lexical semantics 4

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LEXICAL SEMANTICS

fall

winter2009 - 2010


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The Development of Componential Analysis

in the Generative Tradition:Lexical Decomposition

Lecture 4


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The contribution of GG to lexical semantics has beenmanifold:

(1)

a) proposing the concept ofmental lexicon and thuslaying stress on the manner in which lexical knowledgeis stored and acquired; the generative tradition is anintrinsic part of the cognitivist paradigm.

b) elaborating and refining a notion oflexical entry;

c) describing the manner in which the lexicon storessyntactic features as well as the manner in which

syntactic information is used in syntax (the projection oflexical items)

d) very generally an important component of variousformal approaches to grammar is negotiating the

boundary between syntax and the lexicon.


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Semantic Component

Deep Structure

(2) Syntactic ComponentSurface Structure

Phonologic Component

The semantic componentconsists of two elements:a. a lexicon that provides a meaning for each

lexical item

b. a finite set of projection rules, which assignreadings to syntactic phrases by combining the

readings assigned to their constituents.


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Each lexical entry contains the following types of markers:

(3)

a. grammatical markers, specifically the categorial and sub-categorialfeatures (the c-selection feature);e.g. +N, +V, + -- NP, etc.

b. semantic markers are the features which characterize more than oneitem; these features express similarities between items and therefore theyshow those aspects of the meaning which are in fact systematic anduncover the structure of content; e.g., [+ Animate], [+ Colour], [+State],[+Gradable];

c. distinguishers a marker which reflects the idiosyncratic element ineach lexical element; the presence of a distinguisher shows theirreducible nature of words. Lexical items are not equivalent withcomponential definition

d. selectional features, the fourth type of information provided by thedictionary refer tot the combinatorial abilities of lexical items: arguments

are s-selected; modifiers s-select the modifee; e.g., drink + -- NP.

Notational conventions: semantic markers = ()

distinguishers = []

selectional restrictions =


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(4) bachelor

+Noun grammatical

markers

[Det ---]

(human) (animal) semantic

markers

(male) (male)

(adult) (young)

(young)

(never married) (knigh)t

.. (seal)[serving under [having the first [when without distinguishers

the banner of another] or lowest academic a mate during

degree] the breedingseason] selectional

restrictions


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(5)

(i) states S(x)

(ii) achievements BECOME (S (x)) (redden, soften, etc.)

(iii) accomplishments CAUSE(BECOME (S (x)))


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Some properties of verb meanings:

a. Verbs meanings are more flexible, depending on the nouns theycombine with. Compare the interpretations of have in the following,

showing the high mutability of verbs

(6) I had a headache / a shower/ a surprise,). In any language there arelight verbs.

b. In anomalous V+N combinations, it is the verb which is assigned a newreading, rather than the noun.

(7) grasp a hand/ grasp a meaning;

drink water/ drink knowledge

c. These properties are apparent in the existence of light verbs which arehighlypolysemantic: be, have, run, make, do, set, go, come, take. Forthese, polysemy basically arises by combinations with nouns.

(8) Result: Generally the meaning of the verb is sharpened, thereforedependent on the V+ NP combination. Verb meaning depends on the

verb-argument configuration.


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The Wordnet analysis of BEAT

(9) BEAT (all imply, contact, impact)

{beat, strke, hit} contact verb

{beat, flatten} change of state.

{beat, throb, pulse} verb of motion

{beat defeat} competition verb

{beat, flog, punish} social

interaction{beat, stir, whisk} cooking verb

{beat, mark} count rhythm in music


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Result:

(10)

1. Verbs are relational and are basically defined by the number andconfiguration of their arguments.

2. The meaning of a verb is best represented by the syntacticconfiguration of its arguments, i.e., by the VP it projects. Thelexical representation of any verb involves a system of relations(called Lexical Relational Structure) having an essentially syntactic

form of the type in (i).

(i) VP

NP V

V XP

NP X

X NP

3. Complex VPs are lexically decomposed into simpler predications.

Lexical relational structures represent a syntax and they are subject togeneral principle of syntax. They involves the same categories

defined in syntax: head, complement, specifier.


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ergative vs. unergative:

(10) VP

NP V

VMary sleeps

(11) VP

V NPmelt the ice


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Empirical facts:

a) unergatives assign Accusative case: cognate objects: to

laugh a crazy laugh

b) the zero-derived nature of unergatives in English:

(12) to laugh/ a laugh, to walk, a walk, to run, a run, toswim/ a swim, to dance/ a dance, to whistle/ a

whistle; to sneeze/ a sneeze; to scream / a scream;to shiver/ a shiver, etc.

c) many ergative verbs have transitive light verbcounterparts:

(13) a. The child laughed.

The child had a laugh.

b. She sang.

She did a song.


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(15) a. unergatives b. unaccusative

VP VP

NP V V NP

V N

melt ice

Mary run


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(16) a. The child laughed.

b. The colt sneezed.

c. Petronella sang.

d. The ewes lambed.

(17) a. The child had a laugh/

b. She did her new song.

c. The ewe had twins.d. This mare does a nice trot.

Unergatives cannot be embedded under causatives: suggestion they donot have a subject in l-syntax, but just a cognate object; they get their

subject in syntax.

(19) a.*The clown laughed the child.(got the child to laugh)

b.*The alfalfa sneezed the colt. (got the colt to sneeze)


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(20) foal, fawn, whelp (dog, wolf), calve, pup, lamb, wether (ram)

(21) a. Flicka foaled.

b. The cow calved.c. VP

(NP) V

V Nfoal

(22) a. Flicka had a calf.

b. The cow had a calf.

c. The doe had a fawn.

(23) VP

NP V

V N

have


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(27) lunch, dine, breakfast, picnic

We lunched/had lunch at the Border Caf.

(28) hay, berry, mushroom, fish, whale; get fish,

get mushrooms

(29) rain, snow, hail, sleet, drizzle, lighten,

thunder

It rained/ snowed / sleeted / drizzled a lot.

It was raining cats and dogs.


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Another similar correlation: adjectives and inchoative verbs

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Verb Adjective Verb Adjectivesto redden red to cool cool

to fatten fat to thin thin

to soften soft

to sharpen sharp

to solidify solidto thicken thick

Hypothesis: Inchoatives are adjective incorporating verbs

(32) VP VP

V AP V AP

en NP A A + V NP t

red red(d) en


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Location verbs

(36) ground the planes, jail the prisoner, shelve the book,porch the newspaper, shelve, pen, corral, box, crate,coop, etc.

(37) He shelved the book The book /is on the shelf

The book got to be on the shelf

He caused the book to be on the shelf.

(39) He jailed the prisoners

VV PP

NP P

P N

(prisoners) jail


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(40) a. For three years, the Sheriff of Nottingham jailed Robin Hood.

b. The Sheriff of Nottingham jailed Robin Hood for three years.

(41) VPPP VP

for NP V

three V PP

years NP P

Robin P N Hood jail

(42)

VP

NP V

V PP

PP PP

NP P for

Robin P N three years.

Hood jail


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Locatum verbs

(43) a) carpet the floor, put the carpet on the floor, salt the food, sugar

the cake, paint the wall, paper the wall, etc.b) bandage, bar, bell, blindfold, bread, butter, clothe, curtain,dress, fund, gas, grease, harness, hook, house, ink, oil, pepper,powder, saddle, salt, shoe, spice, water, word

Incorporation affects complements, not the subjects, moreover it affects

the lowest complement in the structure. Consequently, the correctparaphrase will be (44), not (45).

(44) The cowboy saddled the horse The cowboy fitted the horse with a saddle.

The cowboy buttered the bread. The cowboy spread the bread with butter

They curtained the room. They provided the room with curtains

(45) The cowboy saddled the horse. The cowboy put the saddle on the horse.

The cowboy buttered the bread. The cowboy spread the butter on the bread.

They curtained the room. They put curtains in the room.


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(46) Locatum verbs

VP

NP V

V PP

NP PThe the P N

cowboy horse saddle

(47)

VP

NP V

V PP

NP P

The the P NP

cowboy put saddle on the horse

(48)

VPNP V

V PP

NP P

The the P NP

cowboy fit horse with a saddle


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An important generalization. Verbal configurations whichhave inner subjects yield middles.An affected patientis the only role that undergoes middle formation

(49) a. In this region, the sky darkens easily.

b. Metals flatten easily

(50) a. These books shelve easily.

b. Crabapples can easily.

c. Brahman calves dont pen easily.

d. Quarter horses corral easily.

(51) a. Horses saddle easily.

b. Such floors carpet easily.


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(52) We flattened the metal.

We darkened the room

We tightened the knot.

We lengthened the word.

(53) The sun melted the ice.

The boy broke the window.

(53) VP

DP V

V N

He laugh tlaugh

The unergative configuration is Agentive and syntactically the specifierVP is filled, receiving an Agentive interpretation:

Hypothesis: being an Agent simply means being the specifier of VP.


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(54) Configurationally, the Theme is an innersubject:

Goals /Locations/ Locatums qualify as innerobjects:

(55) VP

V NP

melt the ice

(56) VPV AP

NP A

the ice melt


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a. Verbs of creation/consumption

= transitive (unergative) verbs

(57) V

V DP

draw a circle

eat an apple

write a poem

do a dance

make a handout

b. Verbs of change of state (unaccusative)

(58) V/VP

V AdjP

DP A

turn the leaves red

paint the town red

c. Verbs of transfer (Locatum / Location verbs)

(59) VP

V

V PP

DP P

P DP

give a book to Sue

send a letter to Franceteach French to the children


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(60) -rolesAgent Spec-vP

Theme Spec-SC (Inner subject)

Goal Comp-SC

Incremental Theme Comp-vP


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(61)

a. Conflation should be associated with Merge

b. Conflation occurs when a constituent is merged with whose p-signature is defective. The p-sig of iscopied into the defective p-sig of.

c. For economy reasons, the copied p-sig is pronouncedonly once in its upper position.

d. Assume that heads whose p-sig is defective bear an

[+affix] features. A [+affix] feature triggers copying thep-feature of the sister category at Merge.

e. Conflation applies as early as possible


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(62)

a. -ernominalzations

paper cutter, can opener, , house-keeper, door-

stopper, page-truner, truck driver, script writer,

tiebreaker, homemaker, name-caller, noise-

maker, blood donnor

b. -ingcompounds

paper cutting, can-opening, , house-keeping,

page-turning, truck driving, script writing,

tiebreaking, homemaking, name-calling, noise-

making, fact-checking, fact-finding, etc.


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(63)

nscriptwriten Vscriptwrite

V N

er write- script

Deriving the incroporations through conflation:

a. Select write with [+affix] feature.

b. Merge write and script. Copy the p-sig of script into write duringMerge.

c. Project the head (V= label the whole thing with the heads feature)

d. Merge scriptwriter wither, wither having an affix feature. Copy thep-sig of scrptwrite into that ofer again at Merge (Conflation Economy)

e. Project the head n.

f. Pronounce the entire structure as script writer.

(64) can-opener

ncan-openern Acan-open

A N

er open- can


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Results:

1. The conflation mechanism derives the

First Sister Principle

2. If you want to incorporate an inner subject,

the whole PP/AP should be incorporated

lexical semantics 4

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