lifestyle branding taekwondo schools
DESCRIPTION
Describes the evolving image of Taekwondo in the past 40 years, the problems facing the industry today, and a strategic solution to resolve them.TRANSCRIPT
October 15, 2011
Lifestyle Branding: A Contemporary Strategy for Taekwondo Schools in the 21st Century
MBA 8649 – Consumer Psychology
Villanova University
Thomas Pham
Executive Summary
The past forty years have been a transformative period for Tae Kwon Do (TKD) in the
United States. The U.S. Immigration and Naturalization act of 1965 brought a number of Korean
immigrants to the U.S. in search of opportunities. As many settled in metropolitan cities, Korean
instructors set up TKD schools as a form of livelihood and as a vehicle to spread their culture.
Schools at the time benefited from country-of-origin (COO) effect using the Korean master in
the forefront to establish their brand identity. However, as the complexion of the TKD School
changed from a Korean-centric to a multi-cultural activity, TKD schools naturally surrendered
their attachment to a COO branding advantage. Despite the change in brand strategy or lack there
of, the martial arts industry has never been more prosperous. According to Ferguson (1995), the
martial arts industry is estimated at $1.5 billion. As a consequence, increased financial
opportunity has created a competitive business environment that TKD schools are ill-equipped to
handle. Most schools lack a brand strategy to guide them in the market and instead rely on core
functional offerings while adopting fads and trends to generate revenue. As a result TKD
schools face the problem of distinguishing themselves from both direct and indirect competition.
Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to present lifestyle branding as a strategy for TKD schools
to differentiate themselves from the competition and create higher barriers to entry. A 4-step
framework originally developed by Hill (2008) but adapted to the particular needs of a TKD
organization is presented as guide to creating a lifestyle branding strategy, thus enabling schools
to have a contemporary approach as they operate in the 21st century.
Introduction: Coming to America
Koreans have been immigrating to the United States since 1903. However, the number of
Koreans immigrating into the U.S. skyrocketed following the passage of the Immigration and
Naturalization act of 1965, which eliminated legal restrictions based on the origin of nationality,
religion, ethnicity, or race. The number of Korean immigrants in the U.S. grew 27-fold between
1970 and 2007, from 38,711 to 1.0 million, making them the seventh largest immigrant group in
the United States (Te r r aza s , 2009 ) . As Koreans settled into their new homes, they spread
their culture across the country by opening Korea towns and Tae Kwon Do (TKD) schools.
Prior to that, the Korean War (1950-1953) gave the U.S. military exposure to the art of Tae
Kwon Do through exhibitions and training of military personnel stationed in overseas air force
bases (Burd i ck , 2009 ) . Soldiers coming back from service in Korea who were exposed to
TKD created the positive atmosphere necessary for the art to spread into the states.
The steady diffusion of the art into the U.S. was led by pioneers such as Jhoon Rhee. It has
been stated that Master Rhee taught the first American TKD class in 1956. What soon followed
was considered the golden age of American martial arts, well-known for individuals such as
Chuck Norris (Taekwondo), Joe Lewis (Karate) and Allen Steen (Taekwondo) who dueled one
another on the National Karate Circuit. Many fighters in this era went onto fame in the movies,
which further promoted the art. Therefore, the first generation of Korean immigrants to come
over provided a service that the consumer base was eagerly ready to embrace.
The “Cultural” Brand
Early on, the TKD School’s brand identity centered on the Korean master who engaged in
all school activities and function: instructing, management, and promotions. The school’s brand
became aligned with the instructor’s persona. For example, many schools owned by Korean-
Americans used the master’s surname such as Cho’s Martial Arts or Chung’s Tae Kwon Do. At
that time TKD schools benefited from COO effect to deliver an authentic martial arts experience.
Many TKD schools created associations with Korea and its rich history to enhance the quality of
the product since consumers are known to develop stereotypical beliefs about products from
particular countries and the attributes of those products. Therefore the COO image has the power
to arouse importers’ and consumers’ beliefs about product attributes, and influence evaluations
of products and brands (Srikatanyoo and Gnoth, 2002). Many consumers use COO stereotypes
to evaluate products. For example, “Japanese electronics are reliable”, “German cars are
excellent”, “Italian pizza is superb” (Yas in , Noor & Mohamad , 2007 ) . Consumers
therefore drew the conclusion that TKD taught by someone of Korean descent is considered
“authentic.” Further reinforcing the brand and COO effect, schools also included cultural
learning into the TKD curriculum. For example, practitioners are acculturated to the traditional
Korean cultural ideas, norms, and behaviors (Ko, Zhang & Kim, 2009) and cultural learning
played a factor in a consumer’s acceptance of TKD. According to Schmidt (1986), TKD serves
as an expressive institution through which practitioners are acculturated to the traditional Korean
culture, philosophy, and heritage. In addition, one of the specific features of TKD training is a
unique opportunity to learn the Korean language. A TKD instructor uses the TKD terms in both
English and Korean as a part of teaching. Students might pride themselves when they are able to
speak such foreign languages and terms (Chami-Sather, 2004).Hence, COO effectively creates a
strong brand, which helps the firm establish an identity in the market place (Aaker, 1996). In
addition, it provides less vulnerability to competitive actions, larger margins, greater
intermediary co-operation and support and brand extension opportunities (Delgado-Ballester and
Munuera-Aleman, 2005).
USA Taekwondo Today
Moving into the 21st century the landscape of TKD in America is moving away from the
Korean ethnocentrism that dominated it in previous decades and is heading towards a more
multicultural activity. For example, in the past USA Taekwondo (USAT), the national
governing body for TKD, was managed solely by Korean-Americans. For years the presidency
and operations were handed down from one Korean Grandmaster to another. However in 2009,
David Askinas become the first non-Asian CEO of the organization thus ending a reign that had
lasted since the 1970s. Furthermore, the poster child for U.S. Taekwondo is now the Lopez
family of Nicaraguan descent. In 2008, three of the four U.S. Olympic spots were claimed by
the Lopez siblings. While the second eldest sibling Steven Lopez, a two-time Olympic gold
medalist, has made appearances on the Today show and was named in People Magazine’s 50
Most Beautiful People.
Several factors have played a role in the diffusion of TKD away from Korean control in the
states. As the first wave of Korean masters who established schools in the ‘70s and ‘80s
approach retirement, many have passed on the knowledge and control to practitioners of non-
Asian descent instead of their next of kin. One explanation for this trend is that Korean
immigrants do not consider running a TKD school as a family business that should be passed
down from generation-to-generation. They expect their children to achieve higher social
standing by pursuing socially respectable careers in medicine, engineering or law. Asian
American parents and their children differ from other racial and ethnic groups in their strongly
expressed views of academic achievement as an avenue of social mobility and, quite possibly, as
the only available avenue (Hsia & Hirano-Nakanishi, 1989). This story is not uncommon to
European immigrants coming to America between 1850 and 1930 searching for better
opportunities for themselves and their children. Secondly, Koreans no longer immigrate to the
U.S. in the same numbers as in previous decades. According to the U.S. census bureau data (US,
2007) immigration of Koreans into the U.S. has dropped 35% from its peak in the 1980s from
322,708 immigrants to 209,758 in the most recent decade (2000-09). Lastly, a generation of
non-Korean TKD practitioners has gone through a period of self-realization, recognizing that
thoughtless reverence and compliance to the Korean master was passé and outdated. They
wanted to incorporate western cultural values of self-expression and individualism into TKD.
Thus, a new generation of masters and instructors of diverse heritage emerged to operate TKD
schools in the U.S., creating an art that is multi-cultural and inclusive (S. Nelson, personal
communication, October 5, 2011).
As the number of non-Asians operating TKD schools grew, the connection to cultural
learning naturally diminished. By diversifying the pool of TKD instructors, schools
inadvertently detached themselves from the benefits of COO effect. Hence, many schools moved
away from branding focused on the identity of the traditional Korean TKD master. Schools with
non-Asian instructors avoided the use of surnames to identify their schools, instead adopting
names without cultural connotations such as PowerKicks or Tiger Martial Arts. This is in no
way suggesting that TKD has suffered any backlashes from a change in brand strategy. Rather,
martial arts has become a big business. In the U.S. alone, there are approximately 13,950 martial
arts schools (Info-USA, 2007) and more than 4.7 million martial arts participants in 2004 (Sport
Business Research Network, 2004). Ferguson (1995) noted that “enrollment in studios
specializing in Eastern martial arts pursuits such as Karate and Taekwondo has about doubled
over the last five years.” The rise can be attributed to young Americans growing up with images
of martial arts, such as "The Karate Kid" and "Mighty Morphin' Power Rangers." A number of
movies, cartoons, books, and television programs featuring martial arts have been popular among
young Americans to the point where martial arts is a part of youth culture (Yang, 1996).
Currently, new forms of martial arts events such as Extreme Martial Arts (XMA) and Ultimate
Fighting Championship (UFC) have become popular entertainment options. As a result, interest
and participation in the martial arts over the last 20 years has been tremendous (Cox, 1993).
Consequently, the growth of the martial arts industry has created a highly competitive business
environment. In the U.S. market, TKD schools face internal competitions with other martial arts
schools (Kim, Zang, Ko, 2009). Furthermore, external competition exists from other sport
organizations, such as racquet clubs, health-fitness centers, and parks and recreational facilities
(Parks & Zanger, 1990).
Today, TKD schools position themselves to compete on expansive product offerings
focusing on the family and parents searching for alternative forms of after-school activities. In
response, schools are diversifying their programs by incorporating such programs as after-school
programs, unique belt promotion ceremonies, family programs, and child-care services to attract
current and potential participants (Kim, Zang, Ko, 2009). However, by competing on product
offerings and functional attributes schools risks commoditization, leading to lower barriers of
entry for new participants. In addition, marketing efforts in martial arts including TKD schools
lag behind other business industries (Ko, 2003). Therefore, with the current landscape,
opportunities arise for schools to develop brand strategies unique to the industry. In the
subsequent sections, lifestyle branding will be discussed as a brand strategy TKD schools can
apply to broaden their reach and differentiate themselves from the competition.
Lifestyle Branding
Marketing has evolved through the decades. In the late ‘80s, "niche marketing" was the
primary focus and in the '90s, "branding" became the magic buzzword. Coming into the 21st
century “lifestyle branding” is emerging as a strategic avenue to capture the hearts and minds of
customers (Gray, 2008) .Lifestyle branding has gained popularity among companies, which
view it as a way to sidestep competition and connect with customers in a more personal way
(Chernev, 2011). This can be appealing for industries that are facing increased commoditization
of their products and services.
Lifestyle branding attempts to embody the values and aspirations of a group or culture for
the purposes of marketing. Each individual has an identity based on their choices, experiences,
and background. A lifestyle brand aims to sell products by convincing potential customers that
this identity will be reinforced or supplemented if they publicly associate themselves with the
brand (Gray, 2008).For example, Anthropologie targets upscale young women with products
inspired by the cultures of Europe, India, and the Far East by creating a vision of a high-end yet
very hip lifestyle that consumers aspire to. On the other hand, Abercrombie & Fitch captures the
college student lifestyle with its A&F Quarterly catalog and store layout.
By associating with lifestyle products, consumers derive emotional and self-expressive
benefits associated with the brand. According to Aaker (2011), when a consumer experiences
two or more benefits, the user experience is usually broader and more rewarding than a product
based primarily on functional benefits. The emotional benefits relate to the ability of the offering
to make the customer feel something during the purchase or user experience. A perfect example
is Apple, although the brand starts with the product it doesn’t stop there. An interaction with
Apple is an emotional experience from start to finish. The stores are alluring and clean while its
minimalist products give it an ethereal beauty which transcends any functional advantages that
its competitors possess. Every piece the consumer sees or interacts with, from the packaging to
the retail environment, communicates the same consistent message “smart, cool, sophisticated,
authentic, friendly.” Hence, customers are proud to be associated with it because their experience
is positive and rewarding, which makes Apple a great example of a consumer lifestyle brand.
Alternatively, self-expressive benefits reflect the ability of the consumer and use of an
offering to provide a vehicle by which a person can express him- or herself (Aaker, 2011). Self-
expressive benefits are based on the “I am… statement”, for example, “I am sophisticated when I
wear Ralph Lauren.” Brands can also be used to communicate membership in particular social
or professional groups, through both the use of brands that signal membership in desirable
groups (Braun and Wicklund 1989; Escalas and Bettman 2005; Wicklund and Gollwitzer 1981)
The P90x franchise is an exemplar of an active lifestyle brand that incorporates functional and
self-expressive benefits. Through the use of transformative marketing and aspirational cues with
attractive and fit actors, P90x has created a brand which consumers are proud to be associated
with while serving as a vehicle to signal “who they are.” Even though the product is meant to be
done in the privacy of the home, consumers go out of their way to publicly express association
with the product. A search on YouTube for ‘P90x’will unearth thousands of consumers
providing unsolicited advertisement, further reinforcing the brand through social proof. As a
result Beachbody, the company behind P90x, has reaped over $400 million a year in revenue
(Martin, 2011).
Recommendation: Lifestyle Branding Framework
As TKD moves into the 21stcentury, the rapid growth of the martial arts industry has created
a competitive environment. Therefore, TKD schools need to move beyond marketing based on
functional product offerings or suffer the effects of commoditization. As a recommendation,
TKD schools should explore lifestyle branding as a strategy. The following 4-step process
developed by Hill (2008) offers as a framework in creating a lifestyle brand. The framework
identifies the following steps: 1) research, 2) strategy, 3) identity and 4) execution.
It is by no means a comprehensive manual to lifestyle brand creation, but will provide a solid
foundation for TKD brand managers moving forward. With the appropriate investment of time
and consideration into development, schools can reap great rewards since the creation of a
lifestyle brand can provide the competitive advantage necessary to excel in a competitive market.
Research
This involves analyzing what the competition is doing and saying to define and maintain a
competitive edge. Competitor analysis should involve indirect competitors (i.e. other sports,
fitness clubs) and direct competitors (i.e. other martial arts schools) and analyze points of parity
as well as points of differentiation. The most relevant benefit for TKD schools derived from
competitor analysis is the insight into future competitor strategies which may allow prediction of
emerging threats and opportunities. Weaknesses of competitors can represent an opportunity to
exploit them, while strengths of a competitor on important dimensions may represent a challenge
or threat which should be avoided (Aaker, 2011).
On the consumer side, it is important to understand the existing customer base as well as the
desired customer. Customer analysis can be broken down to three subcategories:
1) Segmentation-the identification of customer groups that respond differently from other groups to competitive offerings.
2) Customer Motivations-identifying the reasons behind customer purchase decisions and how it differs by segment.
3) Unmet Needs-a customer need that is not being met by the existing product offering.
TKD brand managers should exercise due diligence when researching competitors and
consumers. The insight derived from the comprehensive analysis will aid in the creation of a
robust brand positioning strategy.
Strategy
Once research is conducted and analyzed to identify opportunities, it is essential to create a
solid brand positioning strategy along with defining the core values and meaning of the brand.
Meaning is born through developing a comprehensive understanding of a brand in order to
inspire the creative process (Hill, 2008). Meaning can be derived from the core competencies of
the school but should not be limited to it. For example, a school can derive its meaning focused
on competition-oriented TKD versus tradition TKD. The competition-oriented TKD schools
emphasize tournament competition, which focuses on teaching technique. Traditional TKD
schools, however, devote attention to self-defense techniques and mental development (Kauz,
1993).
Core values are principles that guide a school's internal conduct as well as its relationship
with the customers. It can be acquired from beliefs the head instructor embodies or wishes to
possess. For example, Zappo’s core value is “Deliver WOW Through Service”, Whole Foods is
“Selling the Highest Quality Natural and Organic Products Available”, while Men’s Wearhouse
defines its corporate values in its signature slogan “You’re gonna like the way you look. – I
guarantee.” Identifying solid yet attainable core values will give the school purpose, and prevent
it from making bad choices in the face of ethical decisions.
Brand positioning strategy defines what position a brand will take in the marketplace. The
information acquired from the research section should identify what strategy the school should
exercise. A TKD brand manager will utilize information obtained from the research section to
find opportunities to exploit and threats to avoid. A brand manager must identify whether the
school’s core values and competencies enable it to take advantage of potential opportunities for
growth. If the strategy is well-informed and targeted, a brand's core values should naturally align
with the values of the target market, creating the foundation of a successful consumer lifestyle
brand (Hill, 2008).
Identity
Once brand positioning is complete, it is essential to create a solid brand identity. Brand
identity provides direction, purpose, and meaning for the brand. It is a set of associations that the
firm aspires to create or maintain, an aspirational external brand image (Aaker, 2011). The first
step for a TKD school is to create an inventory of associations that invoke positive emotions for
the consumer. For large organizations this list can extend from 50 to 100 associations.
However, for a smaller business such as a TKD school the list can be scaled down. The
following is a sample of positive associations grounded on the tenets of the TKD:
DisciplineCourtesyStrengthMoralEffective
RespectSelf-controlCourageHonorAwareness
IntegrityHonestyPerseveranceResolveDiligence
The list should then be filtered down to a manageable set of associations (around 6 to 12) that are
desired for the brand. These focused associations are then used to create a distinct brand
personality. Since a business with a personality tends to be more memorable and better liked
than one that is bland, it is nothing more than the sum of its attributes (Aaker, 2011). For
instance, IBM is seen as “older,” while Apple is perceived as “younger.” A noteworthy
illustration of brand personalities is the Apple commercials contrasting the opposing
personalities of a younger, hipper Apple personality played by Justin Long and a drab and
frumpy PC played by John Hodgeman. Therefore, in order to create an effective lifestyle brand
the personality chosen by the TKD brand manager should be a trait seen as attractive to its target
market, someone they want to associate with or aspire to be. It should help the TKD practitioner
express a part of their personality and “who they are.” Although a sample list of associations was
provided, the choice of associations and personality should be limitless, and not be restricted to
preconceived stereotypes associated with TKD. The only limitation resides in the creative
powers of the brand manager.
Execution
Branding is a truly holistic process. A successful campaign is consistent through all brand
touch points (Hills, 2008). From the time a student walks in the door to the time he or she
leaves, the brand communication must be visually and verbally consistent to have its desired
effect. According to Aaker (2011) image and positioning information can be deduced in part by
studying a firm’s products, advertising, Web site and actions. Thus, school websites,
promotional material, layout and environment must all be in harmony.
Marketing efforts in martial arts, especially in advertising has been lacking. Re-examination
of current promotional activity is necessary to determine whether the message communicated is
one founded on functional benefits or self-expressive and emotional benefits. Image 1, shown
below, illustrates a common martial arts promotion focused on functional attributes.
Alternatively, image 2 not only conveys associations based on discipline, self-control, and
fitness, but also exhibits aesthetic cues. To attain a lifestyle brand, imagery should move past
communicating usability. It needs to evoke a connection with the consumer on a visceral level
through artistic and emotional signals. For example, the sleek lines of a classic automobile
appeal to this level of experience.
Image 1. Image 2.
TKD schools must also consider whether the current product offering is a good fit with its
brand. Based on functional synergies and the enticement of extra revenue streams, many TKD
schools have expanded their product offerings to include services such as daycare centers,
sleepover events and birthday parties. Therefore schools considering product and service
expansion need to assess whether inclusion of additional products or services is consistent with
its brand. An extension that fails or has inappropriate associations can damage a brand (Aaker,
2011). Being authentic and being connected to the program will all be easier if there is a good fit
because one weak link can have an impact on consumer confidence (Hill, 2008; Aaker, 2011).
Implications
Proper development and execution of a lifestyle branding campaign can pay dividends for
TKD organizations. The most salient benefits of an effective campaign include: 1) Expanded
market segment, 2) Product differentiation, 3) Increased brand loyalty.
First, by applying a lifestyle brand strategy, TKD schools can reach out to a broader market
segment. Nike is a good example. What started as a running shoe company now extends to
anyone who wants an athletic lifestyle, allowing Nike a presence in product categories such as
apparel, watches and audio equipment (Birkner, 2011). For instance, a TKD school that crafted
its brand by emphasizing associations with discipline and self-control can expand to segments
unrealized by traditional TKD marketing techniques. In theory, this could represent smokers
who want to quit or overweight Americans which represent 19.8% and 74.1%(Dunham, 2008;
Streib, 2007) of the population, respectively.
Second, in an increasingly competitive environment, TKD schools are finding it difficult to
distinguish themselves from one another. In an effort to set themselves apart, schools engage in
an arms race by adopting new product offerings. Schools today are already face staffing
limitations consisting of a handful of part- and full-time employees. Since expanding the current
product offerings involves the extra burden of educating and training the current staff, they risk
moving away from their core competency. Lifestyle branding creates a position based on
intangible qualities (i.e. emotional and self-expressive benefits), making it harder to replicate.
As a result, lifestyle branding can provide the silver bullet that enables a school to differentiate
itself while remaining true to its core competency, teaching TKD.
Lastly, brand loyalty has always been a problem for TKD schools. According to Kim, Zang
and Ko (2009), the operation of a TKD school primarily relies on the revenue generated from its
membership fees. Thus, membership is a major income producer and member retention is a
common challenge in TKD schools. In addressing this issue TKD schools have engaged in high-
pressure tactics of locking students down through contracts to increase retention rates.
Consequently such tactics can create resentment with consumers who might feel coerced into a
long-term agreement, no different from the feelings conjured up from signing a wireless service
plan. On the other hand an effective lifestyle branding campaign creates a zealous fan base that is
eager to purchase the product, relieving schools from employing the hard sell. For example,
through the use of lifestyle branding Harley Davidson is much more than motorcyles; it is an
experience, an attitude, a lifestyle, a vehicle to express “who I am” (Aaker, 2011).By helping
consumers express “who they are” it inspires loyalty with its base which in turn translates into
purchase and repurchase of items by its fans. Harley-Davidson says two-thirds of its motorcycle
purchasers are repeat buyers. Buyers are so eager to own a Harley that they will wait for more
than a year for delivery, once they've ordered a model from their dealer (Birkner, 2011).
Conclusion
This paper examined the evolving brand strategy of TKD schools in the U.S. for the past
four decades. It identifies the issues TKD schools face today, most noticeably marketing and
branding. A cursory glance at the market shows lifestyle brands such as Crossfit, Zumba and
P90x have successfully marketed fitness to America, so the opportunities are present. But to
exploit these opportunities it requires TKD organizations to move past a short-term tactical
mindset towards a broader strategic outlook, one recommendation presented has been to adapt
lifestyle branding to achieve this goal. The paper has presented a detailed 4-step framework for
achieving this objective, but it is up to TKD organizations and its employees to develop and
execute it. Hopefully with success schools can operate in the 21st century with a contemporary
and effective brand strategy while reaping the benefits that accompany it.
Works Cited
Aaker, D.A. (1996), Building Strong Brands, The Free Press, New York, NY.
Aaker, D. (2011). Strategic market management. (9th ed.). Danvers, MA: John Wiley & Sons.
Birkner, K. (2011, February 28). Lifestyle brands make it personal. Marketing News, 45(2), 22.
Braun, Ottmar L. and Robert A. Wicklund (1989), “PsychologicalAntecedents of Conspicuous Consumption,” Journal of EconomicPsychology, 10 (2), 161–87.
Burd i ck , D . ( 2009 , J anua ry ) . A h i s t o ry o f t a ekwondo . Re t r i eved f rom h t t p : / / r yansh roye r . t r i pod . com/dak in_bu rd i ck .h tml
Chami-Sather, G. (2004). Focus, self-confidence and self-control transfer of teaching techniques from a Taekwondo den into the regular classroom. The Sport Journal, 7. Retrieved August 12, 2007, from littp://www.thesportjournal.oig/arricle/fociis-seif-confidence-and-se!f-control-transfer-teaching-tcchniques-taekwondo-den-regular-cl.
Chernev, A. (2011, May 5). The case study: making a switch to lifestyle branding. Financial Times.
Escalas, Jennifer Edson and James R. Bettman (2005), “Self-Construal, Reference Groups, and Brand Meaning,” Journal of Consumer Research, 32 (3), 378–89.
Cox, J. C. (1993). Traditional Asian martial arts training: A review. Quest, 45, 366-388.
Delgado-Ballester, E. and Munuera-Aleman, J. (2005),“Does brand trust matter to brand equity?”, Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 187-96.
Dunham, W. (2008, November 13). U.S. smoking rate is under 20 percent for first time. Retrieved from http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/11/13/us-smoking-usa-idUSTRE4AC6XX20081113
Ferguson, T. W. (1995 October 23).Let's talk to the master. Forbes, 156(10), 138-142.
Gray, A. (2008, November). Lifestyle: the next big thing. Catalog Age, 105.
H i l l , A . ( 2008 , June ) . Bu i l d ing consumer l i f e s t y l e b r ands : au then t i c exp re s s ion . G loba l Cosme t i c Indus t ry Magaz ine
Hsia, J., & Hirano-Nakanishi, M. (1989). The demographics of diversity: Asian Americans and higher education. Change, 21, 20-36.
InfoUSA Inc. (2007). Market research report: Martial arts. Retrieved May 20. 2007, from http://hsts.infousa.com/service/lh/CR-TallyReport,aspx?bas...type=-ComitReport&basjiage-CR_.TallyRcport&bas._ vendor* 190000.
Ko, Y., Zhang, J., & Kim, M. (2009). Dimensions of market demand associated with taekwondo schools in north america: development of a scale. Sport Management Review, 12, 149-166.
Ko. Y. J. (2003). Martial arts marketing: Putting the customer first. Journal of Asian Martial Arts., 12(2), 9-15.
Ko. Y. J., & Yang, J, li. (2008). The Globalization of martial arts: The change of rules for new markets. Journal of Asian Martial Arts, 17(4), 8-19.
Ferguson, T. W. (1995 October 23), Let's talk to the master. Forte, 156(10), 138-142.
Martin, A. (2011, May 28). The fitness revolution will be televised (after leno). NY Times
Srikatanyoo, N. and Gnoth, J. (2002), “Country image and international tertiary education”, Journal of Brand Management, Vol. 10 No. 2, pp. 139-48.
Te r r aza s , A . ( 2009 , J anua ry ) . Korean immig ran t s i n t he un i t ed s t a t e s . Re t r i eved f rom http://www.migrationinformation.org/usfocus/display.cfm?ID=716
Sport Business Research Network (2004). Market research results. Retrieved May 22, 2007 from http://www.sbrnet.com/research.asp7subRiD-259.Parks, J, B„ Si Zangcr, B. R, K. (1990). Sport and fitness management; Career strategies and professional content. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Streib, W. (2007, February 8). World's fattest countries. Retrieved from http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/11/13/us-smoking-usa-idUSTRE4AC6XX20081113
United States. Department of Homeland Security. Yearbook of Immigration Statistics: 2010. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, 2011.
Wicklund, Robert A. and Peter M. Gollwitzer (1981), Symbolic Self-Completion. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Yas in , N . , Noor , M. , & Mohamad , O . ( 2007 ) . Does image o f coun t ry -o f -o r i g in ma t t e r t o b r and equ i t y? Jou rna l o f P roduc t & Brand Managemen t , 16 (1 ) , 38 -48 .