lingua e letterature angloamericane, i modulo
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Lingua e letterature angloamericane, I Modulo“Coming from the shadows”
Il modulo sarà dedicato alla lettura e al commento di tre testi di scrittrici degli Stati Uniti, pubblicati negli anniSettanta, che affrontano il tema del trauma e del suo superamento da una prospettiva femminile. Le autrici inquestione sono Joan Didion, Toni Morrison e Leslie Marmon Silko. Nello specifico, i temi della guerra, della
violenza, e della diversità etnica e sessuale saranno analizzati in rapporto alla società degli Stati Uniti diquegli anni.
BIBLIOGRAFIA
È richiesta la lettura analitica dei tre testi primari. Dei testi indicati nella bibliografia storico-critica èrichiesto lo studio dei testi numero 1, 2, 6, 10 e 14 e di un testo a scelta per ciascun romanzo (uno trai nn. 3, 4, 5; uno tra i nn. 7, 8, 9; uno tra i nn. 11, 12, 13). Il testo n. 14, insieme agli schemi riportati infondo (riadattamento di testi esistenti sul romanzo) è una guida alla lettura di Ceremony .
Testi primari (qualsiasi edizione integrale e in lingua inglese; i tre testi sono disponibili nelle biblioteched’Ateneo): Joan Didion, Play It as It Lays (1970)
Toni Morrison, Sula (1973)Leslie Marmon Silko, Ceremony (1977)
Bibliografia storico-critica:1. Maria Cristina Iuli, “Gli anni Settanta? Un universo parallelo”, Enthymema, VII, 2012, pp. 275-284.2. Jennifer Brady, “Joan Didion”, in Marshall Boswell and Carl Rollyson, eds, Encyclopedia of American
Literature. 1607 to the Present , Facts on File, New York, 2008, pp. 320-323.3. David J. Geherin, “Nothingness and Beyond: Joan Didion's Play It As It Lays”, Critique, 16: 1, 1974, pp.
64-78.4. Cynthia Griffin Wolff, "Play It as It Lays: Didion and the Diver Heroine”, Contemporary Literature, 24: 4,
1983, pp. 480-4955. Cinzia Scarpino, “‘I, the Implacable I’: l’opera di Joan Didion negli anni Settanta”, Enthymema, VII, 2012,
pp. 453-472.
6. Marshall Boswell, “Toni Morrison”, in Marshall Boswell and Carl Rollyson, eds, Encyclopedia of AmericanLiterature. 1607 to the Present , Facts on File, New York, 2008, pp. 773-776.
7. Cedric Gael Bryant, “The Orderliness of Disorder: Madness and Evil in Toni Morrison's Sula”, Black American Literature Forum, 24: 4, 1990, pp. 731-745.
8. Rita A. Bergenholtz, “Toni Morrison's Sula: A Satire on Binary Thinking”, African American Review , 30: 1,1996, pp. 89-98.
9. Marie Nigro, “In Search of Self: Frustration and Denial in Toni Morrison's Sula”, Journal of Black Studies,28: 6, 1998, pp. 724-737.
10. Marshall Boswell, “Leslie Marmon Silko”, in Marshall Boswell and Carl Rollyson, eds, Encyclopedia of American Literature. 1607 to the Present , Facts on File, New York, 2008, pp. 1060-1061.
11. Nancy Gilderhus, “The Art of Storytelling in Leslie Silko's Ceremony ”, The English Journal , 83: 2, 1994,pp. 70-72.
12. Dennis Cutchins, “So That the Nations May Become Genuine Indian”: Nativism and Leslie Marmon
Silko’s Ceremony ”, Journal of American Culture, 2: 4, 1999, pp. 77-89,13. Aaron Derosa, “Cultural Trauma, Evolution, and America’s Atomic Legacy in Silko’s Ceremony ”, Journal
of Literary Theory , 6:1, 2012, pp. 41-64.14. Laura Coltelli, “Leslie Marmon Silko”, in Allan Chavkin, ed., Leslie Marmon Silko’s Ceremony. A
Casebook , Oxford UP, Oxford 2002, pp. 241-255.
Sulle tre autrici può essere inoltre utile la consultazione del volume Guida alla letteratura degli Stati Uniti.Percorsi e protagonisti 1945-2014 (di Cinzia Scarpino, Cinzia Schiavini, Sostene M. Zangari, Odoya,Bologna 2014), disponibile nella Biblioteca di Scienze del linguaggio (collocazione: 1DIDATTICALETTERATURA 056).
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0#+ D '.48, #.$4*#%%' .,# .+2# &,# 4+((,%%#-# '*%#$%#4#/ '& ,$,2)#+ #. C5,((+ &,( 4+((,%%#-+2#('.,$, C(A,.(#,.9, 29 R,&3"96(?9,"' H959#("#' 6 d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ome dimostra Elizabeth Mangini nel suo saggio “Form as Social7+22#%2,.%T b8, M*% +: Y#+-'..# Anselmo during the Anni di Piombo”, Anselmo ri+9*#,.%L (' )*+)*#' *#4,*4' ,$)*,$$#-' #. *,B#+., )#W *#0#&'2,.%, :+*2'(,/ -,*$+ 5.' )+,%#94' &,((' :+*2' 48, )+%,$$, +::*#*, 5. '.%#&+%+ '( )+%,*, $,&5%%#-+ , 4++)%'B#+., , '(('
:+*B' .+*2'(#BB'.%, 5. 2,*4'%+ +..#-+*+ , #.$'B#'3#(,6[+*$,/ 0(# '..# 1,%%'.%' sono molto più di un universo parallelo…
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320 entry
for his son and was neither a critical nor commercial suc-cess. His last novel, To the White Sea (1993), the story of alone American soldier escaping Japan in the midst of thewar, enjoyed modest success. Early in his career, Dickeywas a frequent essayist (The Suspect in Poetry [1964]) andreviewer (Babel to Byzantium [1968]).
SourcesBaughman, Judith, ed. James Dickey: An Illustrated Chronicle.Dic-
tionary of Literary Biography, Documentary Series, volume
19. Detroit: Bruccoli Clark Layman/Gale Research, 1999.
Baughman, Ronald. Understanding James Dickey.Columbia: Uni-
versity of South Carolina Press, 1985.
Hart, Henry. James Dickey: The World as a Lie. New York: Picador,
2000.
Kirschten, Robert, ed. “Struggling for Wings”: The Art of James
Dickey. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press,
1997.
—Ward Briggs
Didion, Joan (1934– ) journalist, essayist, novelist, screenwriter
In many ways writing is the act of saying I, ofimposing oneself upon other people, of saying listen tome, see it my way, change your mind. —“Why I Write” (1975)
Joan Didion was born in Sacramento, California, and at-tended C. K. McClatchy Senior High School. In 1956 shegraduated from the University of California at Berkeley with
a B.A. in English. She won the Priz de Paris in a competitionsponsored by Vogue magazine for college seniors and movedto New York where she worked at Vogue in several capacities,including senior features editor, and wrote movie reviews forVogue, Mademoiselle, and other magazines.
Didion’s traditional novel Run River (1963) was a regional-ist interpretation of California and the American West. Didionmarried the writer John Gregory D in 1964; the couplelived in Los Angeles for over two decades before returningto New York in 1988. Working in concert on many projects,Didion and Dunne alternated on the writing of a monthlycolumn called “Points West” that was published by Esquire inthe 1970s. They also collaborated on several screenplays, most
notably The Panic in Needle Park, a gritty 1971 movie focus-ing on drug addiction in New York’s Sherman Park. Didionand Dunne adopted a daughter, Quintana Roo, named after astate in Mexico, in 1966; she is featured in both of her parents’
journalism of the period, especially in the personal essays inDidion’s Slouching Towards Bethlehem (1968).
Play It as It Lays (1970) became a minor classic, cel-ebrated for its portrayal of anomie in the self-destructivelives of a Hollywood starlet and her associates. A deliber-
ately fast read due to its prominent display of white spaceon the page, Play It as It Lays offered its readers a stylishmorality tale narrated by an existentialist heroine. It wasfollowed by A Book of Common Prayer (1977), a complexnovel inspired by the radical political movements of the
1970s and connected to Didion’s interest in the abductionof the heiress Patricia Hearst in 1974 by the SymbioneseLiberation Army. Didion later wrote a sympathetic reviewof Hearst’s laconic memoir. In an essay called “Girl of theGolden West,” Didion writes of Hearst: “She was never anidealist, and this pleased no one. She was tainted by sur-
vival.” In Didion’s reading, Hearst becomes a pragmaticsurvivor in the frontier mold of pioneers who avoided thebackward glance in their will to surmount hardships en-countered in settling the American West.
Didion was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis after expe-riencing episodes of temporary blindness, a trauma she dis-cusses in the essay “The White Album,” published in 1979.
After Henry (1992) is dedicated to her longtime literary agent,Henry Robbins, who died of a heart attack at fifty-one. Did-ion has written about her own ancestors, some of whom trav-eled partway with the Donner-Reed party on their ill-fatedoverland crossing to California in the 1840s. Her 2003 book,Where I Was From, draws extensively on family diaries, as dothe personal essays of Slouching Towards Bethlehem.
Didion’s recent work is framed by a succession of personallosses. Where I Was From (2003) is dedicated to her parents
320 Didion, Joan
Joan Didion
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entry 321Didion, Joan 321
and closes with her poignant memories of her mother’sand father’s deaths. John Gregory Dunne died in December2003 and Didion’s daughter died in August 2005 at the ageof thirty-nine. Didion won the N B A forNonfiction in 2005 for The Year of Magical Thinking , a memoirexamining her grief at her husband’s death and her daughter’s
critical illness. Reviews of The Year of Magical Thinking havecentered on the attending social worker’s description of Did-ion as a “pretty cool customer” in the immediate momentsafter her husband’s death—a survival mechanism that alsodescribes the reactions of her heroines Maria Wyeth of PlayIt As It Lays, Grace Strasser-Mendana of A Book of CommonPrayer, Inez Victor of Democracy (1984), and Elena McMahonof The Last Thing He Wanted (1996)—suggesting a coherenceand consistency to Joan Didion’s work and preoccupationsover the past forty years.
Didion is often classed with the New Journalists (see NJ) of the 1960s, a nonaffiliated group of writerswho emphasized the necessary subjectivity of their reporting.
Her first collection of essays, Slouching Towards Bethlehem, included incisive portraits of the Haight-Ashbury hippies inSan Francisco, an account of a murder trial in San BernardinoCounty that seemed to be drawn from the plots of James M.Cain noir novels, and several personal essays on Didion’srelation to her family, her family’s frontier history, and herambivalent fascination with New York and Sacramento. Herwork is influenced by several writers she admires, amongthem Henry James and George Orwell; her stylistic debts toErnest Hemingway’s spare sentence are well known, but herrecent nonfiction owes much to James’s opaque style in hislater novels. Didion’s reputation is primarily as the writer oftwo important and influential collections of essays, each the
register of a particular decade of American culture: SlouchingTowards Bethelehem reports on the 1960s, The White Album onthe 1970s. She is also a novelist of some repute. Her novelsrange from realist to Postmodernist in their technique, andhave become progressively more skeptical in their relationto narrative. “You see the shards of the novel I am no lon-ger writing, the island, the family, the situation. I lost pa-tience with it. I lost nerve,” the narrator, Joan Didion, admitsabout the book she is struggling to write in Democracy: “Iam resisting narrative here.” The stance is consistent withher focus on image rather than on narrative in the collage-style title essay of The White Album. Her most recent workhas focused on an exploration of the ideological underpin-nings of narrative. Where I Was From (2003) is a revisioniststudy of the persistent mythologizing of California’s historyby such writers as Jack London, Frank Norris, and Didionherself, culminating in a skeptical reading of the romanticnarrative of her elegiac first novel, Run River. The author offive novels and eight nonfiction books, Didion is a frequentcontributor to The New York Review of Books and The NewYorker.
—Jennifer Brady
Principal Books by DidionRun River. New York: Obolensky, 1963.
Slouching Towards Bethlehem. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux,
1968.
Play It As It Lays. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1970.
A Boo k of Common Prayer. New York: Simon & Schuster,
1977.
Telling Stories. Berkeley, Calif.: Bancroft Library, 1978.
The White Album. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1979.
Salvador. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982.
Democracy. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984.
Miami. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987.
After Henry. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992.
The Last Thing He Wanted. New York: Knopf, 1996.
Political Fictions. New York: Knopf, 2001.
Where I Was From. New York: Knopf, 2003.
Dust jacket for Didion’s second novel, 1970, which earned aNational Book Award nomination
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322 entry 322 Didion, Joan
Working typescript for A Book of Common Prayer (1977)
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entry 323
Fixed Ideas: America since 9.11. New York: New York Review of
Books, 2003.
Vintage Didion. New York: Vintage Books, 2004.
The Year of Magical Thinking. New York: Knopf, 2005.
We Tell Ourselves Stories in Order to Live: Collected Nonfiction. New
York: Knopf, 2006.
Studying Joan DidionThe Everyman’s Library collection of her nonfiction, We TellOurselves Stories in Order to Live (2006), includes Joan Didion’simportant early works. Her award-winning The Year of MagicalThinking (2006), a meditation on the deaths of her husbandand daughter, is not included in the Everyman collection andis a necessary element in her canon. Her novels are available inseparate editions. No book-length biography of Didion exists; however, Joan Didion: Essays and Conversations, edited by EllenG. Freidman (Princeton, N. J.: Ontario Review Press, 1984),collects three interviews and an essay by Didion as well ascritical responses from academic scholars. Though it focuses
mainly on Didion’s fiction, this book provides insight intoDidion’s creative process and her personal life.
The Critical Response to Joan Didion, edited by Sharon Fel-ton (Westport, Conn: Greenwood, 1994), provides reviewsof her books and offers scholarly examinations of Didion’sfoundational works including her nonfiction, novels, and
journalism. Katherine Usher Henderson’s Joan Didion (NewYork: Ungar, 1981) and Mark Roydon Winchell’s Joan Didion(Boston: Twayne, 1989) both connect biography to analysisin order to examine Didion’s fiction and nonfiction throughcritical surveys of her life and career.
Two books that examine Didion’s work within largerframeworks—the first, placing her in the tradition of New
Journalism, and the second, examining her place amongBritish and American women writers—include Marc Wein-garten’s The Gang that Wouldn’t Write Straight: Wolfe, Thomp-son, Didion, and the New Journalism Revolution (New York:Crown, 2006) and Janis Stout’s Strategies of Reticence: Silenceand Meaning in the Works of Jane Austen, Willa Cather, Kath-erine Ann Porter, and Joan Didion (Charlottesville: UniversityPress of Virginia, 1990). Sandra Braman’s chapter in A Source-book of American Literary Journalism: Representative Writers inan Emerging Genre, edited by Thomas Connery (New York:Greenwood, 1992), names Didion as a founder of the NewJournalism movement.
—Student Guide by Britt Terry
Dillard, Annie (1945– ) essayist, novelist, poet
A child wakes up over and over again, and notices thatshe’s living . . . bingo, she feels herself alive. . . . And shenotices she is set down here, mysteriously, in a goingworld.
—“To Fashion a Text” (1987)
Born Ann Doak in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Annie Dillardwas educated at Hollins College, where she received a B.A. in1967 and an M.A. in 1968. She won a Pulitzer Prize for Pil- grim at Tinker Creek (1974), a nonfiction work that evokes thewonder of nature and has been compared to Henry DavidThoreau’s Walden. Like Thoreau, Dillard is a keen observer
of the seasons and natural cycles. Other titles that extend her view of nature and the act of writing about it are Teaching aStone to Talk (1982), Living by Fiction (1982), and Writing Life (1989). In An American Childhood (1987) she describes herconventional childhood in middle-class urban America. Hernovel The Living (1992), is characterized by a philosophicalregionalism. She reveals a feeling for the way people interactwith the land—in this case, loggers in the Pacific Northwestat the turn of the nineteenth century. She has also writtentwo poetry collections, Tickets for a Prayer Wheel (1974) and Mornings Like This (1995). Her novel The Maytrees was pub-lished in 2007.
SourceJohnson, Sandra Humble. The Space Between: Literary Epiphanyin the Work of Annie Dillard. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University
Press, 1992.
The Disenchanted by Budd Schulberg (New York:Random House, 1950) novel
Budd Schulberg’s third novel introduces the novelist Man-ley Halliday, teamed with junior writer Shep Stearns toscript “Love on Ice,” a formulaic romantic comedy that isto be filmed on location at the Dartmouth winter carnival.The novel is freely based on Schulberg’s collaboration with
F. Scott Fitzgerald, in which the two authors shared misad- ventures at Dartmouth while working on the motion pictureWinter Carnival (1939). The details are accurately drawn fromSchulberg’s firsthand knowledge of Hollywood where his fa-ther, B. P. Schulberg, was head of Paramount Studios from1925 to 1932. With celebratory champagne as fuel, Halliday’scomeback from his literary nadir and Stearns’s shot at a brightwriting future are derailed. Halliday dies, joining the ghostsof his past, while young Stearns learns of life’s disenchant-ment. The novel was adapted into a Broadway play by the au-thor and Harvey Breit in 1958 and ran for 189 performances.Schulberg’s best-seller helped trigger a Fitzgerald revival.
—Michael Edelson
“Diving into the Wreck” by Adrienne Rich (1973) poem
Taken from her 1973 book of the same title, “Diving into theWreck” is perhaps Adrienne R’s most famous poem. Hav-ing abandoned the taut formal work of her first collections,Rich utilizes a short-lined free-verse structure in this poemthat creates a quick and graceful movement. The poem ar-
“Diving into the Wreck” 323
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Nothingness and Beyond: Joan Didion's Play It As It Lays Geherin, David J Critique; Jan 1, 1974; 16, 1; ProQuest pg. 64
Nothingness
and
Beyond:
Joan Didion s
Play t
s t ays
DAVID
J.
GEHERIN
What we
probably
do
not
need in American fiction
s
yet
another Hollywood novel. Hollywood as metaphor for
everything that
s
tawdry, artificial, and superficial about
America has become a cliche in contemporary fiction. Those
novels
about
Hollywood which are still read-West's
The Day
o the Locust Mailer's
The Deer Park
Fitzgerald's The
Last
Tycoon Schulberg's What Makes Sammy Run?
-succeed
by
transcending
the
limitations
of
their
subject matter. Countless
other ones have faded as quickly as the sunset in the West they
describe because their voyeuristic concern was with
Hollywood as Hollywood, their fascination with tinsel as
tinsel.
Joan
Didion's Play It
As
It Lays
(1970) belongs
to
that
former
group
of novels which enlarges
upon the
limited nature
of
its material. Although its sett ing
s
Hollywood, its heroine s
an
ac;tress, and movie making figures
prominently
in its action,
the
novel
s
as much
about
Hollywood as
Heart
of
Darkness
s
about Africa
or
The Stranger
s about
Algeria. Like
those novels,
Play It As It Lays
depends
upon
an intimate
connection between setting
and
theme;
but
also like them, its
overriding thematic concern
s
man's relationship with himself
and
with in general.
Didion's
novel s neither
primarily a sociological commentary on the values
of
contemporary American society nor a psychological case
study of its heroine. It is, rather, a picture of personal dread
64
Copyright
(c) 2002
ProQuest Information and Learning Company
Copyright (c) Heldref Publications
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and
anxiety,
of alienation and absurdity lurking
within
and
without. For
although
Hollywood
s
her setting, nothingness
s
Didion's theme.
The
novel presents a
harrowing picture
of
Maria
Wyeth, a
thirty-one-year-old actress and former model,
and
her
encounter
with
an
existential nothingness which envelops her
like a coastal fog. Her
marriage to Carter
Lang,
an
egocentric,
ambitious
young
film director,
s breaking
up; her four-year-
old daughter, Kate, is institutionalized with some
sort of
brain
damage; her casual affairs
are many but
mechanical
and
lifeless. When Maria discovers she s pregnant, probably not
by her husband, she has
an
abortion. Her closest friend, BZ, a
homosexual who produces
her husband's
movies, commits
suicide by
taking an overdose
of
pills while
cradled
in her arms.
Finally, Maria herself· s hospitalized for what s usually
loosely described as a nervous
breakdown.
The facts of Maria's life are the basic material
of
thousands
of
soap opera situations. What saves Play t
s
t
Lays from degenerating into banality s Didion's control over
her material , her skill in focusing
attention
not
on
the events in
Maria's life so
much
as
on her cumulative
response
to
them.
The real action of the novel
takes
place in the mind and
heart
of
Maria
as she
s
forced to deal with her experiences. Viewed
from
a medical
point
of
view,
she
might well be classified as a
near schizoid personality whose experiences
have
precipitated
a severe
emotional
crisis result ing in the loss
of an
integrated
personality. In a
more profound
sense, however, her sickness
s
neither
emotional nor
psychological; it
s
ontological.
She s
suffering not from a nervous breakdown, but from the
breakdown
of a world
around
her which threatens
to
engulf
her whole being with nothingness.
Although
narrated
iq third person for the most part, the
novel begins with Maria's first person
account of
her situation,
written, she tells us, at
the
urging of
the doctor
who
s
treating
her. Her statement s lucid, perceptive, and sensitive. t reyeals
Maria's response
to
her personal encounter with nothingness,
which the rest of the novel details.
Maria
says she answers
Nothing
applies
to the battery of
psychological tests
put
before her,
indicating
neither
evasion
nor unwillingness to
65
Copyright (c) 2002 ProQuest Information and Learning Company
Copyright (c) Heldref Publications
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cooperate and nothing less than the naked truth.
What
does
apply, they ask later, as if the word 'nothing' were ambiguous,
open to interpretation, a questionable fragment of an
Icelandic rune.
1
With
an
arrogance characteristic
of
the
initiated, Maria displays impatience at the obtuseness of
others because she has been
out
there where nothing is (212),
as Z puts it. Unlike him, Maria lives on; her encounter with
nothingness does not completely defeat her but forces her into
a new awareness. Her confinement in the sanitarium
is
not to
be viewed as a solipsistic retreat but as a temporary withdrawal
from the world in preparation for a
future
re-emergence,
wounded but wiser, with a wisdom born of pain.
In this way, Play It s It Lays
is
closer in spirit and theme
to the works
of
Camus
and Sartre than
to
those
of
Nathanael
West. In The Myth o Sisyphus for example, Camus writes:
In certain situations, replying nothing when asked what one is thinking
about may be pretense in a man.
Those
who
are
loved
are
well a ware of this.
But if
that
reply is sincere, if it symbolizes
that odd state of
soul in which the
void becomes eloquent, in which the chain of daily gestures
is
broken,
in
which the heart vainly seeks the link that will connect it again, then
it is
as
it
were the first sign of absurdity.
2
Play It
s
It Lays testifies on every page to this eloquence
of
the void as Didion relentlessly explores the
emotional
shock
of
the encounter
with
absurdity. The refrain Maria said
nothing
is
repeated with increasing persistence throughout
the novel until it takes
on
the characteristics
of
a ritual chant.
In its silence, the statement itself becomes eloquent,
illuminating the almost palpable nature of Maria's dread. That
Maria cannot articulate her experience
to
others, can say
nothing, only makes more poignant and intense her
experience.
o
her husband, her friends, her doctor,
she
appears vague, evasive, withdrawn; for herself, she sees no
ambiguity whatever. She has heard the silence of the void, has
encountered that absurdity Camus describes, and has learned
the truth
of
Beckett's observation that there is nothing more
real than nothing.
For
the title to her collection
of
essays, Slouching
Towards Bethlehem
Joan
Didion chose the final line of Yeats'
The Second Coming. Her overriding concern
in
those essays
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and in her two published novels-the first was Run River
(1963)-is with the broken center, with things falling apart,
with anarchy loosed upon the world. However,
.Yhere
the
emphasis in the essays is primarily
on
the sociological impact
of
such fragmentation (the title essay, for example, deals with
hippie life styles in
San
Francisco), Play t s t Lays focuses
on a highly personal
and
private version of the broken center.
Things
are
falling apart in Maria's world,
the
chain of daily
gestures has been irrevocably broken. What results is the main
concern
of
the novel, Maria's encounter with absurdity and
nothingness.
Maria's painful
journey
towards perception begins with a
nagging awareness of dread hovering over her. At the
beginning
of
the novel, her perception has no real focus, no
sharp
delineation
of
its exact nature. Her ultimate fate is
suggested early by a description of a documentary movie
of
her
life as a model in New York, filmed by her husband. In the final
scene of the movie, Maria's face is shown in negative image,
foreshadowing the nothingness
that
will soon be her life.
To
ward off the increasing anxiety, Maria develops a compulsion
to drive the freeways, to seek order and meaning to
counteract
her growing sense of disorder.
I n
the hypnotic flow of the
freeways, she
is
able, temporarily
at
least, to ignore the outside
world.
At
night the sense
of
dread
inevitably returns, but each
morning brings the escape
of
the
automobile
once again. Only
on the freeways is she able to feel the orderly rhythm
of
life that
she finds nowhere else. The automobile becomes an
appropriate symbol
of
her escape: self-contained and womb-
like. Driving is both .free and tightly ordered; she can flow
along aimlessly but only in the direction the road dictates.
Ironically,
the
only source of the rhythm of life is mechanical;
nature, the normal source
of
natural rhythms, is depicted as
polluted, sterile, and lifeless. Maria's compulsion causes her to
drive over seven
thousan9
miles in
one month.
The freeway
runs
out
in a scrap metal yard in
San
Pedro, and Maria soon
discovers that driving is ineffective protection agairrst the
unspeakable peril she senses
about
her.
We discover the particular causes of Maria's anxiety only
gradually: her marriage is breaking up; her daughter is
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institutionalized while
doctors
try
to
figure out what went
wrong ; she
is
haunted more and more by the
sudden
violence
of her mother's death in an
automobile
accident
in
the Nevada
desert
some
years earlier.
Not
only the facts distress her:
uneasiness has arisen because she has asked why (her name
should probably be taken symbolically; Wyeth: Why is).
Asking questions sometimes
prompts
answers that the
questioner
is
not prepared to handle. As Camus writes, one
day
the arises
and
everything begins in
that
weariness
tinged with
amazeness.
3
That weariness, which Camus says
comes at the end of a mechanical life,
is
the beginning of the
impulse of consciousness. In seeking answers to fundamental
questions about her life, for
an
explanation for the
unaccountable suffering
of
her child, for a logical reason for
her mother's sudden death, Maria gains a new awareness. She
discovers no answer,
that nothing is the
answer to all these
questions. She
is
forced
to
confront irrationality and silence.
The reader
soon
recognizes
that
her opening words in the
novel,
What
makes Iago evil? some people ask. I never ask
(3),
are not
an
evasion; instead, they clearly indicate her
profound awareness
that
there
is
no answer.
To
explain lago's
evil
is
impossible
and
futile, since mere explanation
cannot
remove it.
To
look for Maria confesses, is beside
the
point
(3).
Maria's knowledge of evil
is
symbolized by
the
frequent
appearance
in her dreams of the rattlesnake. As a girl, her
father had warned her against
turning
over rocks for fear she
might reveal a snake.
She
was unable
to
follow
the
advice, for
the
rattlesnake
is
revealed all too clearly in the harsh light of
her reason. Once released, it never crawls back under the rock.
A
man
is
always prey to his
truths,
said Camus. Once he has
admitted
them, he
cannot
free himself from them. One has to
pay something. A
man
who has become conscious of the
absurd
is
forever bound to
it
4
Maria
can have no turning
back, no retreat to
the comforts
of innocence or ignorance; the
rattlesnake pursues her everywhere, in her dreams,
on
the
highways, even in the coiled shape
of
her food.
What distinguishes Maria's experience
from that
of most
heroes of existential novels
is that
hers
is
uniquely feminine,
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not
that Didion
has written a blatantly feminist tract, nor
that
Maria's
encounter
with nothingness
is
ultimately qualitatively
different from a man's. However,
one
must understand her
experiences as a
woman
to appreciate fully
the nature
of
her
crisis. When
Carter
calls Maria to ascertain
that
she has made
definite
arrangements
for the abortion, he is totally insensitive
to what she feels emotionally as a
woman about to
abort her
child:
Sometime
in the night she had moved into a realm
of
miseries peculiar to women,
and
she had
nothing
to say to
Carter (62). Just
as Ellison's hero is shaped by the particular
nature of
his experiences as a black
man
in America, Maria is
shaped by experiences uniquely feminine.
Just
as
the
Invisible
Man could say, Who knows but that, on the lower
frequencies, I speak
for
you, s
Maria
can
speak for many who
are
neither women,
nor
actresses,
nor
residents of Hollywood.
y having a
woman
protagonist, Didion adds a
heightened sensitivity
and emotional
impact
to the encounter
with nothingness.
Maria's
role as mother, for example, causes
her
to
feel so deeply
not
only about Kate, but also
about
all the
suffering innocents in the world.
Such
inescapable realities as
the
four-year-olds in the
abandoned
refrigerator, the tea
party
with Purex,
the
infant in the driveway, rattlesnake in the
playpen (99) convince her intuitively of
the unspeakable
peril in
the
everyday.
That
maternal
sensitivity
is
further
emphasized when Maria breaks down into uncontrolled sobs
on the
day
the
aborted
baby would have been born; although
she
had
deliberately avoided keeping track of the days, she
must have been
counting
them unawares, must have been
keeping a relentless
count
somewhere ( 41).
Maria
is not
afforded the
luxury
of deciding whether
or
not to
confront
absurdity; it
is thrust upon
her as a result of
the nature of
her
situation. Once begun, the confrontation moves inexorably
toward a crisis. In no way does
an
intellectual awareness of
absurdity, general disorder,
and
cruelty debilitate her; her
feminine
(and
maternal) sensitivity
to
things such as the
unreasonable suffering of children
and the
inexplicable
ailment afflicting her
daughter
leads her to see
the
dead still
center of
the
world,
the
quintessential intersection
of
nothing
(66).
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Maria's visceral awareness is complicated and intensified
by her abortion. Although repelled by the idea, she agrees to
have the operation
to
satisfy Carter, who threatens to take
Kate away if she refuses.
Her
guilt, her sense of complicity in
that suffering of the innocents which she detests, only serves
to strengthen her growing awareness of the absurdity. Her
guilt, both moral and psychological in origin,
is
expressed in a
dream
in whi< :h she acts as
an
attendant at a gas
chamber
where children file by on their way to execution. Her job
is to
whisper words of comfort to the reluctant children because
this was a
humane
operation ( 126). Her
abortion
was to be a
humane operation too, but she could not escape persistent
thoughts
of the
fetus in the garbage.
Her
inability to deal with
guilt associated with
the
abortion
is
perhaps
the strongest
single factor in her
emotional
collapse, the culmination
of
her
deepening awareness of the irrationality and. absurdity
of
life .
. Maria
may well be compared with Esther Greenwood, the
heroine of Sylvia Plath's
The ell Jar (1963)-published
here
in
1971
. Both characters undergo a severe emotional
crisis as a result of specifically feminine problems
(for
Maria an abortion, for Esther an attempted rape) and both are
hospitalized as a result. Plath is much
more
concerned with the
specific details
of
Esther's crisis
and,
in fact,
wrote
the
book
as
therapy relating to her own psychological problems. Didion,
however, is purposely vague about the exact details of Maria's
breakdown
because
she is more
interested in
the
metaphysical
rather than
the psychological implications of her illness.
Both Maria and Esther suffer from what existential
psychologist R. D. Laing calls ontological insecurity, a
condition
in which
the
individual lacks a firm sense of his own
identity in a world which seems to be threatening him at all
times.6 Laing suggests
that
such insecurity can lead to insanity
which,
from the point
of
view
of
the individual involved, can
be seen as a perfectly rational adjustment
to
an insane world.
Esther exemplifies
an
extreme form of ontological insecurity
and madness; her emotional problems drive her to several
suicide
attempts and
eventually to a complete breakdown.
While: Maria exhibits some of the recognizable symptoms of
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schizophrenic behavior, Didion apparently does not want the
reader to dismiss her simply as mentally or emotionally
disturbed. Her sickness
s
metaphysical, a manifestation
of
her
difficulty in adjusting to her newly discovered consciousness
of
absurdity.
As Maria's awareness of absurdity deepens, she finds
herself in a desperate search for meaning, for escape, or for
values of some kind. She soon discovers she can find no
relationship between cause and effect, no meaningful
explanation for the way things are, for such things as suffering,
random violence, and death. Although she throws the Ching
in the sanitarium, she does it only to pass the she never
bothers to read the coins because she now knows
that
nothing
can be predjcted, everything
is
random. Her various attempts
to escape her perceptions also fail. Driving the freeways did
not work. Love as a solution
is
futile, whether sought for in her
husband, who loves himself, in BZ, who
is
homosexual, in
casual lovers, who invariably treat her as
an
object, or in her
daughter, who is emotionally incapable
of
returning her love.
She gets no pleasure from
any of
her affairs and is unable to
achieve satisfaction even at the purely physical level.
Religion, a
traditional
source
of
consolation in time of
stress, is represented in the landscape of the novel by the giant
red T
of
the
Thriftimart, under
which
the attendant
meets
Maria to take her to the place for her abortion:
For
miles
before she reached the Thriftimart she could see the big red T,
a forty-foot
cutout
letter which seemed peculiarly illuminated
against the harsh unclouded light of the afternoon sky (76).
The attendant, who unfeelingly tells Maria how nice the
neighborhood they are driving through is for raising children,
ironically describes himself as
a
regular missionary (84).
When she is lonely, Maria turns to Dial-a-Prayer, only to fill
the silence with an available voice.
She
becomes fascinated
with
the
story
of
the
man
who went
out
walking in the desert to
find God but finds a rattlesnake that kills him. Religion for
Maria leads to the same dead ends the freeway did.
Most desperate
of
all
is
her search for the past. When
memories
of
the immediate past become unbeLtrable, Maria
turns to thoughts
of
her childhood
and
seeks to discover the
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roots which can give her support. Her parents are dead,
and
Silver Wells, her
homr.
town, no longer exists, replaced by a
missile range. She even goes so far as to attempt to return to
her mother's womb through hypnosis, but to no avail. The
only living link with her
past
is
Benny Austin,
an
empty
failure
pumped full
of
unrealized dreams,
but
his memories usually
differ from Maria's. Significantly, Maria's search takes her to
the barren deserts of Nevada, a state whose name suggests
nada itself. In the end, she is forced to admit
that
the past no
longer exists; she rejects as it was and learns instead to play
it
as it lays.
The only consistent value Maria retains
throughout
the
novel
is
Kate, who represents a kind of talisman against peril;
whenever things get bad, she
dreams
of Kate. On
one
occasion,
she goes to Kate's bed, clutches her pillow to her and fights off
a wave
of
the dread (23). When she has been stripped
of
everything-her optimism, her
humor,
her past, her husband,
her illusions, even her emotional stability-she still has Kate:
Why bother, you might ask. I bother for Kate (4). More than
simply a mother's stubborn instinct, her concern for Kate is a
positive gesture, a reaching
out of
love, a celebration of value
in a meaningless world.
Play t s t Lays is not a nihilistic novel. Although Maria
encounters nothingness, she survives:
Now that
I have the
answer, my plans for the future
are
these: (I) get Kate, (2) live
with Kate alone, (3) do some canning.
Damson
plums, apricot
preserves. Sweet India relish
and
pickled peaches. Apple
chutney.
Summer
squash succotash (210). Not much of a
future, since Kate may not ever be able
to
live with
Maria
outside the institution. But this future
and
its resolution,
however precarious, are meant to be taken seriously. In
another context, Didion has written: I
know
something
about
dread myself, and appreciate the elaborate systems with which
some
people
manage
to
fill
the
void,
appreciate
all
the
opiates
of
the people,
whether
they
are
as accessible as alcohol and
heroin and promiscuity
or
as
hard
to come by as faith in God
or History.
7
Maria's system for salvation lies somewhere
between the extremes of heroin and history. Nevertheless, she
has found an answer to nothingness
and
a reason for
continuing to play
the
game. The novel ends with Maria
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playing solitaire
and
looking at
the
hummingbird, whose
frenetic wing activity allows it to appear motionless, at rest in
the center. After
the
swirling experiences of the previous
months, Maria
has achieved a
similar
stasis,
an inner
peace
which enables her to
confront
existence
and prepare
for the
future
once more.
Maria's encounter
with nothingness
is contrasted
with
BZ s, whose confrontation with the void
destroys
him. In
the
most
intensely moving scene in
the
novel, BZ, having reached
the end
of his
endurance,
commits suicide by taking an
overdose of
pills while
Maria
holds his
hand.
Unable
and
perhaps unwilling to
stop
him,
Maria
nonetheless comforts
him
maternally as
she
comforted the
doomed
children in her
dream.
BZ s suicide
is shocking but not
unexpected, for he has
lost his resilience
and
desire
to
continue.
Stripped of
a name,
reduced almost to a
cipher,
BZ is never even physically
described in the novel; he exists
only
as a voice, a presence, a
shadow. He has gone all
the
way to Z, to the end where
there
is
nothing
more, and he can find no
reason
to live
one moment
longer. BZ and Maria
provide
alternate answers to the
question raised by Camus in
the
opening words
of
he Myth
qf
Sisyphus: There is
but
one truly
serious philosophical
problem, and that is
suicide.
Judging
whether
life
is or is
not
worth
living amounts to
answering the fundamental question
of
BZ tries
to
convince
Maria that nothing
matters, that
playing
the
game has
no point any
more. His
name also suggests a parallel with Beelzebub, a Satanic
tempter
who seeks to
corrupt
Eve from her innocence.
Maria
loses her innocence but
ultimately
refuses BZ s offered apple,
the Seconal
pills which kill him. Through Maria,
Didion
endorses
Camus' conclusion that
living
is
better
than
dying,
even if one
must
live with nothingness. Why? VVhy
not,
Maria
says, in
the
final words
of the
novel (214).
Humanity is
won by continuing to play in the face
of
defeat, even if
the
odds
against the
player
are
overwhelming.
Maria understands
that
although
life
may have no meaning,
it
is
still
worth
living .
If
Maria's
last
name
suggests
her
questioning of
existence,
her first-
(pronounced,
she tells us, Mar-EYE-ah) suggests an
· , .
enduring
self-identity.
Despite
the
numerous
threats to her
> _fundamental existence,
her
sense
of I
endures. At
one
point
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in the novel, she confronts non-being and finds herself
threatened with personal annihilation: By the end of a week
she was thinking constantly about where her body stopped and
the air began,
about
the exact
point
in space and time
that
was
the difference between Maria
and
other (I 70). She senses the
same fundamental
threat
to her existence that Roquentin does
in Sartre's ausea when he discovers his contingency and his
nothingness in the world of things. (Maria's own personal
version
of
nausea
is
graphically illustrated by her constant
vomiting; her physfcal revulsion
at
the way things
are
should
be seen as more than a simple case of nerves or a chronically
weak stomach). Although Maria loses selves- Maria as
actress, Maria as Carter Lang's wife, Maria s Francine and
Harry
Wyeth's
daughter-she
never loses her real self,
that
enduring sense of I, the source of all the false selves, whose
continued existence ultimately prevents a. feeling of total
annihilation
. . Maria's encounter with nothingness is set in a world
which Didion pictures in vivid images as bleak, sterile, and
hostile-where houses fall into canyons, where men seeking
God are
killed by rattlesnakes, where towns
are
replaced by
missile ranges.
It is
a
random
world
of
chance, suggested
in
the
novel by recurring references to gambling (including the title).
It
is
a nightmarish burning world, where fire and destruction
always threaten:
In
the aftermath
of
the wind the air was dry,
burning, so clear that she could see the ploughed furrows of
firebreaks on distant mountains.
Not
even the highest palms
moved.
The and
clarity
of
the air seemed to
rob
everything
of
its pe:rspective, seemed to alter all perception
of
depth,
and
Maria drove as carefully as if she were
reconnoitering an atmosphere without gravity (76). It
is
a
world devoid of
natural
beauty and comfort: She drove to the
beach, but there was oil scum on the sand and a red tide in the
flaccid
surf and mounds
of
kelp
at
the waterline.
The
kelp
hummed with flies.
The
water lapped warm, forceless (65). It
is
a world inhabited by the dead
and
the
dying:
A woman in a
nurse's uniform wheeled a bundled neuter figure silently past
ahe hedges of dead camellias ( 130).
As Maria's awareness
of
nothingness deepens, the action
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of
the novel moves from Hollywood to the desert, to a town
on
a
dry
river bed between Death Valley and the Nevada line
( 187)
where Carter is filming. Here in the desert
BZ
discovers
absolute zero
and
kills himself; here Maria has her
breakdown. Didion describes the town: ''By late day the
thermometer outside the motel office would register between
120° and 130°. The old people put aluminum foil in their
trailer windows to reflect the heat. There were two trees in the
town, two cottonwoods in the
dry
river bed, but one
of
them
was dead (
188).
But all is neither desolate
nor
hopeless. One tree is dead
(BZ), but one is still alive, even in the inhospitable desert. The
ability to survive is personified by the waitress
at
the local
diner who invites
Maria to
her trailer, set
on
a concrete
foundation, surrounded by a split-rail fence and a hundred
miles of drifting sand. She comforts Maria, who is crying, by
telling her that since she made her decision in '61 at a meeting
in Barstow (199), she has not shed a tear. She has found a
reason to go on.
Throughout
her conversation with Maria, she
continues to sweep the sand:
The
woman picked up a broom
and began sweeping the sand into small piles, then edging the
piles back
to
the fence. New sand blew in as she swept ( 199).
An endless, frustrating,
almost
ridiculous gesture, sweeping
back the constantly blowing sand; no more hopeless and
endless than Sisyphus's eternal task of pushing the rock to the
top of the hill. Both activities embody a stubborn refusal to
submit to the way things are, to admit defeat by surrendering
to meaninglessness. Even ifshe cannot keep the sand away, the
woman refuses to
stop
trying; even if Maria cannot have Kate,
at
least not now, she refuses to stop planning.
The
ending
of
the novel is not optimistic-nor is it nihilistic. For, as Camus
wrote
about
Sisyphus,
The
struggle itself
toward
the heights
is enough to
ill
a man's heart. One must imagine Sisyphus
happy.
9
Similarly,
one
must imagine
Maria
happy.
Didion's narrative technique recalls Eliot's line from
The
Waste Land
A heap of broken images, images
of
alienation
and desolation, fragments
of
banal conversations, the
minutiae
of
everyday life joined in a mosaic
of
nothingness.
Instead
of
a flowing narrative, a broken and disordered
pattern is brought
about
by frequentjuxtaposition
of
past and
7
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