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Australian agriculture: reducing emissions and adapting to a changing climateKey findings of the Climate Change Research Program

DECEMBER 2013

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Department of AgricultureAustralian agriculture: reducing emissions and adapting to a changing climate | December 2013

ContentsThe Climate Change Research Program................................................................................................................4

Background...................................................................................................................................................................5

Highlights of the research findings....................................................................................................................5

Livestock.............................................................................................................................................................................8

Key findings.................................................................................................................................................................. 9

What this means for farmers and land managers.....................................................................................13

Where to next?..........................................................................................................................................................13

Want more information?......................................................................................................................................17

Cropping........................................................................................................................................................................... 18

Key findings............................................................................................................................................................... 19

What this means for farmers and the cropping and viticulture industries...................................25

Where to next?..........................................................................................................................................................26


Agricultural soils.......................................................................................................................................................... 28

Key findings............................................................................................................................................................... 29

What this means for farmers managing Australia’s agricultural soils.............................................32

Where to next?..........................................................................................................................................................36


Fisheries........................................................................................................................................................................... 37

Key findings............................................................................................................................................................... 37

What this means for fishers and the fishing industry.............................................................................40


Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................................................................42

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The Climate Change Research ProgramThe Australian Government’s Climate Change Research Program (CCRP) was designed to respond to the many challenges climate change poses to agricultural productivity. As part of the Australia’s Farming Future initiative the CCRP ran from 1 July 2008 to 30 June 2012. The CCRP brought together world-class researchers from around the country to help prepare Australia’s agricultural and fisheries industries for climate change. Through the CCRP, the Australian Government invested $46.2 million to support more than 50 major research and demonstration projects. These projects focused on technologies and farm practices to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions, improve soil management and assist the agricultural and fisheries sectors with options to adapt to a changing climate. The projects were nationally coordinated and delivered in partnership with research providers, industry groups, universities and state governments.

The total investment under the CCRP, including partner contributions, exceeded $130 million. Government funding was allocated as follows:

Reducing Emissions from Livestock Research Program—$11.3 million Nitrous Oxide Research Program—$4.7 million Soil Carbon Research Program—$9.6 million National Biochar Initiative—$1.4 million Adaptation Research Program—$11.5 million Demonstration on-farm or by food processors—$7.7 million.

Outcomes from the CCRP are providing real benefits to farmers and fishers. The CCRP has delivered foundation research that has increased our understanding of the sources of greenhouse gas emissions and the potential for emissions reduction and carbon sequestration. This information will lead to new ways for Australian farmers and food processors to reduce their emissions while keeping their businesses productive and sustainable.

New technologies developed by the CCRP will enable agricultural businesses to reduce emissions, enhance the use of farm inputs, and develop a better understanding of farm processes and how those processes contribute to emissions. They will also help agricultural businesses to plan for the future under a changing climate.

Greater collaboration among researchers and research organisations has enabled important climate-related research questions to be addressed at a national level and information to be shared among institutions.

The research has already underpinned development of some of the first carbon offset methodologies to be approved under the Carbon Farming Initiative and has contributed valuable data for a number of related offset methodologies.

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BackgroundThis report presents key findings from the CCRP under the themes of livestock, cropping, agricultural soils and fisheries. It describes innovations, on-farm strategies, new technologies, adaptations and areas for future research. Although the CCRP has closed, research is continuing under the Filling the Research Gap program, a component of the Carbon Farming Futures program. This research will increase our understanding of the likely effects of projected climate change on specific agricultural industries.

Highlights of the research findingsLivestock

The CCRP has made important advances in the ability to measure greenhouse gas emissions from livestock. This will make it easier and more cost-effective for farmers and land managers to participate in the Carbon Farming Initiative.

Researchers have trialled a number of methane measurement tools for effectiveness. These include open path laser technology, which uses beams of light to measure emissions from livestock in small paddocks, and an intra-ruminal device, which can be placed inside the rumen to directly measure the methane produced.

Collar device used to monitor methane emissions from a dairy cow.

Cropping

World-class research has provided data to help farmers understand nitrous oxide emissions from different soils under different management practices, farming systems and climates.

Enhanced-efficiency fertilisers, which are a combination of fertiliser and nitrification inhibitors, have been found to reduce nitrous oxide emissions across a range of soils.

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Trials showed that farmers can reduce nitrous oxide emissions and achieve productivity gains by increasing the efficiency of nitrogen use, through the use of better fertiliser technology and management in cropping systems.

Tractor pulling plough. Technologies that allow farmers to use fertilisers more efficiently have the dual benefit of reducing input costs as well as nitrous oxide emissions.

Agricultural soils

Results of this research were instrumental in Australia being able to more accurately represent nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural soils in our National Greenhouse Gas Inventory. In particular, nitrous oxide emission factors were found to be much lower in Australian low-rainfall cropping and pasture regions than the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change defaults.

An intensive measurement program demonstrated that nitrous oxide emissions from Australian agricultural soils are highly variable. Higher emissions arise from farming systems that combine the three main influences on nitrous oxide emissions: high soil carbon, high soil moisture and high nitrogen inputs.

Research has established one of the most detailed national benchmarks of soil carbon levels in the world.

Researchers found that, in a given region, soil carbon levels are generally higher in pasture systems than in cropping systems, and soil carbon levels are greater in areas with higher rainfall and/or lower temperatures.

Rainfall and soil type appear to be the most significant determinants of soil carbon levels.

Research has indicated that biochar could play a role in reducing nitrous oxide emissions from soils under certain conditions. Research activities have laid the groundwork for the development of biochar-based methodologies under the Carbon Farming Initiative.

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Soil with crop stubble. The potential for soil to store carbon depends heavily on rainfall and soil type.

Fisheries

A comprehensive risk assessment was undertaken to identify which fish species are most vulnerable to climate change impacts.

Research showed that ocean warming is likely to affect key fisheries species—such as abalone, snapper and blue grenadier—by affecting growth and recruitment (breeding) and by increasing the risks of stress and disease.

The Redmap website (www.redmap.org.au) has been expanded; the website encourages fishers across all sectors to document any changes in marine ecosystems, to provide researchers and fisheries managers with access to the most current information.

Left: Fisherman repairing nets. Right: Fresh catch. Predicting and understanding the changes to marine environments will help maximise the opportunities for development of new fisheries and markets.

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http://www.redmap.org.au/

LivestockEmissions from livestock account for around 10.2 per cent of Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions. Methane and nitrous oxide, the two main greenhouse gases emitted from the livestock industry, have much greater global warming potential than carbon dioxide. Reducing methane and nitrous oxide emissions from livestock will help reduce Australia’s overall greenhouse gas emissions and help mitigate future climate change.

The economic and environmental benefits of adopting practices that reduce emissions may include improving the conversion of feed to energy, reducing nitrogen losses from intensive production systems and potentially creating offsets under the Carbon Farming Initiative.

The CCRP investigated ways to measure and understand methane and nitrous oxide emissions from livestock. Researchers worked on developing novel strategies to reduce these emissions.

The CCRP has also funded projects to equip farmers with the knowledge, tools and strategies to adapt to the challenges of a changing climate.

The Australian Government’s previous and current investment in climate change research will provide producers with the tools to develop practical on-farm options to reduce emissions from livestock while maintaining, and potentially increasing, productivity.

For the livestock sector, CCRP research looked at:

understanding and measuring emissions from livestock usingo devices that directly measure methane emissions from individual animals

while they are feedingo open path laser techniques that measure emissions from livestock grazing in

the paddocko technologies for measuring methane production in the rumen

how farmers can reduce nitrous oxide and methane emissions from livestock througho selective breeding of low-emission animalso inhibiting methane production in the rumeno managing manure and urineo capturing and using methane

the impacts of a changing climate ono northern beef producerso southern livestock producers.

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Prime lambs graze on plantain (Plantango lanceolata) a high quality fodder which can grow on a wide variety of soil types and reduce enteric methane emissions.

Key findingsUnderstanding and measuring emissions from livestock

Research into gas production in the rumen (the part of a ruminant’s digestive system where most methane is produced) has provided important information about metabolic function and can indicate the level of methane emissions from an individual animal. (See also box 1: ‘Innovation and technology’.)

How farmers can reduce methane emissions from livestock

For both cattle and sheep, researchers found that there is natural variation in the level of methane produced by individual animals. Factors responsible for differences in methane production by these ruminants include rumen size and rumen microbe population, digestive functions, feed intake and feed-use efficiency.

An individual animal’s methane production level was found to be a heritable trait. Researchers screened pedigree herds for methane production traits and found that

the progeny of some sires in the herd produced 11–24 per cent less methane, on average, than the progeny of other sires. Breeding cattle and sheep that have a low emissions footprint may provide farmers with a commercial point of differentiation for their livestock.

By screening more than 3000 individual animals, researchers determined that sheep emitting higher levels of methane had larger rumens. Rumen size may therefore be a useful proxy for methane production when selecting sheep for breeding.

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Results showed that a range of tropical legumes, novel forages (e.g. turnip, plantain and chicory) and plant extracts have the potential to reduce methane production in the rumen. Eremophila glabra was found to be one of the most effective feeds, with up to a 50 per cent reduction in methane production under laboratory conditions.

Researchers found that some grape marc (a by-product of winemaking) is a useful supplement that can reduce emissions from dairy cows while maintaining or increasing productivity.

Researchers evaluated the effects of a range of feed supplements on methane emissions and productivity of ruminants. Supplements tested include lipids, tannins and various plant products. Of the feed supplements tested, most were found to reduce methane production by various amounts, in either field or laboratory experiments.

Nitrate supplementation was tested on sheep using commercial lick-blocks and was found to reduce methane production by 22 per cent in penned sheep and by 8 per cent in sheep grazing in paddocks. Dietary nitrate should only be considered for use in areas where forage quality is low. Nitrate supplementation can introduce the risk of nitrate poisoning, particularly where forage quality is good, because the poisoning risk increases with forage nitrogen levels.

One CCRP demonstration activity showed that the capture of methane from covered manure ponds in intensive livestock operations can significantly reduce emissions and provide a source of fuel for electricity generation (see box 1: ‘Innovation and technology’).

Sheep grazing in paddock. Reductions in livestock methane emissions may be achieved through selective breeding.

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Impacts of climate change on northern beef producers

By modelling pasture responses to future climate scenarios, researchers showed that rainfall will remain the key driver of pasture growth in northern Australia, although changes in evaporation and carbon dioxide concentrations will also play an important role.

Throughout the northern beef regions of Queensland and the Northern Territory, the Fitzroy Basin and Maranoa–Balonne catchments are predicted to be the most vulnerable to climate change. Rainfall is expected to decrease in these areas, even under best-case future climate change scenarios.

Climate change researchers have developed adaptation strategies that help improve pasture cover and quality—this could increase the resilience of the industry to a changing and variable climate. Effective climate change adaptation strategies for northern beef producers include:

o matching stocking rates to suit future climatic conditionso introducing innovative pasture-spelling regimes—this involves grazing

pastures down to the first node of the plant, then spelling during the wet season (retaining the first node increases pasture recovery and allows carrying capacity to increase by up to 40 per cent)

o using prescribed burning at certain times to control growth of woody weeds. Social research found that developing producer networks, improving business

planning and flexibility, and building knowledge of key areas such as pasture and soil condition would also improve overall adaptation outcomes.

Brahman cattle, Alpha Queensland. Climate change may bring both risks and opportunities for beef production in northern Australia.

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Impacts of climate change on southern livestock producers

Biophysical models (models of the way living and non-living components of an environment influence the survival of an organism and/or population) indicated that warmer and drier future climates projected for much of southern Australia will lead to:

o higher pasture growth rates in winter and early springo a shortened growing seasono earlier onset of the dry summer period.

Research showed that any changes beyond a 1 °C increase in temperature and 10 per cent lower rainfall in southern pasture systems would likely reduce pasture growth.

Changes in seasonal patterns of pasture growth are likely to cause lower livestock productivity across most of southern Australia. In some cases, production could be reduced by 15-20 per cent.

The lower rainfall areas of the sheep–wheat zone of inland Australia are likely to experience the most severe impacts.

Heat stress is a major concern for livestock production systems as the incidence of hot days and heatwaves increases. Researchers investigated a number of options that farmers may be able to use to manage heat stress (see box 1: ‘Innovation and technology’).

Climate change may lead to positive outcomes for some cooler, higher rainfall areas where increased pasture production has been projected.

Research results showed that no single adaptation strategy could provide a complete solution and that a combination of strategies will be needed to manage climate change for southern livestock regions. Examples that were shown to have adaptive benefits (in order of their effectiveness) include:

o increasing soil fertilityo using summer active perennial pastures (e.g. lucerne)o protecting groundcover through confinement feedingo improving livestock production potential through breeding o increasing livestock conception rates.

Did you know?

In 2010, more than two-thirds of Australia’s agricultural greenhouse gas emissions were from livestock industries, accounting for around 10.2 per cent of total Australian emissions. Most of these emissions (94 per cent) were from methane produced by livestock during digestion. The remaining 6 per cent resulted from the production of nitrous oxide and methane from manure management.

Methane emissions from ruminant livestock are predominantly caused by the activity of microorganisms that live in the rumen.

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What this means for farmers and land managers The CCRP has provided farmers with additional tools to improve their resilience in a

changing climate. Information generated by the CCRP can now provide producers in medium-rainfall zones with a choice of native perennial forage shrubs that reduce emissions from livestock. Research has shown that these native forage species can make up the base of conventional pastures. When coupled with a complementary pasture understorey, they can produce weight gain in autumn when feed quality and quantity typically limit livestock performance in southern Australia.

Researchers have investigated supplementary feeds that have been shown to reduce methane emissions while also increasing production in livestock.

The CCRP has provided evidence that it is possible to breed cattle and sheep that produce less methane. This vital first step may lead to an important strategy for extensive grazing systems, where other emission-reduction interventions may be impractical.

Studies have demonstrated that intensive livestock and meat processing industries can install methane capture and combustion technologies to animal waste ponds, allowing substantial reductions in methane emissions as well as electricity generation. Demonstrations of methane capture, flaring and energy conversion have been important in the development of some of the first methodologies to be approved under the Carbon Farming Initiative.

New devices to measure animal emissions that have been tested by the CCRP have allowed researchers to understand differences in emission levels between individual animals. Remote measurement technologies and techniques allow emissions from livestock to be measured in a real-world situation, without influencing or stressing the animals involved.

Where to next?Climate change research has been critical in advancing our understanding of potential strategies and technologies for reducing methane emissions from livestock. Work is continuing to unlock further potential for reducing emissions.

The Australian Government is continuing to support research projects to:

improve methods for measuring livestock emissions—this research includes further testing and development of devices that more accurately and practically measure individual animal emissions in the paddock

further assess how producers can reduce livestock emissions through selectively breeding low-emitting livestock

further assess the effects of diet on emissions, including fodder manipulation and use of methane-reducing feed supplements and additives

investigate manure composting as a practice for minimising greenhouse gas emissions from intensive livestock industries and the manure supply chain

study the costs and benefits that farm enterprises may encounter when moving towards a low-emissions-producing herd

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combine biophysical and economic modelling, social research and farmer engagement to identify farm management responses and/or innovations that build farm business resilience under a more variable and challenging climate

further investigate the impacts of a changing climate on Australia’s intensive livestock enterprises

bring together international scientific expertise to coordinate livestock systems research that focuses on reducing greenhouse gas emissions

support the development of methodologies for the Carbon Farming Initiative.

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Box 1. Innovation and technology

Technological advances in measuring emissions from livestock

Measurement devices—researchers have tested a new device that measures livestock emissions that replace larger, more cumbersome animal enclosures. The newer design tested by CCRP researchers uses a smaller, hood-shaped enclosure that surrounds only the head of the animal. Food is used to attract the animals to the enclosure in the field and the device measures greenhouse gas emissions while the animal is feeding. Radio frequency tags are attached to each animal to enable separate data to be collected for each individual in the paddock. This allows researchers to understand variation in emission levels between individual animals. This new technology allows researchers to more practically and accurately measure in-field livestock emissions. The technology has the added potential of aiding feed efficiency research.

The intra-ruminal device—researchers have patented a battery-powered sensing device that can be placed inside the animal’s rumen to directly measure the methane produced. The device has been integrated with CSIRO’s wireless sensor network platform and uses a radio transceiver to transmit data to a computer within range of the paddock. The intra-ruminal device shows real promise as a tool to measure methane emissions from individual animals. This will allow researchers to identify low methane–producing animals. Work is ongoing to make the device available to industry.

Left: Prototype of an intra-ruminal device. Device is placed in the rumen of livestock to directly measure the animal’s methane production. Right: Cow exiting large enclosure designed to measure emissions.

Open path laser technique—a novel system for using infra-red laser light to measure emissions from herds in the paddock. Under favourable wind and weather conditions, this technique accurately measures methane and nitrous oxide emissions from animals under normal production conditions.

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Researcher using open path laser technology to measure livestock emissions at the paddock/herd scale.

Innovative adaptation strategies for southern dairy producers

‘Cool Cows’ is a web-based dairy risk assessment program that provides information to farmers to help cows cope with hot weather (www.coolcows.com.au). To help dairy farmers consider management improvements, they can now enter farm information (location, herd and management strategies) into the program to identify risks associated with heat stress and predict when heat stress may affect their herd. Heat stress affects milk production, fertility, health and welfare, and has an impact on income.

Dairy cattle, Victoria. Reducing heat stress associated with climate change using new technologies and farm practices offers dairy farmers the potential to increase productivity.

Researchers also explored the use of feed additives to reduce heat stress. The amino acid betaine, elemental chromium, vitamin E and elemental selenium could all

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http://www.coolcows.com.au/

improve productivity and resistance to heat stress. However, the results from these studies varied, and more work is required to deliver a safe industry practice.

Capturing and using methane from intensive livestock operations

A study at a piggery in Grantham, Queensland, demonstrated the use of a floating cover over the animal waste pond. The cover captured more than half of the site’s methane emissions, with a more than 50 per cent reduction in waste pond emissions following flaring. The study also demonstrated that the captured methane could be used as an energy source for heating in the piggery. This study was used as the basis for one of the first Carbon Farming Initiative methodologies. Five Carbon Farming Initiative methodologies have been approved under the Methodology Determinations for agriculture. Four producers are now using these methodologies to generate carbon credits1. The potential to generate heat or electricity from waste methane offers the meat processing and intensive livestock sectors further incentives to adopt methane capture and combustion technologies.

Flare used to burn excess methane at a piggery in Grantham, Queensland.

Want more information? Information on ongoing projects—www.daff.gov.au/ftrg. Information on managing heat stress in Australian dairy herds—

www.coolcows.com.au.

1 CFI Methodology Determination figures provided by the Clean Energy Regulator, Register of Offsets Projects 24 October 2013.

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http://www.coolcows.com.au/

http://www.daff.gov.au/ftrg

CroppingThe CCRP has examined the likely effects of climate change on cropping and wine grape enterprises.

One of the main greenhouse gases emitted from Australian cropping systems is nitrous oxide. Results from the CCRP have shown that nitrous oxide emissions from Australian cropping soils vary across the country and are closely related to the water, carbon and nitrogen content of topsoils.

The CCRP investigated a range of strategies for reducing nitrous oxide emissions from cropping systems. Because nitrous oxide emissions represent a loss of nitrogen from the soil, practices to reduce emissions have dual benefits: mitigating climate change and increasing productivity. Reducing emissions could create opportunities for farmers to earn additional income through participation in the Carbon Farming Initiative and also benefit from productivity gains through research-driven advances in fertiliser management practices.

In the cropping and wine grape sectors, CCRP research looked at:

how farmers can reduce emissions from cropping througho more efficient irrigation management practiceso more efficient fertiliser management practiceso the use of enhanced-efficiency fertilisers (fertilisers that contain chemical

compounds that limit the production of nitrous oxide)o changing crop rotationso applying lime to reduce nitrous oxide emissions

how a changing climate will affect the production ofo wheato sorghumo wine grapes

the development or relocation of selected cropping enterprises to northern Australia.

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Automated monitoring system used to continuously measure greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural soils.

Key findingsReducing emissions from cropping

Understanding how nitrous oxide emissions can occur from farming systems raises the possibility of reducing these emissions through more efficient management of nitrogen-based fertiliser applications.

Trials on irrigated cotton–grain farming systems in southern Queensland found that managing the timing and amount of irrigation can avoid significant increases in nitrous oxide emissions.

Irrigation management can reduce the intensity of nitrous oxide emissions from irrigated cropping systems, while reducing plant water stress. Nitrous oxide emissions can be minimised if large irrigation volumes are avoided where soil nitrate content is high or after application of nitrogen fertilisers.

Nitrous oxide emissions from soils can increase significantly after the application of nitrogen fertiliser. The amount and timing of fertiliser applications has a clear impact on the magnitude of emissions.

Applying nitrogen fertiliser before planting can increase nitrous oxide emissions. One explanation for this phenomenon is that crop demand for nitrogen is low during germination and early growth stages, leaving more nitrogen available for soil microorganisms to convert to nitrous oxide.

Enhanced-efficiency fertilisers, which are a combination of fertiliser and nitrogen breakdown inhibitors, reduced nitrous oxide emissions by up to 90 per cent in laboratory experiments, and by up to 64 per cent in field experiments.

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A range of studies carried out by the CCRP for sites across Australia showed that the ability of enhanced-efficiency fertilisers to reduce nitrous oxide emissions depends on the soil type, the climatic conditions and the land management practices implemented.

Results from a study on rain-fed wheat crops in the central grain belt of Western Australia showed that farmers can cut down the use of synthetic fertilisers by using a grain–legume (lupin) rotation. By limiting the use of synthetic fertilisers, farmers can reduce the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the production of one tonne of harvested wheat by up to 35 per cent (or up to 55 per cent per hectare planted).

Research conducted in northern Queensland demonstrated that growing soybeans during the usual sugarcane fallow period was an effective means of reducing the application rate of nitrogen fertiliser. However, nitrous oxide emissions increased substantially following incorporation of the soybean residue into the soil.

Research showed that liming acidic cropping soils in Western Australia, to which fertiliser had been applied annually, can reduce nitrous oxide emissions by up to 30 per cent following summer and/or autumn rainfall. Liming also increased uptake of methane by up to 79 per cent throughout the year.

For liming to be considered a viable method for reducing total greenhouse gas emissions, it is essential that the emissions associated with the production, transport and dissolution of lime do not outweigh the gains from on-farm emissions reductions.

Did you know?

Enhanced-efficiency fertilisers use chemical compounds that are designed to slow the conversion of nitrogen to nitrous oxide, maintain nutrient availability to plants and reduce the loss of nitrogen to the environment.

Left: Farmer inspecting soil. Right: Enhanced-efficiency fertiliser (white granules) and traditional commercial fertiliser.

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Effect of a changing climate on cropping and wine production

CCRP research compared present climatic conditions and a range of potential future climate scenarios to determine what stresses wheat and sorghum crops might face from climate change in 2030 and 2050. The comparisons showed that climate change is likely to reduce wheat and sorghum yields through increases in the frequency and intensity of both droughts and high temperatures. However, decreases in frost risk could enable producers to sow wheat earlier and avoid heat risks around flowering time.

Under research trial conditions, high carbon dioxide was found to increase wheat yields by an average of 20 per cent. However, any potential future increases in wheat yields from higher carbon dioxide levels could be offset by potential losses from higher temperatures and lower rainfall.

Sorghum would suffer significant yield reductions under high carbon dioxide levels and dry conditions. Producers will need to time planting to avoid heat stress around flowering time.

Research found variation in current varieties of wheat and sorghum that could be harnessed by plant breeders to improve adaptation to higher temperatures and carbon dioxide levels. However, use of varieties and crop breeding programs will need to shift regionally to capitalise on the opportunities presented by this trait variability.

Researchers assessed around 500 wine grape varieties, clones and selected breeding lines for suitability in potential future climates. Glasshouse and field trials showed that rootstocks can have a significant effect on the growth and development of grapevines under a changing climate. The Australian wine industry already has access to a wide range of wine grape varieties and rootstocks that can:

o reduce the chance of fruit being damaged by heat from ripening early or lateo reduce water loss through leaves by producing less foliageo produce high-quality wine grapes at high temperatures.

Although it is a longer term investment, rootstock selection can offer Australian wine grape growers an important climate change adaptation strategy.

Additional experiments showed that grapevines are relatively resilient to heatwaves.

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Vineyard. Higher temperatures can affect important wine grape characteristics such as acidity, flavours and aromas.

Relocating and developing cropping enterprises in northern Australia

Average annual rainfall in the Northern Territory is increasing, this potentially presents an opportunity for expansion or relocation of peanut production. However a changing climate will demand changes to peanut production methods. Researchers have cautioned that the total production of traditional peanut–maize crop rotations in the Northern Territory could be significantly reduced under future climate change projections (see box 2: ‘Moving with climate change’).

Climate change simulations indicated that nutrient and water losses would need to be managed carefully to avoid declines in crop yields.

Research findings suggest that rice production in the Burdekin region of Queensland could be viable if introduced into a sugarcane-based rotation, but this is highly dependent on land and water values.

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Box 2. Moving with climate change

Research into the potential for industries to relocate (regionally) in response to climate change was a focus of the CCRP. Relocation of agricultural industries (to northern regions) can have unforeseeable outcomes, and a successful transition will require long-term planning based on the best available climate information.

The suitability of regional locations for different primary industries depends on factors such as climate, soil type and proximity to markets. Two CCRP projects examined the potential to produce tomatoes, cotton, rice and peanuts in northern Australia.

Growing rice, cotton and tomatoes in northern Queensland

Regional-scale economic modelling showed potential opportunities to grow rice and cotton as complementary or fallow crops to sugarcane in the Burdekin region of northern Queensland. Tomato, rice and cotton production has the potential to increase the economic viability of agriculture in the region. Researchers cautioned that, although modelling indicated that tomato production (in Burdekin) under climate change may increase due to elevated carbon dioxide levels, there is a risk of decreased season length as a result of higher temperatures. Modelling and previous field trials also indicated that production of tomatoes, rice and cotton in northern Australia will not be able to match the productivity of existing growing regions.

Peanut expansion in the Northern Territory

Reduced summer rainfall in parts of Queensland has led to a decline in peanut production in recent decades. Conversely, the Northern Territory is becoming wetter.

By examining climate projections, social and economic factors, pest and disease risks, and conducting trial plantings, CCRP researchers analysed the potential of relocating peanut production to Katherine in the Northern Territory. They found that future increases in temperature in the Katherine region under climate change may present unfavourable growing conditions for traditional peanut–maize crop rotations. However, use of a millet cover crop to reduce summer soil temperatures for maize can minimise the impacts of higher temperatures. Use of a millet cover crop or mulch was found to improve both accumulation and yield of maize biomass.

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Cotton plant.

Peanut crop, northern Australia. Australia’s changing climate will provide new opportunities for growing crops outside of traditional regions, including northern Australia.

Economic modelling of maize–peanut rotations in Katherine showed that greatest productivity can be generated when peanuts are sown in the wet season and maize is sown in the dry season.

Success of the Katherine expansion would depend on a number of factors, including:

the ability of producers to adapt their farming knowledge the level of producer attachment to their current place and occupation area-specific knowledge (how to farm in Katherine) and engagement within the

community establishment of suitable rotation crops the availability of labour water security the level of support for infrastructure and research development.

Barriers to relocation may include:

the need to develop processing infrastructure the need for new plant varieties that are more suited to tropical conditions changing pest and disease risks transport availability and costs resistance to land-use change.

Lessons for relocating agricultural production

Based on the lessons learned from the peanut case study, a ‘blueprint’ for successful agricultural transformation was developed to outline social conditions, barriers to be considered and types of information needed to aid the transformation process.

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Fields inundated with water following heavy rainfall. The combination of high soil moisture levels and fertiliser application can result in nitrous oxide emissions.

What this means for farmers and the cropping and viticulture industries

Research trials showed that farmers can reduce nitrous oxide emissions, and achieve productivity gains, by increasing the efficiency of nitrogen use in cropping systems. Fertiliser management strategies that have shown to reduce nitrous oxide emissions include:

o avoiding high application rates of nitrogen fertiliser before plantingo avoiding application of nitrogen fertiliser before irrigation or high rainfallo improving fertiliser management to better match soil nitrogen supply to crop

nitrogen needs. Research showed that enhanced-efficiency fertilisers can reduce loss of nitrogen,

without adverse effects on plant growth. This has the potential to provide economic and environmental benefits.

Results from the CCRP have indicated that wheat farmers can achieve significant reductions in fertiliser input by integrating legumes into cropping operations. Legume–grain crop rotation is a practical way for farmers to reduce emissions associated with commercial nitrogen fertilisers.

By using genetic traits to modify the timing of crop development, breeding programs could supply earlier or later maturing wheat varieties and provide farmers with tactical options to match the seasonal outlook.

It is expected that researchers, producers and policy makers will be able to use the work conducted under the CCRP to determine the impacts of proposals to relocate selected cropping enterprises in northern Australia (see box 2: ‘Moving with climate change’).

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Where to next?The Australian Government is continuing to support research to:

examine effects of fertilisers and organic matter on the processes that produce nitrous oxide emissions

investigate opportunities to reduce nitrous oxide emissions from horticulture and cropping by testing management techniques, including timing and rates of fertiliser application, use of nitrous oxide production inhibitors and use of enhanced-efficiency fertilisers

investigate adaptation options for horticultural and cropping enterprises facing challenging future climates

build on results from the CCRP to produce a toolbox of management options for viticultural adaptation to a hotter and drier vineyard environment, as well as innovative viticultural strategies to mitigate the effects of climate change.

Want more information? Information on ongoing projects—www.daff.gov.au/ftrg. Information on the Carbon Farming Initiative—www.climatechange.gov.au/cfi.

Fruit orchard. Researchers are investigating opportunities to reduce nitrous oxide emissions from horticulture.

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http://www.climatechange.gov.au/cfi


Agricultural soilsBy managing agricultural soils, farmers have an opportunity to play a role in reducing Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions. The CCRP focused on two key areas of research: emissions from agricultural soils, and measuring and understanding soil carbon levels.

Three greenhouse gases are commonly emitted from soils: carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. The most significant of these in terms of amount emitted from soils are carbon dioxide (during extended periods of drought) and nitrous oxide. Emissions from soils are influenced by factors such as soil temperature and moisture content, through their effects on the activity of soil microorganisms.

Increased soil carbon can benefit soil health and productivity. Understanding of current soil carbon levels has increased, as has knowledge of management practices and environmental factors that influence soil carbon. The information generated from the CCRP will help Australian farmers understand how to manage soil carbon and potentially participate in the Carbon Farming Initiative.

Over three years, the CCRP analysed samples from more than 4500 sites (some with a long history of sampling) across diverse farming locations, climates and soil types and investigated links between farm management practices and soil carbon levels.

The CCRP investigated a number of soil amendment and management practices that are capable of reducing emissions while maintaining soil productivity. Researchers have found that biochar—a carbon-rich, stable form of charcoal— has potential for agricultural and environmental benefits, and could be an important tool for the management of soils. The National Biochar Initiative, funded under the CCRP, was established to provide preliminary information on how biochar could potentially reduce greenhouse gas emissions while maintaining and even increasing agricultural productivity. Research showed that most biochar has potential for creating offsets under the Carbon Farming Initiative.

For agricultural soils, CCRP research looked at:

understanding and measuring nitrous oxide emissions from soil understanding and measuring soil carbon investigating how farm management practices can influence soil carbon biochar’s ability to provide long-term carbon storage biochar’s ability to reduce nitrous oxide emissions the potential risks of using biochar.

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Tilled field. Soil carbon content, soil moisture content and nitrogen inputs are the three main influences on nitrous oxide emission levels.

Key findingsUnderstanding and measuring nitrous oxide emissions from soil

Results of this research were instrumental in Australia being able to more accurately represent nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural soils in our National Greenhouse Gas Inventory. In particular, nitrous oxide emission factors were found to be much lower in Australian low-rainfall cropping and pasture regions than the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change defaults.

Through an intensive measurement program across eastern, southern and south-western Australia, the CCRP has demonstrated that nitrous oxide emissions from Australian agricultural soils are highly variable.

Research found that soils with water saturation levels less than 40 per cent or greater than 90 per cent have very low nitrous oxide emissions.

Research demonstrated that nitrous oxide emissions can increase after high rainfall or irrigation—often with a high initial spike in emissions within the first 24 hours following the event.

Fertiliser inputs can lead to increased nitrous oxide emissions if the amount of nitrogen that plants can absorb is exceeded.

Higher emissions arise from farming systems that combine the three main influences on nitrous oxide emissions: high nitrogen inputs, high soil moisture and high soil carbon.

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Understanding and measuring soil carbon

Rainfall and soil type appear to be the most significant determinants of soil carbon levels.

Research found that soil carbon levels were greater in areas with higher rainfall and/or lower temperatures. High temperatures combined with high soil moisture can lead to high rates of decay and loss of soil organic carbon.

Sampling revealed that, in a given region, soil carbon levels are generally higher in pasture systems than in cropping systems. This suggests that soil carbon levels in mixed farming systems can be increased, or the loss of soil carbon can at least be slowed, by replacing crops with pastures.

Plant shoot and root residues are the source of organic carbon in soils, and rates of decay can be influenced by land management practices.

Gathering soil samples. There have been major advances in measuring soil carbon through the development of nationally applied soil sampling and analysis procedures.

Investigating how farm management practices can influence soil carbon

Pasture type—there is evidence that soil carbon levels in some regions are higher under perennial pastures than under annual pastures.

Rangelands—results from a long-term rangelands grazing trial in Queensland showed that increasing vegetation cover appears to be the most effective means to increase soil carbon in rangeland soils.

Minimum tillage— Soil carbon levels are generally decreasing over time in cropping systems. Results from trials in grain and sugarcane crops showed that minimum tillage did not reverse declining soil carbon levels. However, soil carbon measurements from longer term field trials in Queensland grain crops suggest that minimum tillage can help slow loss of soil carbon. Minimum tillage is not likely to increase soil carbon levels.

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Organic material—amendments such as composts and manures were found to have no significant effect on soil carbon levels.

CCRP research has shown some opportunities for farmers to influence storage of soil carbon. However, since the main drivers of soil carbon levels appear to be rainfall and soil type, longer term sampling of sites is needed to determine whether management practices can also significantly influence soil carbon levels over time.

Biochar’s ability to provide long-term carbon storage

Research showed that most biochars are composed of high levels of stable carbon, and this stability is influenced by factors involved in their production. (See also the text box: ‘Did you know’.)

Biochars produced at higher temperatures tend to have higher levels of stable carbon than biochars produced at lower temperatures.

Wood-derived biochars are richer in carbon and may therefore offer better options for carbon storage.

Biochars produced from manures have higher nitrogen and phosphorus levels, and may be more suitable for agricultural uses.

Biochar’s ability to reduce nitrous oxide emissions

Research showed that the application of biochar to soils can potentially reduce nitrous oxide emissions when soil conditions favour conversion of nitrate to nitrous oxide. The reduction in nitrous oxide emissions is affected by the type of soil and biochar.

The processes by which biochars reduce nitrous oxide emissions are not yet fully understood. Soil properties such as aeration, moisture, pH, microbial processes, structure, nutrients and soil carbon content are known to interact with biochar, but it is not clear how such interactions affect emissions of nitrous oxide.

Biochar did not reduce nitrous oxide emissions under dryland agricultural conditions (typical of large parts of Western Australia). However, the same biochar source did decrease nitrous oxide emissions under moist soil conditions (e.g. northern New South Wales). These results show that the same biochar source can have markedly different results, depending on soil type and climatic conditions.

Potential risks of using biochar

Researchers tested a subset of biochars for toxic compounds and heavy metals, and found low levels (similar to typical levels in most soils). This suggests that biochar is unlikely to pose a significant risk.

Biochars bind herbicides; this reduces the efficacy of the herbicides and their breakdown in soil. Herbicide applications at up to four times the registered rate were not sufficient to achieve complete weed control in soils with 0.5–1.0 per cent added biochar by mass. These results highlight the need for further research to develop appropriate advice on biochar application.

Results also indicated interactions between different soil types and biochars, which suggests that certain biochars may be better suited to specific soils. Further research will be needed to determine appropriate biochar application rates for different soils, biochars and agricultural situations.

Research showed that biochar can have a strong positive effect on plant germination and growth. Laboratory and glasshouse experiments showed that the optimal biochar

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application rate for wheat germination and growth was around 5–10 tonnes per hectare for most soils and biochars.

Use of contaminated, unknown feedstocks and non-standard methods for biochar production may compromise the broader environmental safety of biochar application.

Fragments of biochar. The application of biochar to soil has the potential to both improve agricultural productivity and reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Image courtesy of CSIRO.

What this means for farmers managing Australia’s agricultural soils

The CCRP has built a large database of soil carbon levels for sites around Australia. This information will allow future sampling to reveal changes in carbon stocks over time, and will help identify which practices have potential to increase soil carbon levels.

Research has delivered major advances in measuring soil carbon. Advances include the application of standard sampling methods, as well as more rapid and cost-effective methods for measuring soil density and organic carbon levels. These new techniques will significantly reduce the cost to farmers of measuring and evaluating soil carbon levels, and allow better comparison of relative soil carbon levels across different soils and farming systems.

The CCRP has developed and refined a range of technologies and techniques for more accurately measuring nitrous oxide emissions from soil. Improved measurement is critical to better understanding the causes of nitrous oxide emissions and how these can be reduced through changed farm practices that also improve fertiliser efficiency and reduce the cost of inputs.

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Research results have established an internationally recognised benchmark for the measurement of nitrous oxide emissions. This has increased the accuracy with which nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural soils are represented in Australia’s National Greenhouse Accounts.

The production of biochar (see also the text box: ‘Did you know?’) enables carbon sequestration by converting biomass that would normally decompose (releasing carbon dioxide to the atmosphere) into a highly stable form of charcoal.

Because the carbon in biochar is quite stable, there is interest in using it as a long-term carbon store and a means to offset greenhouse gas emissions. Researchers were also able to show that biochars are highly resistant to decay when applied to soils.

Overall results indicated that biochar could play an important role in reducing nitrous oxide emissions from soils under certain conditions, but further research is needed to understand these processes.

Funded research activities have laid the groundwork for the development of biochar-based methodologies under the Carbon Farming Initiative.

Did you know?

Greenhouse gases commonly emitted from soils

Carbon dioxide is taken up from the atmosphere by plants and converted to organic carbon. When this plant material decays, carbon dioxide is released back to the atmosphere. Extended periods of drought can significantly increase the rate at which carbon dioxide is emitted from agricultural soils.

Nitrogen in soils (from organic inputs or added as fertiliser) is converted into nitrous oxide emissions through the activity of microorganisms that carry out the chemical processes of nitrification and denitrification.

What is the difference between organic and inorganic carbon?

Organic carbon includes decaying plant matter, soil organisms and microbes, and can be influenced by land management practices. Organic carbon is lost from the soil through decomposition by soil organisms and microbes, erosion and leaching of dissolved organic carbon. The amount of organic carbon in the top 30 cm of Australian soils varies considerably, from more than 10 per cent by weight under rainforests to less than 1 per cent in poorer soils.

Inorganic carbon is mineral based and is relatively stable. Except where lime is applied to soils, inorganic carbon generally cannot be increased by land management practices.

What is biochar?

Biochar is produced by pyrolysis—a process in which biomass sources such as woodchips, crop waste or manure are heated to high temperatures (400–700 °C) with little or no oxygen.

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Box 3. Innovations, on-farm strategies and new technologies

Setting up a national standard for sampling and measuring soil carbon

To ensure that soil carbon content is measured consistently across Australia, the CCRP developed standardised sampling and laboratory analysis methods. These procedures can be found in the CSIRO report, National Soil Carbon Research Program: field and laboratory methodologies (www.clw.csiro.au/publications/science/2011/SAF-SCaRP-methods.pdf).

The CCRP has developed the most detailed benchmark of soil carbon levels to date in Australia through the analysis of more than 20 000 soil samples from more than 4500 locations.

Measuring soil carbon faster, more cheaply and more accurately

The CCRP has tested and developed the following new and rapid approaches to measure soil bulk density and organic carbon:o neutron density meters—used to

accurately measure bulk density of soil in the top 30 cm without the need to collect soil cores; this technology was originally designed to measure road-base density

o near infra-red spectroscopy—used to accurately and quickly estimate the water in soil core samples, improving the accuracy of soil density measurements

o mid infra-red spectroscopy of soil samples—used in the laboratory to statistically calibrate soil carbon measurements to provide accurate estimates of total carbon, inorganic carbon and different fractions of organic carbon in soils.

Research collaborations: building our knowledge base of nitrous oxide emissions from soils

CCRP researchers have developed an online data management system to assist collaborations and data synthesis. Available at www.n2o.net.au, the system includes more information about the results of the CCRP research on nitrous oxide emissions.

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Inspecting soil core. The CCRP has tested and developed a number of new and rapid approaches to measure soil characteristics and has established a national standard for sampling and measuring soil carbon.

http://www.n2o.net.au/

http://www.clw.csiro.au/publications/science/2011/SAF-SCaRP-methods.pdf

http://www.clw.csiro.au/publications/science/2011/SAF-SCaRP-methods.pdf

Where to next?The Australian Government is continuing to support research to better understand and model the combined influences of soil carbon, moisture and nitrogen content on nitrous oxide emissions across Australian agricultural systems. Much work is still needed to improve the understanding of long-term effects of different management practices on soil carbon levels. Projects funded continue to:

assess how farm management practices can increase soil carbon levels at depth in different farming systems and soils

investigate the potential of native forest and grass planting on marginal farmland for storing soil carbon

develop fast, accurate and cost-effective methods for measuring soil carbon investigate the potential of low-emission nitrogen fertilisers made from clay-modified

activated charcoal.

Further research on biochar is continuing to:

further investigate how biochar reduces net greenhouse gas emissions demonstrate the use of biochar systems on farms assist development of biochar offset methodologies under the Carbon Farming

Initiative.

Want more information? For more information on reducing nitrous oxide emissions, visit the Australian

Government Department of Agriculture website—daff.gov.au/climatechange. Information on ongoing projects—www.daff.gov.au/ftrg and

www.daff.gov.au/biochar. Information on research conducted under the CCRP’s National Biochar Initiative—

www.csiro.au/science/Biochar-Overview.

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http://www.csiro.au/science/Biochar-Overview

http://www.daff.gov.au/biochar


FisheriesFisheries in south-eastern Australia could be strongly affected by climate change. Significant temperature increases have already been recorded in south-eastern Australian waters, and this is projected to continue in the future. Because the region is recognised as a global climate change hotspot, the CCRP investigated some of the major climate change risks and adaptation options for key fisheries in south-eastern Australia.

For key fisheries in south-eastern Australia, CCRP research looked at:

risks associated with a changing climate, including:o increasing ocean temperatureo changing ocean current and wind patternso ocean acidificationo changes to rainfall and river flows

adaptation strategies, including:o managing environmental flowso building resilience through sound management practiceso seizing new opportunities.

Key findingsRisks associated with a changing climate

A comprehensive biophysical risk assessment was undertaken to identify which aquatic species are most vulnerable to climate change impacts. This risk assessment, covering 43 key species (35 wild fisheries species and 8 aquaculture species) found that the region’s three highest value fisheries—southern rock lobster, greenlip abalone and blacklip abalone—are at greatest risk from potential climate change.

Research showed that ocean warming is likely to affect key fisheries species—such as abalone, snapper and blue grenadier—by affecting growth and recruitment (breeding) and by increasing the risks of stress and disease. Ecosystem modelling of key Australian fish species suggested that pelagic (surface-dwelling) species are likely to be more successful than demersal (bottom-dwelling) species under climate change. Climate change may favour some species in certain regions in the short term. For example, growth rate and potential catchability of southern rock lobster are expected to increase in south-west Tasmania, but may decrease in the warmer waters of eastern Tasmania and Victoria.

Changes in wind patterns and ocean currents are likely to affect the early stages of many marine species that rely on winds and currents for timing lifecycle events or for transport to appropriate habitats. Evidence suggests that changing currents have already been associated with a 30 per cent reduction in the number of southern rock lobster reaching harvestable size.

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Trawler moored at Lakes Entrance Victoria. The CCRP identified a range of options that may help south-eastern Australian fisheries adapt to climate change.

Aquaculture in southern Australia. Research found that climate change is likely to adversely impact Atlantic salmon, blue mussel, and Pacific oyster aquaculture.

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Ocean acidification increases disease in marine animals. A combination of acidification and associated declining carbonate levels affects the ability of some organisms to build hard body parts (such as coral and shell). Loss of coral and shellfish in some areas is likely to have a major effect on animals that rely on these species for shelter and food.

Changes to rainfall and river flows will influence nutrient availability and the chemistry (e.g. salinity) of key marine nursery areas, such as estuaries and seagrasses. Changes to marine nurseries can have a major impact on the survival and growth of fisheries species.

Did you know?

Ocean temperature has a strong influence on the distribution of many marine organisms and provides cues for important events such as spawning.

Fish species of traditionally cooler waters are also likely to be affected by predators and competitors that may expand their range as waters warm. This is already occurring with the southern expansion of the long-spined sea urchin to Tasmanian reefs, where the urchin is altering reef habitats by removing large quantities of kelp.

Adaptation strategies

The future viability of fisheries (such as snapper) may be improved through management of environmental flows of fresh water into essential nurseries, to optimise conditions for fish survival and recruitment. Two possible management approaches include moderating floodwater flows and maintaining flows during droughts.

Management practices that could be used to help fisheries adapt to climate change include adjusting catch and size limits or re-assessing fishing zones to reflect stock movements.

As ocean temperatures increase, the distribution of tropical and subtropical species—including blue marlin, mahi mahi, yellowfin tuna, cobia, spanish mackerel and wahoo—are likely to continue extending southwards. This may present opportunities for the development of new fisheries and markets.

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Box 4. Redmap

The Redmap website (www.redmap.org.au) uses information provided by the public to track when and where marine species are encountered. By collating and presenting this information, Redmap shows how species distributions may be changing.

The website is an effective tool for monitoring and promoting awareness of climate change issues in Australian oceans. It also provides a useful connection between researchers, industry and the general public.

Recreational fishers on pier. Recreational fishers are able to assist researchers by providing information about when, where and which marine species they encounter.

What this means for fishers and the fishing industry An important outcome from the CCRP was the national expansion of the Redmap

(Range Extension Database and Mapping project) website (www.redmap.org.au). Redmap encourages fishers across all sectors to document any changes in marine ecosystems, to provide researchers and fisheries managers with access to the most current information (see box 4 ‘Redmap’).

The CCRP identified a range of options that may help south-eastern Australian fisheries adapt to climate change. Adaptation strategies involve fisheries management, rebuilding stocks, selective breeding, new husbandry techniques, genetics, catch limits, innovative infrastructure designs, and coordination and cooperation of industry stakeholders across all sectors.

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Worker with fresh haul. Effects of climate change on the distribution and production of key fish species must be understood before strategies to adapt to future climate conditions can be developed.

Want more information? Fact sheets produced by CCRP project partner, the Fisheries Research and

Development Corporation—www.frdc.com.au/environment/climate_change/Pages/elnemo_frdc_approach.aspx.

To get involved in monitoring changes in marine ecosystems, visit the Redmap website—www.redmap.org.au .

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http://www.frdc.com.au/environment/climate_change/Pages/elnemo_frdc_approach.aspx

http://www.frdc.com.au/environment/climate_change/Pages/elnemo_frdc_approach.aspx

AcknowledgementsResearch presented in this document was carried out by the organisations listed below:

Agricultural Research Western Australia

Agri-Science Queensland

Australian Chicken Meat Federation

Australian Fisheries Management Authority

Australian Lot Feeders’ Association

Australian Meat Processor Corporation

Australian Pork Limited

Australian Wool Innovation

Birchip Cropping Group

BSES Limited

Bunny Bite Foods

Cooperative Research Centre for Sheep Industry Innovation

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

d’Arenberg Wines

Dairy Australia

Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia

Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Queensland

Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources, South Australia

Department of Primary Industries and Resources, South Australia

Department of Primary Industries, New South Wales

Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment, Tasmania

Department of Science, Information Technology, Innovation and the Arts, Queensland

Department of Trade and Investment, New South Wales

(Former) Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, Queensland

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(Former) Department of Environment and Resource Management, Queensland

(Former) Department of Industry and Innovation, New South Wales

(Former) Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland

(Former) Department of Primary Industries, Victoria

(Former) Department of Regional Development, Primary Industry, Fisheries and Resources, Northern Territory

(Former) Department of Resources, Northern Territory

Fisheries Research and Development Corporation

Flinders University

Future Farm Industries Cooperative Research Centre

Gelita Australia

Grains Research and Development Corporation

Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation

Growcom

Grower Group Alliance

Horticulture Australia

Houston’s Farm

Incitec Pivot Fertilisers

JBS Swift Australia

MAF Composting Systems

Meat & Livestock Australia

Monash University

Murray Catchment Management Authority

NARO Institute of Livestock and Grassland Science, Japan

New South Wales Sugar Milling Co-operative

Northern Territory Agriculture Association

Office of Environment and Heritage, New South Wales

Pacific Pyrolysis

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Peanut Company of Australia Limited

Peats Soil & Garden Supplies

Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, University of Queensland

Queensland Natural Pork Holdings (Marketing Pty Ltd)

Queensland University of Technology

Regional Dairy Programs

Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

SITA Environmental Solutions

South Australian No-Till Farmers Association

South Australian Research and Development Institute

Sugar Research and Development Corporation

Tasmanian Aquaculture and Fisheries Institute

Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture

The Organic Force

The University of Adelaide

The University of Arizona

The University of Melbourne

The University of New South Wales

The University of Queensland

The University of Sydney

The University of Western Australia

University of New England

University of Southern Queensland.

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