Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) of Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) of Coal Burning for Home Heating Coal Burning for Home Heating on the Navajo Nation, USAon the Navajo Nation, USA

29 July 2011 29 July 2011

WHO Training on Life Cycle Assessment WHO Training on Life Cycle Assessment Ministry of Health, UlaanbaatarMinistry of Health, Ulaanbaatar

Anne Riederer ScD (Riederer.Anne@epa.gov) Anne Riederer ScD (Riederer.Anne@epa.gov) American Association for the Advancement of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) Fellow, Office of Research and Science (AAAS) Fellow, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyDevelopment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

A traditional Navajo home A traditional Navajo home “hogan”“hogan”

1908 photo of hogan with Ship Rock in distance1908 photo of hogan with Ship Rock in distance(source: Denver Public Library)(source: Denver Public Library)

Summer hogan - early 1900sSummer hogan - early 1900s

(source: Denver Public Library)(source: Denver Public Library)

Traditional hogans nowadaysTraditional hogans nowadays

Traditional hogans todayTraditional hogans today

Traditional octagonal hogan near Shiprock (abandoned) around 1950-70?

source: www.nationalgeographic.com

Traditional hogan in wintersource: http://navajopeople.org/navajo-hogans.htm

Modern hogansModern hogans

Modern hogan

Modern wooden hogan

Inside a modern hogan – look familiar?Inside a modern hogan – look familiar?

(source: www.rehobothbhs.org)

Other modern Navajo homesOther modern Navajo homes

source: www.nativenewsnetwork.com/american-recovery-reinvestment-act-funded-22-new-homes-on-the-navajo-nation.html

source:www.rjnconstructionmanagement.com/Job_Photos.html

source:www.rjnconstructionmanagement.com/Job_Photos.htmlsource: http://bettycauler.com/page/Navajo-Nation.aspx

Home of the future?Home of the future?

source: www.dwell.com

Old and new household energy sourcesOld and new household energy sources

(source: http://www.azcentral.com/photo/News/Projects/19220)

Cold winters (maybe not as cold as here!)Cold winters (maybe not as cold as here!)

• 18,000 of 48,000 Navajo homes without electricity

• In USA, 14.2% of Native American households have no access to electricity compared to 1.4% of all US households

• Navajo Nation accounts for 75% of US households without electricity

Source: Navajo Tribal Utility Authority. 2004. Source: Navajo Tribal Utility Authority. 2004. Navajo Electrification Navajo Electrification Demonstration Program.Demonstration Program. Presentation to U.S. Department of Energy, Presentation to U.S. Department of Energy, Tribal Energy Program 2004 Program Review Meeting, Colorado, USA.Tribal Energy Program 2004 Program Review Meeting, Colorado, USA.

Coal-Fired Power Plants on Navajo NationCoal-Fired Power Plants on Navajo Nation

• Navajo Generating Station (Page, Arizona)

• Four Corners Power Plant (2,040 MW) (Farmington, New Mexico)

• Together serve 600,000 families in Arizona, Nevada, California (not on Navajo Nation)

• Proposed plant at Desert Rock (will it get Proposed plant at Desert Rock (will it get built?); all power would be exportedbuilt?); all power would be exported

• ~600,000 billion BTU coal exported from ~600,000 billion BTU coal exported from Navajo Nation each year Navajo Nation each year (Mills, 2006. as cited in (Mills, 2006. as cited in Billie et al.)Billie et al.)

• Navajo Nation gets large share (30-85%) of Navajo Nation gets large share (30-85%) of its revenues from coal salesits revenues from coal sales

Source: Navajo Tribal Utility Authority (NTUA). Navajo Electrification Demonstration Program. Presentation at Department of Energy, Tribal Energy Program, 2004 Annual Meeting

Source: Navajo Tribal Utility Authority (NTUA). Navajo Electrification Demonstration Program. Presentation at Department of Energy, Tribal Energy Program, 2004 Annual Meeting

Source: NTUA. Navajo Electrification Demonstration Program. Presentation at Department of Energy, Tribal Energy Program, 2004 Annual Meeting

Economic RealitiesEconomic Realities

• Average household income on Navajo Nation much lower than rest of U.S.

• 40% unemployment

• Running a power line to a home costs ~ $30,000 per mile (Billie et al. 2008. SAND Number 2009-0074P)

• Hybrid system of 880 Watt photovoltaic (PV) array and small wind turbine provided by NTUA cost ~$18,000 each; family must manage load carefully since units produce ~2 kW per day (Billie et al. 2008. SAND Number 2009-0074P)

Other off-grid heating options (coal, wood, propane)Other off-grid heating options (coal, wood, propane)

source: http://cronkitenewsonline.com/2010/10/for-many-navajos-its-been-a-long-wait-for-power/Source of cost information: “Burning coal for heat puts families at risk, but many on Navajo land see few options,” http://iapnews.wordpress.com/author/envhealth/

Modern Coal HeatersModern Coal Heaters

Why are we doing the Navajo coal heating LCA?Why are we doing the Navajo coal heating LCA?

Bunnell et al. 2010. Journal of Environmental and Public Health

Why are we doing the Navajo coal heating LCA?Why are we doing the Navajo coal heating LCA?

Paul Anastas, EPA Assistant Administrator for Research & Development

Navajo coal heating LCANavajo coal heating LCA

Interpretation

Goal and ScopeDefinition

Inventory

ImpactAssessment

Options consideredOptions considered

Start with coal…

…present preliminary results to stakeholders. Then they will decide 2-3 other options we should consider.

Interpretation

Goal and ScopeDefinition

Inventory

ImpactAssessment

Inputs Outputs

Figure X. System boundaries of the Navajo home heating life cycle assessment (LCA) – Version 1 (5/2/11)

System boundaries

Production phaseProduction phase Use phaseUse phase End of life phaseEnd of life phase

Heating unit Heating unit manufacturemanufacture

TransportationTransportation

Raw material Raw material acquisitionacquisition UseUse

Refurbishment/reuseRefurbishment/reuse

MaintenanceMaintenance

Monitoring/testing/ Monitoring/testing/ certificationcertification

TransportationTransportation

Demolition/demanu-Demolition/demanu-facturing/recyclingfacturing/recycling

Final disposalFinal disposal

Emissions/ Emissions/ effluents/ effluents/

wastewasteLand/water/ Land/water/ carbon usecarbon use

Raw materialsRaw materials

Renewable Renewable energyenergy

Local job Local job opportunitiesopportunities

Non-renewable Non-renewable energyenergy

Waste heatWaste heat

Goal and ScopeDefinition Setting the Functional UnitSetting the Functional Unit

HEED (Home Energy Efficient Design) Model

• UCLA Dept of Architecture and Urban Design

• www.aud.ucla.edu/energy-design-tools

Goal and ScopeDefinition Setting the Functional UnitSetting the Functional Unit

500 32,413 65 9,500 19660 b 40,546 61 11,833 18

1,012c 63,932 63 18,737 191,508c 91,581 61 26,841 182,004c 121,960 61 35,744 18

a Home Energy Efficient Design (HEED) Model (available: http://www.energy-design-tools.aud.ucla.edu/; accessed 25 Apr 2011). b Approximate average size of Shiprock home (see Table 1). c HEED Model permits home size to be specified in 4 ft x 4 ft grid squares, thus 1,012, 1,508 and 2004 ft2 were modeled instead of 1,000, 1,500 and 2,000 ft2, respectively.

TABLE 2. Results of HEED 4.0a simulation of annual heating energy requirements for typical Shiprock homes, by size

kBTU kBTU/ft2 kWh kWh/ft2Home size (ft2)

Variable

Response

%a Mean SD Median Min Max

Point estimate for

LCAb

Number of rooms 94.2 5.7 2.3 6 1 13 6 roomsHighest wall height (ft) 93.4 8.4 1.3 8 5.8 16 8 feetLowest wall height (ft) 38.7 7.7 0.5 8 6.3 9.4 8 feetAverage wall height (ft) 54.7 8.1 0.7 8 6.5 10 8 feet

Gap at top of wall? 98.5 yes = 26.7% no = 73.3% insulation=moderate

Ventilation rating 97.8 poor = 15%, moderate = 77%, good = 42% insulation=moderate

Kitchen length longest 88.3 13.3 3.5 13 2.8 24 13 feet shortest 38.7 7.8 3.9 8 2.0 19 8 feet average 33.6 11.5 3.2 10.9 6.0 18 11 feet - USE THIS #Kitchen width longest 88.3 11.5 3.2 11.0 2.4 23.8 11 feet shortest 36.5 6.6 2.5 8.0 1.0 11 7 feet average 33.6 9.4 2.0 10.0 5.2 15.3 10 feet - USE THIS #Kitchen height highest 90.5 8.3 1.4 8.0 6.5 14.8 8 feet lowest 37.2 7.5 0.7 7.9 4.0 8.5 8 feet average 43.1 8.0 1.4 8.0 6.0 17.1 8 feet

a% of participants answering this question of N=137 total survey participants. bValue to be used in determining functional unit for the EPA/Dine College Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) of Coal Use for Home Heating on the Navajo Nation.

TABLE 1. Estimation of typical household dimensions in the Shiprock Area of the Navajo Nation, 2008 heating season (Data source: Bunnell JE and Garcia LV. 2008. Results of a Survey of Residential Home Heating Fuel and Stove Type and Use in the Shiprock Area of the Navajo Nation. Open-File Report 2008–1249. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey.)

TYPICAL HOUSEHOLD DIMENSIONS (based on above assumptions) = 6 rooms @ 11 x 10 x 8 feet/room

= 6 rooms x 880 ft3 = 5,280 ft3 of house to heat; ALTERNATIVELY, 6 rooms @ 11 x 10 ft2 = 6 110 ft2 rooms

= 660 ft2 home

Interpretation

Goal and ScopeDefinition

Inventory

ImpactAssessment

Inputs Outputs

Figure X. System boundaries of the Navajo home heating life cycle assessment (LCA) – Version 1 (5/2/11)

System boundaries

Production phaseProduction phase Use phaseUse phase End of life phaseEnd of life phase

Heating unit Heating unit manufacturemanufacture

TransportationTransportation

Raw material Raw material acquisitionacquisition UseUse

Refurbishment/reuseRefurbishment/reuse

MaintenanceMaintenance

Monitoring/testing/ Monitoring/testing/ certificationcertification

TransportationTransportation

Demolition/demanu-Demolition/demanu-facturing/recyclingfacturing/recycling

Final disposalFinal disposal

Emissions/ Emissions/ effluents/ effluents/

wastewasteLand/water/ Land/water/ carbon usecarbon use

Raw materialsRaw materials

Renewable Renewable energyenergy

Local job Local job opportunitiesopportunities

Non-renewable Non-renewable energyenergy

Waste heatWaste heat

We are starting here because this is where the health impacts are likely to be greatest

How much Shiprock coal = 40,546 kBTU?How much Shiprock coal = 40,546 kBTU?(functional unit = heat for 1 family for 1 year)(functional unit = heat for 1 family for 1 year)

From Bunnell et al. (2010): "The free coal comes from the Late Cretaceous Fruitland Formation and is relatively low rank (subbituminous to high-volatile bituminous). The Fruitland coal is lower in calorific value (10,646 +/− 1590 BTU/pound) and higher in ash content (22.24 +/− 7.02%) than…Black Mesa (10,910–11,560 BTU/pound, 4.7–9.1%)…Many people who live in the … Shiprock area, despite having access to free coal from the Navajo mine, nevertheless choose to purchase Black Mesa coal at local fleamarkets due to its superior quality…"

Coal type % use Avg BTU/lb Source Fruitland 50 10,646 Bunnell et al. 2010 Black Mesa 50 10,910 Bunnell et al. 2010

Weighted average: 10,778

Fuel requirement 3,762 lbs 1,706 kg

1.9 tons (short)

Interpretation

Goal and ScopeDefinition

Inventory

ImpactAssessment

TRACITRACITool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and other environmental Impacts

Ozone DepletionGlobal Warming

Eutrophication

Inventory of StressorsChemical EmissionsFossil Fuel UseLand UseWater Use

Impact CategoriesOzone DepletionGlobal WarmingAcidificationEutrophicationSmog FormationHuman Health CriteriaCancerNoncancer

EcotoxicityFossil Fuel UseLand UseWater Use

…….

Characterization (e.g., Eutrophication)

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Product A Product B Product C

End of Life

Use

Processing

Transportation toManufacturing Site

Raw Material Acquisition

BUT! TRACI does not yet handle indoor air pollution – we have to fix that...the Navajo LCA can be a test case

(TRACI graphic courtesy of Jane Bare, EPA/ORD)

What are emissions from burning 1.9 What are emissions from burning 1.9 tons Shiprock coal in a stove?tons Shiprock coal in a stove?

AP-42

www.epa.gov

How reliable are emissions factors?How reliable are emissions factors?

How reliable are emissions factors?How reliable are emissions factors?

Source: EPA. 1995. Introduction to AP 42, Volume I, Fifth Edition (Source: EPA. 1995. Introduction to AP 42, Volume I, Fifth Edition (www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/index.html)

Emissions factors for residential Emissions factors for residential coal combustioncoal combustion

Source: Haneke, “A National Methodology and Emission Inventory for Residential Fuel Combustion.”

• S = weight % sulfur content of coal as fired (example: if fuel is 1.2% sulfur, then S = 1.2)

• On average, for bituminous coal, 95% of fuel sulfur is emitted as SO2 Source: AP-42, 5th edition, Table 1.1-19

Sulfur content of Navajo CoalSulfur content of Navajo Coal

www.usgs.gov

Mean sulfur content:- Black Mesa coal = 0.5%- Fruitland coal = 0.9%- Midpoint value = 0.7%

Emissions factors for residential Emissions factors for residential coal combustion – other pollutantscoal combustion – other pollutants

Pollutant Emission Factor AP-42 Table Publication (lb/ton) (hand-fired) Date

HCl 1.2 1.1-15 09/98HF 0.15 1.1-15 09/98CH4 5 1.1-19 09/98CO2 72.6*mean %C 1.1-20 09/98

PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons)PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons)

Source: EPA. 1984. Emissions factors for residential wood and alternatives combustion.

Source: EPA. AP-42, 5th edition.

Source: EPA. AP-42, 5th edition.

Emissions inventory so far (still working on it!)Emissions inventory so far (still working on it!)

Emissions to air Value Units Reference Year

Total lbs 1 Navajo functional

unit

Total kg 1 Navajo

functional unit

Carbon dioxide 4,450 lbs/ton AP-42 Table 1.1-20 1998 8,371 3,801

Carbon monoxide 275 lbs/ton AP-42 Table 1.1-3 1998 517 235

NOx (unspecified) 9 lbs/ton AP-42 Table 1.1-3 1997 17 8

Particulates (PM10) 6 lbs/ton AP-42 Table 1.1-4 1997 12 5

Sulfur dioxide 22 lbs/ton AP-42 Table 1.1-3 1998 41 19

HCl 1 lbs/ton AP-42 Table 1.1-15 1997 2 1

HF 0 lbs/ton AP-42 Table 1.1-15 1997 0 0

Methane 5 lbs/ton AP-42 Table 1.1-19 1998 9 4

VOC (unspecified) 9 lbs/ton AP-42 Table 1.1-19 1998 17 8

Carbon dioxide 2,598 lbs/ton EPA wood stv (oak) 1984 4,886 2,218

Carbon monoxide 73 lbs/ton EPA wood stv (oak) 1984 137 62

NOx (unspecified) 6 lbs/ton EPA wood stv (oak) 1984 3 1

Particulates (PM10) 1 lbs/ton EPA wood "particulate" 1984 2 1

Sulfur dioxide 1 lbs/ton EPA wood stv (oak) 1984 2 1

COAL STOVES

OLD WOOD STOVES

Emissions factors for old wood (oak) stovesEmissions factors for old wood (oak) stoves

TRACI impacts so far (still working on it!)TRACI impacts so far (still working on it!)

Global Warming Air (kg CO2 eq)

Ozone Depletion Air

(kg CFC-11 eq)

Smog Air (kg O3 eq)

old coal stove 3,801 0 4,565

old wood stove 2,218 0 256