationsthatto

6Quotedin(Hunnicutt,1988,p.40).7Quotedin(Hunnicutt,1988,p.44)8Quotedin(Hunnicutt,1988,pp.4344).



14/24

varyingdegreeshavehelpedpeopledealwiththetidalwaveofinformation,including

dontcalltelephonelists,emailfilters,andcellphonefreezones.Wemayatsome

futuretimelookbackontodayscrisisofinformationoverloadasatransitionalphase,

theincunabulaperiodofdigitalmaterials,whichprecededthedevelopmentofsocial

andinstitutionalpracticescapableofimposinggreaterorder.

Yetsolvingtheproblemofinformationoverloadwillnotaddresstheproblematic

aspectsofacceleration;infact,itmayonlyfurtherexacerbatethem.Wewillstillbefaced

withthequestion:howmuchfastercanwe,ordowewantto,go?Forsomehuman

projectstheanswerisclear:thefasterwecancureAIDSorcancer,thefasterwecan

eliminateglobalhungerandpoverty,thebetter.ButasThomasHyllandEriksenhas

pointedout,notallhumanactivitiescanorshouldbespeededup.InTheTyrannyofthe

Moment,hemakesadistinctionbetweenfasttimeandslowtime,betweenactivities

thatcanormustbedonequickly,andthosethatcant,orshouldnt.Theproblemin

todayssociety,hesuggests,isthat[w]henfastandslowtimemeet,fasttimewins.Thisiswhyonenevergetstheimportantthingsdonebecausethereisalwayssomethingelse

onehastodofirst.Naturally,wewillalwaystendtodothemosturgenttasksfirst.In

thisway,theslowandlongtermactivitiesloseout.Inanagewhenthedistinctions

betweenworkandleisurearebeingerased,andefficiencyseemstobetheonlyvaluein

economics,politicsandresearch,thisisreallybadnewsforthingslikethorough,far

sightedwork,playandlongtermloverelationships.(Eriksen,2001,p.150)

Itisalsoreallybadnewsforthinking.Thinkingisbyitsverynatureaslowtimeactivity.

Aspectsofthoughtitsmoreroutinedimensionscanperhapsbeautomatedand

accelerated,asBushsuggested.Butitsmorecreativeaspectsboththeworkof

concentratedreasoningandtheleisureofsuddeninsightgenerallyrequire

substantialinvestmentsofsustainedattention,whichcannotbetruncatedorrushed.

Bushhopedthathisproposedtechnologieswouldbuyresearchersmoretimetothink.

Butinsteadtheyhaveprimarilybeenused,inthespiritofmorefasterbetter,to

accelerateproductionandconsumptiontonew,previouslyunimaginablelevels.Weare

allnowexpectedtocompletemoretasksinasmalleramountoftime.Andwhilethe

newtechnologiesdomakeitremarkablyefficientandeasytosearchforinformationand

tocollectmassesofpotentiallyrelevantsourcesonahugevarietyoftopics,theycant,in

andof

themselves,

clear

the

space

and

time

needed

to

absorb

and

to

reflect

on

what

has

beencollected.Attimesitfeelslikethenewtechnologiesareselfpropelling,asthe

HarvardstudentsattendingBarbaraMcClintockstalksuggested,urgingusontoever

greaterspeedandproductivity.Butwhatarethecostsofallowingourselvestobeso

propelled?



15/24

5.WaysofThinking

BarbaraMcClintockunderstoodthatdeepreflectioncouldntbehurried,thatlightning

likeinsightscouldntbeforced,andshecultivatedalifethatallowedherthetimeto

lookandthink.Shehadanintimateunderstandingofeachoftheindividualcornplants

shegrew.Itwaspossibletogrowtwocorncropsayear,butafterawhile,shedfound

thatasslowasitwas,twocropsayearwastoofast.Ifshewasreallytoanalyzeallthat

therewastosee,onecropwasallshecouldhandle.(Keller,1983,p.206)Describingthe

intimacyshedevelopedwhenviewingcornchromosomesthroughamicroscope,

McClintocksaid:IfoundthatthemoreIworkedwith[thechromosomes]thebigger

andbigger[they]got,andwhenIwasreallyworkingwiththemIwasntoutside,Iwas

downthere.Iwaspartofthesystem.Iwasrightdowntherewiththem,andeverything

gotbig.Ievenwasabletoseetheinternalpartsofthechromosomesactually

everythingwasthere.ItsurprisedmebecauseIactuallyfeltasifIwererightdownthere

andtheseweremyfriends.(Keller,1983,p.117)

McClintockwascertainthatherdeepestscientificinsightscamenotsimplyfromlogical

calculationbutfromsomeothermodeofthought:Whenyousuddenlyseethe

problem,somethinghappensthatyouhavetheanswerbeforeyouareabletoputit

intowords.Itisalldonesubconsciously.Thishashappenedtoomanytimestome,andI

knowwhentotakeitseriously.Imsoabsolutelysure.Idonttalkaboutit,Idonthave

totellanybodyaboutit.Imjustsurethisisit. 9(Keller,1983,p.103)Oftenshesaw,or

intuitivelygrasped,theanswershewasseekinginaflash,butstillneededhoursordays

afterwardstoworkitout.

9AlfredKaszniak,aneuropsychologistattheUniversityofArizona,hasobserved(Personal

communication,2007)thatMcClintocksstatementissupportedbyrecentempiricalresearch:

Forexample,onestudy(Bechara,Damasio,Damasio,&Lee,1999)examinedskinconductance

responses(SCRs,ameasureofactivityinthesympatheticbranchoftheautonomicnervous

system)whileparticipantsengagedinacomputeradministeredgamblingtaskinwhich

decisionshadtobemadeaboutwhichdeckofcardswouldyieldthegreatestpayoff.Healthy

participantsshowedanticipatorySCRspriortomakingriskychoices,eventhoughtheycouldnot

articulateconsciousknowledgeofwhyachoicemightberiskyoradvantageousuntilmuchlater

duringthetask.PersonswithdamagetotheamygdalaortheventromedialfrontalregionofthebrainfailedtoshowtheseanticipatorySCRs(andtheymademuchfeweradvantageouschoices

inthetask),hypotheticallybecausetheirbraindamagerenderedthemunabletoeffectively

integratenonconsciousinformationthatnormallyinformsourdecisions. Inotherwords,such

researchprovidesevidencethatproblems(e.g.,decisionastowhichcardtochoose)canbesolved

(asreflectedinovertbehaviorandperipheralbodilychanges)withoutconsciousknowledgeof

processesbywhichhowthesolutionoccurs.



16/24

Suchunderstandingsarentconfinedtothesciences,butareequallypresentinthearts

andhumanities;indeed,itcanbearguedthatallcreativeworkhasanimmersive,

contemplativeelement.Inherrecentautobiography,KarenArmstrong,theformernun

whohaswrittenanumberofpopularaccountsofvariousreligioustraditions,recounts

herdiscovery,lateinlife,thatscholarlyreadingandexplorationcouldbeadeeply

satisfying,contemplativemodeofstudy.Inthefollowingpassage,shedrawsacontrast

betweenthreephasesofherlife:herteenageandyoungadultyearsinaCatholic

convent,whereshefailedtofindsatisfactionandmeaninginprayerandmeditation;

timespentlaterresearchingvarioussubjectmattersfortelevisiondocumentaries;and

hermostrecentdiscoveriesofamodeofsilent,concentratedstudy:

Intheconvent,Ihadspentmostofmytimeinsilence,butithadbeentoobusy

noisywithtensionandanxiety,angerandirritation....NowIwasbeginningto

understandthatasilencethatisnotclamorouswithvexationandworriedself

regardcanbecomepartofthetextureofyourmind,canseepintoyou,momentbymoment,andgraduallychangeyou.ThestudyoftextsforAHistoryofGod

[Armstrongssurprisebestseller]hadbecomeverydifferentfromtheresearchIhad

doneduringmyyearsintelevision,whenIhadbeenreadingandamassing

informationatbreakneckspeedtokeeponestepaheadoftheproductionteam.At

thattime,Ihadremainedtrappedonthecerebrallevel,asthoughIwerereadinga

guidebookoraninstructionmanual.Insteadofallowingtheseimagesanddogmas

topercolateslowly,dropbydrop,intothedeeper,unconsciouslevelsofmymind,I

hadgraspedprematurelyatwhatIthoughttheymeant.(Armstrong,2004,pp.285

286)

And,shecontinues:

IdiscoveredthatIcouldscarcelywaittogettomydeskeachmorning,openmy

books,andpickupmypen.Ianticipatedthismomentaseagerlyasatrystwitha

lover.Iwouldlieinbedatnightwaitingforsleep,delightedlyreviewingwhatIhad

learnedthatday.Occasionally,whilesittingatmydeskorporingoveradustytome

intheBritishLibrary,Iwouldexperienceminisecondsoftranscendence,awe,and

wonderthatgavemesomesenseofwhathadbeengoingoninthemindofthe

theologianor

mystic

Iwas

studying.

At

such

atime

Iwould

feel

stirred

deeply

within,andtakenbeyondmyself,inmuchthesamewayasIwasinaconcerthallor



17/24

atheater.IwasfindinginstudytheecstasythatIhadhopedtofindinthoselong

hoursofprayerasayoungnun.10(Armstrong,2004,p.287)

Formanycenturies,peoplehavetriedtocharacterizeandtonamethevariousmodesof

thinking.IntheWestandintheEast,DavidLoyobserves,adistinctionbetween

typesofthinkingispracticallyasoldasphilosophyitself.(Loy,1997,p.161)Kant

distinguishedbetweenVernunftandVerstand,notionsthatareultimatelyderivedfrom

thedistinctionbetweenratioandintellectus.BeforeKant,JakobBoehme,thelate

sixteenthandearlyseventeenthcenturymystic,hadalsodistinguishedbetweenVernunft

andVerstand,usingreligiouslanguagetocharacterizethem.ThusforBoehme,Vernunft

comprehendsnothingofthekingdomofGodbutthehuskandalwaysgoesroundin

acircleontheoutsideofthings.(Loy,1997,p.162)InEasternphilosophy,adistinction

hasbeenmadebetweenvijnana(reasonordiscursivethinking)andprajna(intuition)

(Loy,1997,pp.135136).Whileitwouldbewrongsimplytoequatethefirstmembersof

eachofthesepairs(i.e.ratio=Vernunft=vijnana)andtodothesamewiththesecondmembers,thereisnonethelessastrikingconsistencyacrossthesepairs;foratminimum

eachistryingtopointtoandnameamodeofthinkingthatisdifferentthan,and

perhapsgoesbeyond,rational,discursivethought.

Acrossthecenturies,therehavealsobeennumerousselfreportsofcreativeeruptions

thatarequalitativelydifferentthantheworkingsofdiscursivereason.Among

composers,Mozartdescribedhowamusicalworkwouldcometohim:mysubject

enlargesitself;becomesmethodizedanddefined,andthewhole,thoughitbelong,

standsalmostcompleteandfinishedinmymind,sothatIcansurveyit,likeafine

pictureorabeautifulstatue,ataglance;whileTschaikovskytalkedabouthowthe

germofafuturecomposition...comessuddenlyandunexpectedly...[and]takesroot

withextraordinaryforceandrapidity.Intherealmofliterature,LewisCarrollasserted

thatAliceandLookingGlassaremadeupalmostwhollyofbitsandscraps,singleideas

whichcameofthemselves.Andintherealmofscientificdiscoveries,therearemany

reportsofproblemsbeingsolvedinaflashofinsight,asinthemathematicianKarl

Gaussrecountinghowheprovedatheorem,notbydintofpainfuleffortbutsoto

speakbythegraceofGod.Asasuddenflashoflight,theenigmawassolved. 11

(Einsteinassertedthatthereleadsnologicalpath[toscientificdiscovery],butonly

10HereArmstrongechoesEinstein:Thestateoffeelingwhichmakesonecapableofsuch

[scientific]achievementsisakintothereligiousworshipperorofonewhoisinlove.(Quotedin

Keller(Keller,1983,p.118))11Quotedin(Loy,1997,pp.152,156,159).



18/24

intuition,supportedbybeingsympatheticallyintouchwithexperience.(Keller,1983,

p.145))

Examplesofthiskindmightmakeitseemthatmomentsofcreativeinsightarelimitedto

certainspeciallygiftedindividualsandtoraremomentsofprofoundoriginality,butI

wouldsuggestthatmanypeoplewhohaveworkeddiligentlytomakesenseofdifficult

ideas,ortowritewithclarity,knowtimeswheninsightcomessuddenlyandseemingly

fromsomewhereelse,andsuchpeopleunderstandwhatLewisCarrollmeantwhenhe

says:Sometimesanideacomesatnight,whenIhavehadtogetupandstrikealightto

noteitdownsometimeswhenoutonalonelywinterwalk,whenIhavehadtostop

andwithhalffrozenfingersjotdownafewwordswhichshouldkeepthenewbornidea

fromperishing.12Andnearlyeveryone,Iwouldguess,hashadmomentsofcreative

insightintheshower,orinequallymundanecircumstances.

Bothratioandintellectus,then,areordinarymodesofmind.Athird,equallycommonmodedeservestobementionedalongsidethese.Thisismindchatter,theincessantand

obsessiveinternalmonologuethatfillstheheadwithsnatchesofmemories,plans,and

stories,veryoftencenteredaroundtheself:Iwonderwhatsfordinnertonight?...Oh,I

shouldremembertopickupthedrycleaning...Ineverdidtakeinthatpairofpants...How

embarrassingwhenIspilledadrinkonthem...MaybeIshouldlosealittleweight...This

kindofrunningcommentaryissuchacommon,andIwouldguess,universal,

experience,yetitiscuriouslyinaccessiblepresumablybecauseitliesjuston,ornear,

theboundaryofconsciousawareness.Still,therearesimpleexercises,suchasthe

attempttokeeponesattentionfocusedonanobjecte.g.thebreathforfiveorten

minutes,thatcanquicklyrevealthemindstendencytowander,tobesubmersedin

patternsofhabitualthought.

Attimesthethinkingmindseemstohaveamindofitsown.Onecantalwayswillitto

moveinaparticulardirection.Torrentsofmindchattercanmakeitdifficulttofocuson,

ortostayfocusedon,aproblemoranidea.Andthecreativefruitsofintellectus

apparentlyariseontheirownschedule.Yetitisalsoclearthatthemindcanbetrained,

likeamusclegroupthatisstrengthenedandmademoreflexiblethroughexercise.

Indeed,contemplativepracticesaremethodsoftrainingthemind,helpingittoquiet

downand

building

up

the

attentional

faculty,

so

it

can

remain

more

deeply

focused

for

longerperiodsoftime.Bytuningtheattentionalinstrument,suchpracticeshavethe

potentialtoreducemindchatterandincreaseconcentration;andwhiletheycant

12Quotedin(Loy,1997,p.156).



19/24

directlystimulatecreativethought,theydoseemtopreparethegroundforthem,

makingiteasiertohearthemwhentheyarise.13

6.Thinking,Scholarship,andtheLifeoftheAcademy

Arecentarticleonmultitaskingintheworkplace(Thompson,2005)describeshow

GloriaMark,afacultymemberatUCIrvine,cametodoworkplacestudiesofthe

phenomenon:

In2000,GloriaMarkwashiredasaprofessorattheUniversityofCaliforniaat

Irvine.Untilthen,shewasworkingasaresearcher,livingalifeofcomparative

peace.Shewouldspendherdaysinherlab,enjoyingthesenseofserenefocusthat

comesfromimmersingyourselfforhoursatatimeinasingleproject.Butwhenher

facultyjobbegan,thatallended.Markwouldarriveatherdeskinthemorning,full

ofenergyandreadytotacklehertodolistonlytosufferanendlessstreamofinterruptions.Nosoonerhadshestartedonetaskthanacolleaguewouldemailher

withanurgentrequest;whenshewenttoworkonthat,thephonewouldring.At

theendoftheday,shehadbeensoconstantlydistractedthatshewouldhave

accomplishedonlyafractionofwhatshesetouttodo. Madness, shethought.Im

tryingtodo30thingsatonce.

TheseremarkscaughtmyattentionnotjustbecauseIrecognizedthephenomenonfrom

myownacademicexperiencebutbecauseIhadfollowedapathsimilartoMarks.For

nearlytwentyyearsIwasaresearcherinahightechthinktank,theXeroxPaloAlto

ResearchCenter(PARC),wheretimetothinkwasagiven,apreciouslyguarded

dimensionofourprofessionallife.AndsoIwascompletelyunpreparedforthe

onslaughtofdemandsthatfacedmewhenItookanacademicpositionattheUniversity

ofWashingtonin2001,leavingmelittletimeforthereflectivepracticesthathadbeen

suchanessentialpartofmyearlierlife.

13AlfredKaszniakattheUniversityofArizona(Personalcommunication,2007)notesthatrecent

workinneurosciencesupportstheseobservations:Inarecentstudy(Jha,Krompinger,&Baime,Inpress),personswhoparticipatedinan8weekmindfulnessbasedstressreductioncoursethat

emphasizedthedevelopmentofconcentrativemeditationskills,incomparisontocontrols,

showedsignificantimprovementinorientingtheirattentionrelatedbehavioralresponseswithin

acontrolledexperimentaltask.Further,anothergroupofparticipantswhohadpriorexperience

inconcentrativemeditationtechniques,andwhoparticipatedinaonemonthintensive

mindfulnessretreat,showedevidenceformorepervasiveimprovementinattentionalskills.



20/24

AlthoughIknowofnostudiesthatconclusivelydemonstratethedeclineintimeto

think,thereareclearreasonswhyacademicswouldlikelybebusierandmore

overloadednowthaneverbefore.WithinAmericanresearchuniversities,forexample,

thepressureonfacultytoobtainoutsidefunding,whetherfromthegovernmentor

privatesources,isextremelyintense;competitionisincreasingevenasthepoolof

availablefundsisshrinking.Thetimespentsearchingforpotentialfundingsources,

writinggrantproposals,andshepherdingthemthroughintricatebureaucratic

proceduresissimplyaddedontotheotherexpectationsofthejob.Teachingand

advisingstudentsareextremelytimeconsuminganddemandingactivities,astheyhave

alwaysbeen,butnewtechnologiessuchasemail,byincreasingtheopportunitiesfor

onlinecontactbetweenfacultyandstudents,havealsoincreasedstudentexpectations

thatinstructorsshouldandwillbeavailableforconsultationatallhoursofthedayand

night,weekendsincluded.Emailhasalsomadeprofessorsthatmuchmorereachable

bythegeneralpublic,thepress,andacademicsatotherinstitutions,whichmaybea

nuisanceorasourceofnewopportunities,ineithercasebringingfurtherdemandsontheirtime.Inthisrespect,academicsfacethesamedifficultyastherestoftheculturein

guardingtheirtime,intryingtominimizeinterruptions,intryingtocreatethespaceand

timeforreading,writing,study,andthinkingexceptthattheseareactivitiesacademics

aresupposedlypaidtoperform.

Thesetrendsareextremelydiscouraging,iftrue.Foruniversitiesareourculturesthink

tankstheoneplaceintheculture,supposedly,wheredeepstudyandreflectionarenot

onlysanctionedbutencouragedandtaught.Todaysuniversitiestracetheiroriginsto

PlatosAcademy(fromwhichourtermtheacademyisderived)and,more

immediately,tothemedievaluniversitiesthatemergedfromthemonasteryschools.

BothPlatosschoolandthemedievaluniversitiestookcontemplativeinquiryascentral

totheirmission.(Indeed,ourwordsschoolandscholararederivedfromtheGreek

wordforleisure.)Intheextreme,alossofallegiancetothisdimensionofacademiclife

wouldreduceuniversitiestotraininginstitutes,largelypreparingpeopletobecome

efficientmultitaskersinaworldoftotalwork.Anditwouldreducefacultytotrainers

andcoaches,ratherthanscholarsdemonstratingandcommunicatingthebeautyand

powerofmature,creativethought.

Itwould

be

amistake,

of

course,

to

romanticize

an

imagined

past.

American

universities

wereneverideallaboratoriesofcreativereflection.Greekleisurewasavailableonlyto

malecitizensandwasbuiltonthebacksofslavery.Contemplativestudywasbasicto

thefirstuniversities,butthoseinstitutionswerenarrowlyChristianandcanhardly

serveasamodelfortodaysmulticultural,secularinstitutions.YetjustastheWesthas

createddemocraticinstitutionsthatavoidtheGreeklimitations,wecancertainly



21/24

imagineacademicenvironmentsthataremoresupportiveofcontemplativescholarship

asitmightbepracticed,asBarbaraMcClintockhasdemonstrated,beyondtheconfines

ofparticularreligiousbeliefsorpractices.Anditwouldbeagreatshameatragedyif

wefailedtomakethebestuseofourbrilliantdigitaltoolsbecausewewerespending

mostofourtimeGooglingratherthanabsorbingandreflecting.

Itwouldalsobeamistake,however,tosuggestthatthecontemplativeissimplyabsent

fromtheacademytoday.Themedievalscholastics,liketheGreekphilosophersbefore

them,understoodthatallthinkingisablendofratioandintellectus.([A]llknowing,

saysPieper,involvesboth.(Pieper,1998,p.11))AndIwouldguessthatfewpeople

wouldbecomeresearchersorscholarsiftheydidntknowmomentsofdeep,receptive

understandingevenminisecondsoftranscendence,awe,andwonder,inKaren

Armstrongswords.Theproblemisnotthatthereisliterallynotimeforscholarshipin

universities,butthatthereissolittleofit,andsolittleacknowledgmentinthecurrent

academicsystemspracticesofitsimportance,notjusttoparticulardomainsofscholarshipbuttothecultureasawhole.Attimesitseemsthatcontemporarylifeis

constructedtoobstructcreativethoughtaswellitmight,sincelessroutineand

routinizedthinkingareenemiesoftodaysmindlesscycleofproductionand

consumption.Itwouldappearthatuniversitiesaremirroringthesesocietaltrends,

ratherthanresistingthemandofferingalternatives.

7.AFutureforContemplativeScholarship?

Ibeganthisarticlebynotingaseemingparadox:thatwearelosingthetimetolookand

tothinkatexactlythemomentwehaveproducedaremarkablenewsetoftoolsfor

scholarlyinvestigationandcommunication.Iwentontoarguethatthisisno

coincidence,forournewestinformationandcommunicationtechnologieshavearisenin

theserviceofamorefasterbetterattitudetowardworkandlife,anattitudethat

privilegesfasttimeactivitiesovertheirslowtimecounterparts.Certainactivities

associatedwitheducationandlearningsearchingforinformation,collectingand

superficiallyreviewingitcanbespeededup,whileotherssustainedreflectionand

contemplationsimplycannot.VannevarBushknewthis,andhopedthatthetoolshe

envisionedwouldautomatethemoreroutineaspectsofourinformationpractices,

includingthe

non

creative

dimension

of

thought,

thus

buying

people

more

time

for

creativereflection.

Butthisisnotwhathasbeenhappening.ForasThomasEriksenhasrightlynoted,fast

timeactivitiestakeprecedenceoverslowtimeactivities,accordingtooneofthecardinal,

unwrittenrulesofthecurrentmorefasterbetterphilosophy.Indeed,inaworldthat



22/24

privileges,andevencelebrates,24/7availability,itisbecominghardertosecurethe

spaceandtimeneededtothink.Thisisaproblemforthelargersocietytotheextentthat

itvaluesreflectionasarightandaresponsibilityofcitizenship.Itisalsoaproblemto

theextentthataccelerationandoverloadarecausesofphysicalandpsychological

illness,forwhichthereisincreasingevidence.14Butitisaparticularlyegregious

problemforuniversities,totheextentthattheyhavebeen,andoughttobe,inst

committedtothecultivationofthedeepestformsofthinkingofwhichhumanbeingsare

capable.

itutions

Sowhatcanbedoneaboutthisstateofaffairs?Thefirststep,itseemstome,istoreach

agreementonthenatureandtheextentoftheproblem.Thiscouldmeanraisingthe

issueasatopicofdiscussionanddebateonindividualuniversitycampuses,aswellas

withinumbrellaorganizations.Itcouldalsomeanconductingstudiestoexaminefaculty

andstudentsperceptionoftheproblem.

Anotherstepwouldbetoinauguratescholarlyexplorationsofhumanthinking.Thanks

inparttothedevelopmentofnewexploratorytechniquesandtechnologies,

neuroscienceismakinggreatstridesinunderstandingmindandbrainprocesses.It

mightwellbepossibletobegintoexploredifferentmodesofthinkingroutineand

creativemodes,aswellasobsessivemindchatternotonlytodevelopmorenuanced

andrefinedunderstandingsoftheseprocessesbuttounderstandhowtoencourageor

discouragethem.Mightnewscholarship,inotherwords,begintodemonstratewhat

physicalandmentalconditionspromotecreativethought,andwhichconditions

obstructit?

Yetanotherstepwouldbetobringcontemplativepracticesexplicitlyintouniversity

curriculatohelpstudents,faculty,andstaffstrengthentheirattentionalfacultiesinthe

faceoftheerosioneffectedbymultitaskingandacceleration.Ahundredyearsago,

WilliamJamesnotedthatthefacultyofvoluntarilybringingbackawandering

attention,overandoveragain,istheveryrootofjudgment,character,andwill.Noone

iscompossuiifhehaveitnot.Aneducationwhichshouldimprovethisfacultywould

betheeducationparexcellence.Butitiseasiertodefinethisidealthantogivepractical

directionsforbringingitabout.(James,1950(1890),p.424)Clearly,Jamesdidntknow

thatvarious

cultures

had,

over

thousands

of

years,

developed

highly

effective

practical

directionsfordoingjustthat.Thereisnowamovement,ledinpartbyanorganization

14Ontheimportanceofreflectionforgovernance,see(Scheuerman,2005)and(Levy,2006).

Evidencethatspeedandoverloadarecausingphysicalandpsychologicalproblemscanbefound

in(Whybrow,2005).



23/24

calledContemplativeMindinSociety,tointroducecontemplativepracticesintohigher

education,amovementinwhichsomeofusarealreadyparticipating.15

IfthereisapositivesidetothedevelopmentsIhavebeenreporting,itisthatthe

intensificationofourmorefasterbetterpracticesmaybeforcingustoseetheir

destructivecharacter.Theextentandpotentialconsequencesofglobalwarminga

processthathasbeengoingonforcenturiesseemsfinallytohavereachedpublic

awarenessinwaysthatmaywellleadtocorrectiveaction.Itispossiblethatwemayyet

realizethedangerousconsequencesofthelossoftimetothink,andfindwaysto

welcomebackthismostremarkabledimensionofthehumanexperience.Isit

unreasonabletoimaginethatouruniversitiesmightleadtheway?

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http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/special11_9/%5D)http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/special11_9/%5D)

levy no time to think

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