life in spanish texas - texas history...presidios—strengthened spain’s claim on texas. missions...

SECTION 1 Life in the Missions and Presidios

SECTION 2 Life in Towns and on Ranches

SECTION 3 The Colonists Rebel

140 ✯ Chapter 7

Life in Spanish Texas1775–1825

1775 1800 1825

VIEW THE Texas on TapeCHAPTER 7 VIDEO LESSON.

Life in Texas has theleisureliness of the OldSouth, the mañana-ness of Mexico, and the waiting quality of theIndian.

Texas author J. Frank Dobie

1821 Mexico gains independence from Spain

1811 Juan Bautista de las Casas declaresTexas independent from Spain

1811 Las Casas captured and executed1811 Father Hidalgo is executed

1810 Father MiguelHidalgo issuesthe Grito deDolores

1782 Mission San José iscompleted

1779 Nacogdoches is founded

1793 Most missionsin Texas areclosed

Theodore Gentilz, San Francisco de la Espada

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Life in Spanish Texas ✯ 141

Before You ReadHave you ever thought about how and whytowns and cities grow? Think about how yourhometown keeps its residents safe. Are therelocal police and fire departments? Consider thelayout of your town. Are businesses and storesnearby? Safety and convenience are two reasonspeople choose to live in towns.

Think About

• how your hometown or city is governed• what services are provided for local residents• what sources of food and water are in your

town or city

• where businesses and neighborhoods arelocated

As You ReadDuring the eighteenth century Spanish colonistssettled in present-day Texas for a variety ofreasons. Towns began to grow as more colonistsarrived and were in need of food and supplies.Spanish colonists established four types of settle-ments in Texas. Each had its own purpose andway of life. Completing this graphic organizer forChapter 7 will help you to understand how thedifferent Spanish settlements worked together to provide for the colonists’ needs.

• Copy the chart in your Texas Notebook.• As you read, identify in the first column the

four types of Spanish settlements.

• Then complete the remaining columns foreach type of settlement.

Organizing Information

Spanish Settlements

PhysicalDescriptionPurposeType Daily Life

Edward Vischer, Mission San Gabriel Archangel

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Life in the Missions and Presidios

1 Life in the Missions and Presidios

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Why It Matters NowThe Spanish missions establishedpermanent Texas settlements thateventually grew into major cities.

TERMS & NAMES OBJECTIVES MAIN IDEAhacienda, oppressive,subject, El Patronato Real,compound, commissary

1. Analyze why Spanish colonists came to Texas.

2. Examine important issues related to the establishment of Catholic missionsin Texas.

3. Identify important issues affectingSpanish colonists in Texas.

To secure its hold on Texas, Spainsent colonists to the northern fron-tier of its colonial empire. Manysettled in missions and presidios,where they experienced a whole new way of life.

hacienda a large estate or ranchin Spanish territoryoppressive unjust or cruel due to an abuse of power

Born in 1905 near Sherman, Texas, O’Neil Ford becamea gifted architect, recognized throughout the UnitedStates. O’Neil Ford believed the San Antonio missionswere irreplaceable snapshots of life in colonial Texas.

The Missions are the most important and mostbeautiful examples of Spanish Colonial architecture

in the United States and though once they were lovedand admired and understood by a few thousand persons,now it is probably safe to say that millions of personsfrom all over the world have come to San Antonio to

wonder at them, to study their history and their great significance.Now we know that they are the jewels of our river valley and thegreatest documentation of our Eighteenth Century beginning.

O’Neil Ford

The Spanish TexansIn the late 1700s about 3,500 colonists were living in what is now

Texas. This population was concentrated in three main areas: the missionsin San Antonio (about 2,000), La Bahía (about 1,000), and Nacogdoches(about 500). About 700 more colonists lived in the Spanish province ofNuevo Santander, which included part of what is today South Texas.

Many of the Spanish colonists came to Texas to escape cruel condi-tions on the haciendas in New Spain. Others were driven to the area bydroughts and other natural disasters or by an oppressive tax system. Afew colonists hoped to become wealthy by trading with the French—anactivity that was illegal in New Spain. Still others hoped to get betterjobs on northern ranches.

O’Neil Ford

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Four Types of Frontier SettlementsGiven the size of Spanish Texas and Nuevo Santander, the colonial

population was small—with good reason. Conditions in the northernprovinces of New Spain were difficult. Settlers lived in fear of attack byhostile natives. They also faced deadly diseases such as cholera andsmallpox. In addition, many hacienda owners would not allow theirlaborers to leave. The owners sometimes used force to keep their work-ers from escaping.

Despite the obstacles, a number of brave colonists did build new livesin Texas. Because of the dangers of life on the frontier, the coloniststended to stick together as much as possible. Spanish colonists in Texasestablished four kinds of frontier settlements: missions, presidios, pueb-los, and ranchos. All of these settlements—especially the missions andpresidios—strengthened Spain’s claim on Texas.

MissionsThe mission was Spain’s main tool for colonizing Texas. One purpose

of the mission was to convert Native Texans to the Catholic faith. TheSpaniards in the mission also taught the native peoples to be good citi-zens and loyal subjects of the Spanish crown. Spaniards hoped theywould become skilled laborers who could be productive for Spain. If allthese goals were met, Spain promised to give control of the missions tolocal government. Spain also promised to give the native peoples landfor farming.

Under the terms of a special agreement known as El Patronato Real(ray•AHL), a group of Franciscan priests was given the task of runningthe Texas missions. Under this agreement the Catholic Church providedpriests for the missions, and the Spanish government provided the fund-ing. The government also owned the mission lands, even though thechurch owned the buildings, gardens, livestock, and cemetery that wereon the lands. In this way Spain secured its northern frontier and thechurch carried its message to people in a new area.

Spanish missions in Texas were expected to support themselves.That is, they had to provide everything the mission residents needed tosurvive. Spain hoped that the missions would soon startmaking money for the crown. This would make them aproductive part of New Spain rather than a constantfinancial drain.

Inside the MissionsMost Texas missions consisted of a square compound

enclosed by four walls. Towers often were built on thecorners of the walls to serve as lookout points. Inside thecompound, most missions had offices for the priests andworkshops for spinning or weaving cotton and woolencloth. Most also had shops for carpentry, ironworking,

subject one who is under theauthority of a king or queen

compound a fenced or walled-in area containing several residences or other buildings

In workshops, mission residentsmade iron tools and hinges andbuilt wooden furniture and doors.● What else did they have to make by hand?

▲In 1783 a census was taken of the

missions, presidios, and towns withinSpanish Texas. ● What was the totalpopulation of Spanish Texas? Why do youthink there were more men than women?

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POPULATION OF SPANISHTEXAS, 1783

MEN WOMEN BOYS GIRLS

Spanish 488 373 376 340

Native 290 241 70 76Texan(in towns)

Mixed 43 38 32 12Spanish/Native

Mixed 114 125 119 46Spanish/African

African 17 19American(enslaved)

Total 952 796 597 474

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Spain built missions not onlyin Texas but throughout thenorthern frontier. Franciscanpriests founded 21 missionsin California, lending theirnames to places such as SanFrancisco, San Diego, andSan Jose. In Arizona, JesuitPadre Kino established Mis-sion San Xavier del Bac, southof present-day Tucson. ● Whydo you think Spain was sointerested in establishingthese missions along itsnorthern frontier?

REGION

Mission San José is one of the five missions that make up the San Antonio Missions NationalHistorical Park. ● Why was thismission so large, with so much landwithin its walls?

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TEXAS VOICES

and tailoring. The lands surrounding the mission were used for grazinglivestock and for planting crops. Father Gaspar José de Solís describedMission San José as it looked when he visited it.

This mission is so pretty and in such a flourishing condition, both materiallyand spiritually, that I cannot find words or figures with which to express itsbeauty. It forms a perfect square, is built of stone, and on each of the four sides,660 feet in length, there is an entrance. On diagonal corners there are twotowers, each of which protects two sides of the building. The living-quarters forthe Indians, which form a part of the outer wall, are from fifteen to eighteenfeet in length and twelve in width. The mission is provided with a smallkitchen twelve feet in length, a fireplace, embrasures for the cannons, a vaultedsilo made of stone, and a workshop in which are woven blankets, gunny sacksand some excellent cotton goods. . . . Here the Indians have their carpentershop, forge and tailor shop, their lime and brick kilns and a well runs into acanal, which contains a great quantity of fish and irrigates many fertile fields.In these fields, that cover more than a league and are fenced in, there are abun-dant crops of corn, beans, lentils, melons, peaches, potatoes and sugar-cane.

Father Gaspar José de Solís, diary

The mission chapel was important for both the mission residents andthe surrounding community. Colonists had their children baptized there,and marriage and funeral services were held in the chapel. Althoughformal Sunday services were not common, they also were held in themission chapel.

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The Spanish missions wereexpected to support them-selves by growing their owncrops and raising livestock.One of the first crops grown inthe missions was cotton. Infact, the Spanish missionariesare credited with introducingcotton to Texas. By 1745 themissionaries wereproducing thou-sands of poundsof cotton eachyear. After har-vesting the cotton,mission workerswove it into cloth.

INTRODUCINGCOTTON TO TEXAS

Daily Life in the MissionsThe daily routine in the missions began with morning prayers

followed by 30 minutes to an hour of instruction in the Catholic faith.The mission residents also recited the rosary, a series of Catholic prayerscounted on a string of beads. After breakfast the natives worked all dayin the fields or workshops. Most of the time women worked in thekitchen or operated spinning wheels while children attended school.After the evening meal, everyone in the mission gathered for more reli-gious instruction and prayers before going to sleep.

Daily life in the missions was not like anything the Native Texanshad experienced. Most had routine jobs to perform every day, and themission priests introduced them to new ways of life and ideas.

The priests supervised all activities in the mission. They would oftenphysically punish uncooperative natives. For the most part, Native Texansdid not care for mission life. In fact, few were ever converted to theCatholic faith. Those who came into the mission often stayed for only afew months. Many ran away only to be captured again by presidio soldiersand punished by the priests. Some returned on their own to escapehunger and the cold winters. Those Native Texans who did adopt theSpanish way of life usually remained at the mission. Most married andraised families on small plots of land near the mission.

Hard Times in the MissionsSpanish missions in Texas were not as successful as Spain had hoped.

Although they had a strong start, the native population within the

While living in the missions, Spanishfriars taught the Native Texans manyskills and tried to convert them to theCatholic faith. ● How did missionscontribute to Spain’s goals for Texas?

▲


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Some Native Texans fully adapted tolife in the missions. Many others ranaway from the missions or wentback and forth between their nativeway of life and the missions. ● Whatare some of the reasons Native Texansmight have found it difficult to adaptto mission life?

▲

missions began to shrink. Many of the native women in the missionsdied giving birth, perhaps because of the hard work of their daily lives.And while the mission provided food and shelter for many natives, italso exposed them to deadly European diseases. Native Texans also hada hard time adjusting to their new diet. They were used to eating a vari-ety of roots, fish, fruits, nuts, and wild game. In the mission they wereserved only red meat and starches, such as corn.

By the late 1770s the Spanish crown had begun to view the missionsas a drain on Spanish finances. The missions had not grown enough togive money back to Spain. Also, maintaining presidios to protect themissions became too expensive. Still, by the end of the 1700s, Spaniardshad managed to build 26 missions in Texas.

PresidiosPresidios were essential to the colonization of Texas. Their purpose

was to provide military support for missions, and later settlements, untilthese communities could support themselves. The main purpose of apresidio was to protect the colonists from attacks by Native Texans.Presidio soldiers were also expected to bring back any natives who ranaway from the mission. In addition, they protected groups bringingsupplies from the Rio Grande. Soldiers also guarded herds of cattle andhorses to keep them from being stolen by native raiders.

Presidios were built from local materials, such as logs, adobe, or stone.Most presidio compounds were rectangular with four tall walls andlookout points on each corner. Within the presidio were barracks for thesoldiers, separate sleeping quarters for officers, a chapel, and storage rooms.The only entrance was a huge main gate.

Native Texans’ reactions tomission life varied. Some nevergave it a chance. Others wentback and forth between theirnative way of life and theSpanish way. There were alsosome who embraced missionlife with open arms. Nativepeoples who stayed in the mis-sions were called gente derazón, meaning that they werepeople who had reached the“age of reasoning” and wereable to understand the differ-ence between right and wrong.These converts were elevated toa social status above othernatives, closer to that of theSpaniards. ● How do you thinkthe Spaniards viewed nativepeoples outside of the mis-sions? How do you think NativeTexans viewed Spaniards?

“Reasonable”Natives

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Terms & NamesIdentify:• hacienda• oppressive• subject • El Patronato Real• compound• commissary

Organizing InformationUsing a chart like the onebelow, create a list ofadvantages and disadvan-tages related to life for acolonist in a Spanishmission or presidio in Texas.

Do you think the advantagesof living in a colonialoutpost in Texas outweighedthe disadvantages, or vice

versa? Support your answerwith logical reasons.

Critical Thinking1. Not all colonists came to

Texas to be missionaries.Generally speaking, whatwas the main goal ofmany of the colonists whocame to Texas and NuevoSantander in the 1700s?

2. Spain hoped to profitfrom its missions one day.How do you think amission might makemoney for the crown?

3. How do you think livingconditions in thepresidios affected thesoldiers’ work? Explain.

A Real-Life StoryReview A Real-Life Story onpage 142. O’Neil Ford feltthat the Spanish missions’design and architecturewere very important to thestudy of Texas history. Whatdo you think historians canlearn from the architectureof the missions?

A C T I V I T YHistory Research and create a layout of a Spanish mission or presidio in Texas. What do you think these

layouts reveal about the people who lived in the missions?

Go to www.celebratingtexas.com to research the Activity topic.

1

LIFE AS A COLONISTAdvantages Disadvantages


commissary a store where military personnel can buyequipment and food

Presidio LifeMost presidio soldiers enlisted for ten years.

Military life could be unpleasant, dull, and harsh.Soldiers faced years of hard work and constant dangerfrom hostile native groups. The soldiers often did notget along with the priests they were ordered to protect.Many conflicts arose over how to deal with the NativeTexans in and around the settlement. These disagree-ments sometimes led to long-term distrust and resent-ment between the mission residents and the soldierswho were supposed to protect them.

Presidio soldiers were not paid a great deal. Theyhad to use much of their pay to buy their ownuniforms, weapons, and other equipment at thecommissary. Since local commanders ran the com-missary, prices were very high. Outside the presidiocompound, local merchants, craftspeople, farmers,and livestock owners saw the soldiers as customersfor their goods. Many soldiers had to take extra jobs in the communityto be able to buy food, clothing, and supplies for themselves and theirfamilies.

Some soldiers brought their wives and families with them to theoutpost. Others married women from the local community. After soldierscompleted their tour of duty, they often made their homes nearby. Somesoldiers obtained land grants near the presidios and built homesteads.

Many soldiers obtained land andmade new lives for themselves inSpanish Texas. ● What do you thinkwas the best part of life as a presidiosoldier? the worst?

▲

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PRACTICING the Skill Review Section 1, Life in the Missions and Presidios, focusing on thedescriptions of the colonists’ lifestyles. Use the steps from Learningthe Skill to contrast life in the missions with life in the presidios. Then,on a separate sheet of paper, create a chart like the one shown below.In each column of the chart, list ways in which mission life differedfrom presidio life. Finally, answer the questions that follow.

1. Why might it be helpful to contrast life in the missions with lifein the presidios?

2. What are three differences you found?

3. What conclusions can you draw from the information youcontrasted?

APPLYING the SkillThink about your life today. It differs in many ways from the livesof the Spanish colonists. Use information from Section 1, theInternet, and other resources to analyze what life was like in amission or presidio in Texas during the 1700s. Then use the stepsfrom Learning the Skill to contrast your life today with life in colo-nial Texas. Share your lists and conclusions as a class.

Contrasting InformationLEARNING the SkillSometimes it can be difficult tounderstand information that iscompletely unfamiliar to you.Contrasting this information withwhat you already know can make iteasier to grasp.

To contrast information, examinedifferent sets of information and notetheir individual characteristics. Thenlook for ways in which these charac-teristics differ. For instance, it maybe difficult to understand what lifewas like in Spanish Texas. However,you do know what life in Texas is liketoday. To understand the colonists’lives, just think about how they weredifferent from your own life.

To contrast information, use thefollowing steps:

• Determine a reason for contrastingthe information.

• Determine what you want tocontrast. For example, you maywant to contrast several leisureactivities in colonial Texas withthose in modern-day Texas.

• Identify and list the differencesbetween the items. Look for wordsor phrases that signal contrasts,such as in contrast, however, but,unlike, as opposed to, or on theother hand.

• Draw conclusions from the differ-ences you listed.

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DIFFERENCES

Life in the Missions Life in the Presidios

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Life in Towns and on Ranches

2Life in Towns and on Ranches


Why It Matters NowThe lifestyle established in earlySpanish Texas shaped the farmingand cattle industries of Texastoday.

TERMS & NAMES OBJECTIVES MAIN IDEAcivil settlement, acequia,literacy, alcalde, ayun-tamiento, Rosa MaríaHinojosa de Ballí, vaquero

1. Describe the challenges of life inSpanish colonial towns.

2. Analyze the ways Spanish colonistsmaintained an acceptable quality of lifeon the frontier.

3. Identify examples of Spanish influenceon place names and vocabulary in Texas.

Not all Spanish colonists lived inmissions or presidios. Eventually,settlements and ranches grewaround these institutions, attractingeven more people to Texas.

Acequias, or irrigation canals, wereneeded to help irrigate crops in thedry climate of Southwest Texas.Early Spanish acequias still existtoday, like this one in San Antonio.● How do you think acequias affectedthe environment in Spanish Texas?

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Write your response to Interact with History in your Texas Notebook.

WHAT Would You Do?

civil settlement a village madeup of people who were neitherpriests nor soldiers

After the Spanish missions and presidios became firmly established,other settlers began moving to Texas. Imagine that your father, who has served as a soldier in one of the presidios for several years, hassent for his family. You will be moving to a small town outside hispresidio in a matter of days. What do you expect life to be like in thetown? How might it be different from your life now in a Mexican city?Are you excited or worried about your new life? Why?

Spanish Towns DevelopThe Spaniards established four civil settlements in colonial Texas: San

Antonio de Béxar, La Bahía, Nacogdoches, and Laredo (in NuevoSantander). The pobladores (poh•blah•DOOR•ehs) were colonists wholived in the towns, or pueblos. They learned how to make the best of the materials and supplies available to them in the frontier. As with

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Women in Spanish Texas workedhard to help the colonies succeed. ● What do you think were some of thebiggest challenges for women living in Spanish Texas?

▲

the missions and presidios, they used materials from their surroundings,such as logs, adobe, and stone, to build permanent dwellings. If settlersdid not have these materials, they might build jacals (ha•CAHLS).Jacals were huts with thatched roofs and walls made from upright polescovered with mud or clay. The pobladores also built dams and acequias(ah•SEH•kyas) to bring water to the towns and to farmers’ fields.

Life in the TownsLife in the towns could be as routine as life in the missions and

presidios. After all, many pobladores were former presidio families. Insome cases, they were Native Texans who had adapted to Spanish culture.Some of these settlers worked as blacksmiths, gunsmiths, masons, bakers,tailors, and shoemakers. Others drove carts, transporting goods from onetown to another. Merchants operated general stores, selling food, cloth-ing, tools, and other goods to the townspeople. Carpenters built houses,barns, and stores. Still other pobladores served as laborers, planting andharvesting crops and doing odd jobs.

Education and intellectual life was limited in the settlements. Therewere few teachers, and only the most well-to-do families owned booksof any kind. With a few exceptions, literacy was limited to priests,government officials, and wealthy families who could afford books andtutors. Government officials and military commanders enjoyed a higherstandard of living than did most other members of the community. Theyoften lived outside the presidio, in better housing. The average settlerworked hard for little money and lived a simple lifestyle.

Women’s RolesIn the mission settlements, women worked very hard helping out in

the stores or taking care of the farm and ranch chores. They prepared thefood; sewed, washed, and repaired the family’s clothes; and made house-hold items such as soap. Some women served as midwives, helping todeliver babies in the settlements. Women were also responsible for

acequia a canal or ditch used forirrigationliteracy the ability to read andwrite

Spaniards and Native Texansworked together to build ace-quias near the San Juan, SanJosé, and Espada missions.These special stone ditchessloped downward, bringingwater from the San AntonioRiver to the fields near themissions. The 15-mile irrigationsystem they built watered about3,500 acres of land. NativeTexans in the mission settle-ments were taught how to farmand to maintain the irrigationsystems. Some of the acequiasthey built still function today. ● What scientific principle isbehind these irrigation ditches?

To Science

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To escape from their difficult dailylives, Spanish settlers often turnedto music and dancing for entertain-ment. ● Why do you think the settlersused music in their leisure-timeactivities?

▲

alcalde a Spanish official whoserved as mayor, sheriff, and judgeayuntamiento the local govern-ing body in a Spanish town

teaching morals and values to the children. In times of danger, they helpeddefend their homes from native attacks.

Women in the Spanish colonies held quite a bit of power. Marriedwomen kept the property they had owned before they married. Theywere able to own property and investments separately from theirhusbands. Women also could file lawsuits in the courts.

Governing the PeopleRelations between the pobladores and the viceroy in Mexico City

were strained at best. The settlers felt that local matters should takepriority over government policy. For example, the Spanish crown made itillegal to trade with the French. However, settlers on the frontier foundthat they needed to trade some goods with the French. In doing so, theywere breaking laws, which displeased Spanish officials.

Frontier towns had a complex government structure. An alcalde(ahl•CAHL•deh) acted as the mayor, sheriff, and judge in civil and crim-inal cases and in issues dealing with local laws. He was aided by the ayuntamiento (ah•yoon•tah•MYEN•toh), which was a type of towncouncil. The members of the council carried out royal orders and plannedfor the town’s growth.

Leisure ActivitiesPobladores celebrated in many ways. Horse racing was a popular

pastime, as were social gatherings. Festivals and other outdoor activitiesgave settlers opportunities to meet their neighbors and form strongfriendships. The colonists also enjoyed telling folktales and singing corri-dos, or ballads. Dancing a lively fandango to guitar and fiddle music liftedthe settlers’ spirits. It also helped them escape, at least for a while, whatcould be a weary existence in the frontier towns.

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TEXAS VOICES

Problems in the TownsLife in the towns was not always pleasant. Without running water

and sewage services, the pobladores faced serious problems. Uncleanliving conditions led to deadly epidemics of cholera, smallpox, and otherdiseases. Muddy streets and standing water also served as breedinggrounds for disease-carrying mosquitoes. Unfortunately, there were fewdoctors, medicines, or medical supplies in these remote settlements. Theyalso lacked many other basic necessities.

San Antonio de Béxar . . . is located on the very fertile banks of a river [whichoffers many advantages that] are not realized because of the general poverty of the inhabitants. . . . They have restricted their work to the raising of corn,not as much as they are capable of. . . . As to beans, chile, and some sugar cane,all they are accustomed to producing is enough for their annual maintenance. . . .

They have never learned to manufacture textiles or rope, nor is there anyraising of cotton. . . . There is no wheat nor flour mills; other branches ofagriculture are entirely foreign here. The same is true of the arts of every class.They suffer a damaging shortage of good cattle for which reason the scarcity of meat is almost continual; and it is true that if the hunters did not findbuffalo . . . the greater portion of the families would perish in misery.

Governor Don Juan Bautista Elguezábal, report

In addition to the threat of diseases and shortages, the settlers werealways in danger of being raided by Native Texans. Outlaws and smug-glers also could attack a town or steal valuable supplies at any time. Becauseof these constant setbacks, towns tended to grow slowly in Spanish Texas.

Ranches Develop on the FrontierLife in Spanish Texas was not limited to missions, presidios, and

towns. Some colonists lived outside these settlements, although theyremained nearby for protection. These settlers lived on ranchos, orranches, and farms.

Ranches were established mostly on the outskirts of the northernfrontier. They were very valuable to the colonies. By raising cattle, horses,mules, sheep, goats, and hogs, the ranchers provided the food and suppliesthat the colonies needed to survive. For instance, they supplied the townswith wool, animal hides, and other important materials. They evenprovided the fat used to make soap and candles. Ranches were also animportant source of horses for soldiers in the presidios.

The Cattle Industry Begins in TexasCattle and other livestock were brought to Texas during Spain’s first

attempts to colonize the Americas. Because the animals multiplied sorapidly, herds of wild cattle and horses soon roamed parts of Texas. Theunowned, wild animals, known as mesteños, often were captured by Native

Rosa María Hinojosa de Ballíwas known as the first “cattlequeen” of Texas. Born in 1752in Tamaulipas, Mexico, shelater moved with her family toReynosa. There, she marriedCaptain José María Ballí. Whenher husband died, Rosa Maríainherited his share of a 55,000-acre ranch in La Feria, Texas.Included in this inheritancewas Padre Island, which wasnamed for her son, PadreNicolás. At the time of herdeath, Ballí owned and man-aged more than one millionacres of land. Ballí’s successhelped to establish the cattleindustry in Texas. ● What typesof problems do you think RosaMaría faced during her ranch-ing career?

Rosa MaríaHinojosa de Ballí

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vaquero a livestock herder orcowhand

Texans, soldiers, and settlers. The mesteños were used for transportation,heavy labor, and food.

Early in the 1700s the king of Spain gave ranchers large land grantsto develop the cattle industry in Texas. By the mid-1700s the areabetween the San Antonio and the Guadalupe Rivers had become themost productive ranching region in Texas. Historians often refer to thisarea as the “cradle of Texas ranching.” A number of ranchers were alsofounded in the province of Nuevo Santander.

In these two areas of the frontier, ranching developed quickly. Strongtraditions also took root. In time, these traditions shaped the history andculture of Texas. The vaqueros, or cowhands, developed many of the tech-niques ranchers still use to control livestock. These include methods for

Spanish vaqueros Ranch hands today

COWHANDS In the time of colonial ranches inTexas, a vaquero’s day might include rising early, feedingthe livestock, checking the cattle, milking the cows, work-ing in the fields, working with the livestock, and perhapsmaking repairs around the rancho. Today, a cowhand’sdaily chores are similar to those of the vaquero, but themethods and equipment are different. First, the termscowhand and cowboy often are replaced with ranch hand.

This is partially because duties involve more than live-stock handling and partially because women sometimesfill the role. Along with doing traditional chores, ranchhands now dig ditches, build and repair fences, and main-tain work vehicles such as trucks and tractors. Horses arestill used today but often are replaced by pickup trucks,all-terrain vehicles, and even helicopters. ● What do youthink the future holds for ranching in Texas?

Image not availablefor use on CD-ROM.Please refer to theimage in the textbook.

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Texas’s ranching heritage stemsfrom a strong Spanish influence.Many of the Spanish words usedby the vaqueros are still usedtoday. For example, the wordchaps has its root in chaparajos,a Spanish word for leatherleggings. Lasso comes fromlazo, which means “a knotted,looped cord.” Stampede comesfrom the Spanish estampida,which means “pounding or loudsound.” Some words such aspinto and chaparral are thesame in Spanish and English.Other words adapted fromSpanish are rodeo, from rodear,and ranch, from rancho. ● Whydo you think it is importantto learn theorigins ofwords?

Language of theVaqueros

Terms & NamesIdentify:• civil settlement• acequia• literacy• alcalde• ayuntamiento• Rosa María

Hinojosa de Ballí• vaquero

Organizing InformationUse a Venn diagram like theone shown to compare lifein town to life on the ranchin Spanish colonial Texas.In the circle on the left, listwords describing life in thetowns. In the circle on theright, list words describinglife on the ranches. Wherethe circles overlap, list thingscommon to both lifestyles.

Based on your diagram,where would you havepreferred to live, in town oron a ranch? Why?

Critical Thinking1. Life in Spanish colonial

towns and ranches couldbe harsh. Describe thechallenges and the effectyou think they had on thecolonists and our Texasheritage.

2. How did the colonistsmake life more bearable,even enjoyable at times,on the frontier?

3. What effect has ourSpanish colonial heritagehad on the place namesand vocabulary of Texas?

Interact with HistoryReview your response toInteract with History in yourTexas Notebook. Now thatyou know more about life inthe Spanish colonial towns,were your expectationsaccurate? Once you arrivedat your new home, whatelements of town life mighthave surprised you?

A C T I V I T YCitizenship Research the duties of a typical town or city council today. Then, as a class, discuss what types of lawsmight have been necessary in a colonial town.

2

Life inTowns

Life onRanches

Vaquero bootswith spurs

rounding up cattle, working herds from horseback, roping livestock, anddriving cattle to market. By 1787 ranches replaced missions as the chiefsource of livestock in Texas.

Ranching Versus FarmingRanching in Texas was evidence of the Spaniards’ ability to adapt

their lifestyles to the vast prairies of the frontier. As the colonists enteredthe semi-arid regions of Texas, they knew that farming would be limited.There, they turned to ranching. Ranches could be run by a fairly smallnumber of people. This was an important point since few workers wereavailable on the frontier. Also, the tough longhorn cattle were well suitedto the area. They could withstand extreme weather, and they could liveon the sparse grasses. If Native Texans became too hostile, the cattlecould be moved to a safer area. This was a big advantage over crops,which stayed in one place no matter what.

Despite the dangers of weather and raids by Native Texans, mostcolonists tried to make a living from farming. Unfortunately, farming theland was very hard. Although it was possible to grow corn, beans, chiles,pumpkins, and other crops for their own use, settlers could not make

much profit selling food. One problem was that the farmers had tocompete with the missions for workers. A farm that produced crops

for sale needed a large amount of land cleared. Ditches and canalsneeded to be dug for irrigation. Also, shipping crops and

vegetables to markets was costly. In the end, most farmswere large enough to feed only a single family.

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The Colonists Rebel 3 The Colonists Rebel Why It Matters NowTexas’s strong Spanish andMexican heritage continues toinfluence our lives today.

TERMS & NAMES OBJECTIVES MAIN IDEAthe Enlightenment, FatherMiguel Hidalgo, liberation,conspire, Grito de Dolores,Juan Bautista de las Casas,José Bernardo Guitiérrez deLara, Augustus Magee

1. Analyze the contributions of FatherMiguel Hidalgo during the colonizationof Texas.

2. Explain how Texas’s Spanish andMexican heritage is reflected in itsculture.

3. Explain the significance of 1821.

Although Spanish settlements weregrowing, the Spanish crown providedlittle support. Instead, it imposedharsh laws and taxes that turned the people against Spanish rule.Texans helped fight for Mexico’sindependence from Spain.

Write your response to Interact with History in your Texas Notebook.

WHAT Would You Do? The Spanish colonists endured many hardships in an effort to buildnew lives for themselves in Texas. Imagine that you are one of thesepioneers. After years of struggle, your small settlement is finally able to support itself. Unfortunately, the Spanish government is doinglittle to help. Instead, it seems more concerned with controlling thepeople and collecting taxes. You have heard that the citizens of theUnited States and France overthrew their leaders for similar reasons.However, the Spanish government is still very powerful in Texas. Willyou support efforts to break free from Spain, or do you feel this movewould be too dangerous? Why?

Colonists Grow Unhappy with SpainThroughout the 1700s Spain worked to strengthen its hold on Texas

and its other colonies. The small colonies that began with the missionsand presidios slowly grew. Gradually, towns sprang up around themissions. Ranches and farms developed outside of the towns. By the lastdecades of the 1700s, a sense of community began to develop in theSpanish colonies. The settlers learned to work together to solve theirproblems rather than wait for direction from Spain. They often felt thatthe king lived too far away to truly understand their needs.

Around the same time, Spain became involved in huge problems inEurope. Conflicts with England and France took up much of Spain’stime and proved to be very costly. Soon, Spain had few resources left tosend to the colonies. Instead, it placed heavy taxes on the colonists andforced them to donate money to pay for European wars. In addition, theSpanish crown began withdrawing its support of the missions. It alsostrictly enforced royal laws that the colonists found unfair.


Handmade statue of Saint Anthony,for whom San Antonio is named

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Father Hidalgo’s Grito deDolores, or Cry of Dolores, isoften referred to as the Grito.The ideas set forth in thisdocument had a widespreadeffect on the Mexican peopleand eventually led to theMexican war of independence.For this reason, Father Hidalgois known as the Father of theMexican Revolution.

FATHER OF THEMEXICAN REVOLUTION

Because of his bravery and his com-passion for the Mexican people,Father Miguel Hidalgo earned a loyalfollowing. ● What is the relationshipbetween the Enlightenment and FatherHidalgo’s cry for independence?

▲

The Enlightenment Comes to MexicoBy 1800 a feeling of dissatisfaction had spread throughout the

colonies. Many colonists were unhappy with Spanish rule. They wantedto make their own laws instead of being controlled by the king of Spain.

Meanwhile, in the 1700s a movement called the Enlightenment wassweeping through Europe and other parts of the world. During theEnlightenment people tried to apply reason and science to all aspects ofsociety, including government. The Enlightenment challenged the ideathat kings had a God-given right to rule. Rather, a government shouldsupport the people’s natural rights and interests. If a government failedto do this, it should be replaced. The success of the American and FrenchRevolutions reinforced these ideas among the Mexican people.

Father Hidalgo Calls for IndependenceOne of the Mexicans who strongly believed in the ideals of the

Enlightenment was Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. Father Hidalgohad worked among Mexican farming families for years in the smallvillage of Dolores, north of Mexico City. He understood their strugglesand hardships and was saddened by Spain’s lack of concern. As long asthe king was in charge, Father Hidalgo said, conditions would neverimprove. He called for the liberation of the Mexican people from Spain.

When royal officials learned that Father Hidalgo was conspiring tooverthrow the Spanish government, they decided to arrest him. Alertedahead of time, Hidalgo knew he had three choices. He could stay in Doloresand be arrested, hide out and hope he would not be caught, or begin a

liberation the act of becomingfreeconspire to join in a secretagreement

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TEXAS VOICES

ANGEL OF GOLIAD

Today, Mexican Texans con-tinue to honor Father Hidalgoeach year in a celebrationknown as Dieciséis de Sep-tiembre, or simply Dieciséis.The celebration is named for the date on which FatherHidalgo called for the defeatof Spanish rule—September16, 1810.

DIECISÉIS DESEPTIEMBRE

revolution. He decided on the third course of action. On September 16,1810, Father Hidalgo gave a speech called the Grito de Dolores, or Cry ofDolores. In it, he called for Mexican citizens to rise up and fight forindependence. Although his exact words are unknown, those who heardit remembered his message.

Mexicans, let us break the bonds of slavery with which we have been bound forthree centuries! The moment of our freedom has arrived; the hour of our libertyhas struck. Let us then unite all those persons who have been born on thishappy soil; let us consider as strangers and as enemies of our rights all personswho are not Mexicans. Let us establish a congress composed of representativesof all the cities, towns, and villages of this country. The principal object of thatcongress will be to maintain our holy religion and to frame wise and helpfullaws adapted to the circumstances of each community. Our lawmakers will ruleus with the tenderness of parents. They will treat us like brothers; they willbanish poverty; they will check the devastation of the kingdom and the expor-tation of its money; they will encourage the arts; and they will cause industry to revive. We shall make free use of the richest productions of our fertile soil;and, in the course of a few years, the Mexicans will enjoy all the delights whichGod has bestowed upon this vast continent.

Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, Grito de Dolores, 1810

Father Hidalgo’s ideas were supported by many settlers in Texas.However, in 1811, most likely on his way to meet with his supporters,Hidalgo was seized by Spanish authorities and executed. Although hedid not live to see Mexican independence from Spain, Father Hidalgo’sideas had a great effect on the future of Mexico and Texas.

Hidalgo’s Supporters Rebel Against SpainIn Texas, Father Hidalgo’s supporters took up the struggle. A group

of rebels led by Juan Bautista de las Casas overthrew the Spanish govern-ment in San Antonio. They named Las Casas governor and then tookcontrol of La Bahía and Nacogdoches. On January 22, 1811, Las Casasdeclared the Mexican state of Texas independent from Spain.

Las Casas’s revolution was short-lived, however. Forces loyal to Spainrose up against the rebels. On March 2, 1811, the loyalists captured Las Casas. Fearing for their lives, his supporters fled. In July, Spanishrule was reestablished in Texas. Las Casas was executed soonafterward.

Mexican Unrest ContinuesEven though the rebellion led by Father Hidalgo and

Las Casas failed, it opened people’s eyes to the possibilityof freedom. Furthermore, Las Casas’s limited successshowed that the Spanish king’s forces could be defeated.With the right plan and a strong army, the colonists might be


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158 ✯ Chapter 7

Tropic of Ca

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When Mexico later gained independence from Spain, it included most of what is now the southern United States. ● How far east didMexico’s claim extend into the present-day United States?

▲

Mexico After Independence, 1821

One popular Texas traditionhas been passed down byTejanos for generations. Whena Mexican Texan girl turns 15 years old, she often cele-brates with a special fifteenth-year ceremony, or quinceañera(keen•seh•ah•NYEH•rah). Thequinceañera signals the girl’spassage into womanhood. Thebirthday girl, in a fancy whitedress, attends a church serv-ice with 14 friends—one foreach year of her life. After theservice, everyone is invited to a party to celebrate.

QUINCEAÑERAS

able to win. These important ideas grew into a powerful movement forMexican independence.

Father Hidalgo’s followers continued to fight for independence inthe years following his death. After the priest was killed, José BernardoGutiérrez de Lara left Nuevo Santander and fled to Louisiana, where heraised an army. Gutiérrez and his army commander, Augustus Magee, aformer U.S. Army officer, marched back to Texas and briefly took controlfrom Spain before being defeated. Other supporters of independencefought for control of Mexico.

Meanwhile in Spain, a group of liberals staged a successful revolt. In1820, they forced the king to make changes that frightened the conser-vatives in Mexico. The conservatives had opposed independence, but therevolt in Spain changed their minds. They joined with Father Hidalgo’sfollowers to defeat the Spanish forces. On August 24, 1821, a treaty wassigned, making Mexico independent from Spain. Texas became part ofthe new Republic of Mexico.

Spanish Influence Lives OnFor hundreds of years, Spain was a powerful force in Texas. Spaniards

explored the land, founded missions, built towns, and developed ranches.Spain also sent colonists from Europe and Mexico to populate the land.These people’s cultures, beliefs, laws, religions, and customs have had amajor impact on Texas. Even though Spain lost political control of Texas,Spanish influence has remained strong throughout the state’s history.

One of Spain’s most important contributions to Texas has been theSpanish language. The names of rivers, cities, landforms, foods, and

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everyday items are a constant reminder of Texas’s Spanish heritage. Also,the Spaniards brought cows, horses, sheep, and pigs to the state. Theystarted the cattle industry, ranching, rodeos, and the wool industry.

Texas also owes its uniqueness to its Mexican roots. The Mexicanpeople who settled Texas for Spain brought with them many religiousceremonies, festivals, and traditions that still shape our culture today.Spanish and Mexican art, architecture, music, and literature can be seenthroughout the state. Together with the Spaniards, the Mexican Texanshave helped give Texas both a rich history and a style all its own.

Terms & NamesIdentify:• Father Miguel

Hidalgo• liberation• conspire

Organizing InformationUsing a spider map like theone below, list six examplesof Spanish or Mexicanheritage found in modern-day Texas.

What do your answers tellyou about Spanish andMexican influence on Texas?

Critical Thinking1. Why do you think Father

Miguel Hidalgo is knownas the Father of theMexican Revolution?

2. Describe one Texas cele-bration, activity, or tradi-tional performance thathas its roots in Spanish orMexican culture.

3. What is the significanceof the year 1821?

Interact with HistoryReview your response toInteract with History in yourTexas Notebook. How do you think you would havereacted to Father Hidalgo’sGrito? Would it haveaffected your decision aboutbreaking free from Spain?Why or why not?

A C T I V I T YCulture In recognition of Texas’s Spanish heritage, the state legislature named chili the state dish. Research anauthentic chili recipe to share with the class.

3

SPANISH OR MEXICAN

INFLUENCE INTEXAS

Image not availablefor use on CD-ROM.Please refer to theimage in the textbook.

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TERMS & NAMESExplain the significance of each of the following:1. the Enlightenment2. Rosa María Hinojosa de Ballí3. Father Miguel Hidalgo4. Grito de Dolores5. Augustus Magee

REVIEW QUESTIONSLife in the Missions and Presidios (pages 142–147)1. Do you think Spain’s Texas colonies would have

been more or less successful without the help ofthe Franciscan priests? Explain.

2. Why do you think the priests provided free food,clothing, and medicine to the area’s nativepeoples?

Life in Towns and on Ranches (pages 149–154)3. Historically, women have worked hard on the home

front but have had little power elsewhere. How didwomen in colonial Texas not fit this pattern?

4. What types of problems do you think were morecommon in towns than on ranches? Explain.

The Colonists Rebel (pages 155–159)5. What are two ways that events in Europe pushed

the Texas colonists toward independence fromSpain?

6. Why is Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla consideredthe Father of the Mexican Revolution even thoughhe didn’t live long enough to see the victory?

READING SOCIAL STUDIESAfter You ReadReview your completed chart. With a partner, discussthe contributions that each of these settlements madeto the colony. Do you think that any of these settle-ments could have existed without the others? Why or why not?

CRITICAL THINKINGMaking Inferences1. In some ways, the mission priests were very gener-

ous to the native peoples, but in other ways, theywere harsh and unkind. What do you think was thereason for this conflicting behavior?

Making Predictions2. Why, for the most part, could only wealthy people

in Spanish Texas read and write? What effect doyou think this had on the colonial power structure?

Drawing Conclusions3. Father Hidalgo’s Grito led to the padre’s execution.

Why is September 16, 1810, celebrated asMexican Independence Day?

160 ✯ Chapter 7

Spanish Settlements

Type PhysicalDescription

Daily LifePurpose

Spain establishes missions and presidios.

More colonists come to Texas,establishing towns and ranches.

Mexican colonists, including those inTexas, seek independence from Spain.

160 11/18/02 9:22 AM Page 160

MAP & GEOGRAPHY SKILLSApplying Skills

How far did Las Casas and his rebels have to travelfrom San Antonio to reach La Bahía and Nacogdoches?

SOCIAL STUDIES SKILLBUILDERContrasting InformationContrast the lives of the first Spanish colonists withthe lives of Spanish colonists living in Texas at thetime of Mexican independence. Then list the differ-ences in a chart like the one below. Finally, answer the questions that follow.

1. What are the most important differences you listed?2. Given these differences, do you think it would have

been possible for the first Spanish colonists to wintheir independence from Spain? Explain.

CHAPTER PROJECTA Letter Home Life in Spanish Texas could

be both dangerous and boring, difficult and routine.Research living conditions in the Spanish colonies.Then role-play a missionary, soldier, townsperson, orvaquero living during the 1700s. Write a letter in yourTexas Notebook to a friend or family member inMexico describing what daily life is like in Texas.Share your letter with your classmates.

Go to www.celebratingtexas.com to research this topic.

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY ACTIVITYChanges in Military Technology

Spain established presidios to help protect themissions and their surrounding communities. With apartner, research the weapons and military technologyused during the 1700s. Then research modern militarytechnology, listing new tools and weapons that wouldhave been useful in the presidios. Create a reportusing presentation software. Describe each item,showing a visual if possible, and explain how the itemmight have been used in the presidio. Share yourreports as a class.

CITIZENSHIP ACTIVITYA Cry for Independence During the late1700s other countries were choosing to

break free from their rulers. These declarations ofindependence probably helped inspire Mexico to rebelagainst Spain. Research some of the reasons whyMexico wanted independence. Then imagine you are acolonist living in Spanish Texas. Write your own cry forindependence to convince your friends and neighborsthat it is time to break free from Spanish rule. Be sureto use emotional language and to list your reasons forwanting independence. Finally, share your speeches as a class.

Go to www.celebratingtexas.com to research this topic.

SCIE

NC

E•

TECH

NOLOGY•

SOC

IETY


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Lives of the First Spanish Colonists

Lives of Spanish Colonists at Time of Mexican Independence

DIFFERENCES

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LEARNING the SkillThis skillbuilder will help youanswer TAKS questions that includegraphs. A graph is a visual repre-sentation of data. All graphs havetitles and labels that tell you whatthe graph is about. Some graphshave a key that describes portionsof the graph in greater detail.

Various types of graphs are usedto organize and present informa-tion in different ways. A line graphis used to show change over time.Line graphs are composed of an x-axis (horizontal axis), a y-axis(vertical axis), and data that isrepresented by a line drawn throughplotted points. A bar graph is usedto compare and contrast informa-tion. Like line graphs, bar graphsalso have an x-axis and a y-axis.However, the information isdisplayed with bars. A circle graphis a circle divided into pie-shapedsections. Each section representsa percent of the whole.

1 According to the graph, which statement can be madeabout the Native Texan population in 1836?

A It was growing at a faster rate than the AfricanAmerican population.

B It represented about one-half of the Texas population.

C There were about 2,500 Native Texans in Texas in 1836.

D There were fewer Native Texans than Anglo Americans.

PRACTICING the SkillUse the circle graph above and your knowledge of social studies to answer the question. Read the question andanswer explanations that follow to help you answer the TAKS practice questions on the following page.

A Incorrect. The graph shows only the populationpercentages for 1836 and does not show a changeof population over time.

B Incorrect. The percentage of Native Texans shown on the graph is about one-fourth, or 25 percent.

C Incorrect. The graph represents the percentage, not the number, of people in each population.

D Correct. On the graph, the area taken up by theNative Texan population is smaller than the areataken up by the Anglo American population group.

Strategies for Understanding a Graph

Read the title and labels so that you know the topic of the graph.

Identify the type of graph, such as a line graph, bar graph, circlegraph, or other type of graph.

If you recognize the type of graph, use the skills you already haveto interpret the information. For example, if you recognize a linegraph, carefully study the x-axis and y-axis labels to see whatinformation is presented and how it is organized.

If you do not recognize the format, look carefully for a key, acaption, or other information to help you understand the visual.For example, different colors or shapes may represent differentinformation on the graph.

3

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Using GraphsPopulation Groups in Texas in 1836

1

162 ✯ Unit 2

Look carefully atthe key to under-stand the graph.

Native TexanSpanish AmericanAfrican AmericanAnglo American

3Circlegraph

2

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Early Texans ✯ 163

Look through the chapter to find a graph. Design your own graph that presents the same information in a different format.

1 Which population group showed the greatestincrease from 1744 to 1836?

A Native Texan

B Spanish American

C African American

D Anglo American

2 Which statement can be made about the SpanishAmerican population in 1836?

F It was as large as the Native Texan population.

G It had decreased steadily since 1744.

H It was smaller than the Anglo American popu-lation.

J It had not changed since 1744.

3 What was the approximate African Americanpopulation in Texas in 1836?

A 1,500 people

B 3,000 people

C 3,500 people

D 5,000 people

4 Which statement best summarizes the informationin the graph?

F Only one population group showed a changefrom 1744 to 1836.

G The numbers of people in each populationgroup stayed about the same.

H The Native Texan population decreased as theother groups’ populations increased.

J The period from 1744 to 1792 showed a largegain in the numbers of Anglo Americans andAfrican Americans.

APPLYING the SkillUse the graph and your knowledge of social studies to answer the questions on this page.

Changes in the Population of Texas, 1744–1836

35,000

30,000

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

01744 1792 1836

Native TexanSpanish AmericanAfrican AmericanAnglo American

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life in spanish texas - texas history...presidios—strengthened spain’s claim on texas. missions...

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