literacy booklet a4

*Bring design elements of this booklet and Literacy/Numeracy strategy posters

together to make a ‘family’ of Literacy/Numeracy publications.

Literacy involves the following skill areas; reading, writing, speaking, listening and vocabulary.

All these areas will be covered in this booklet.

1. Vocabulary

Root Words

Glossary of Key Terms

Misspelt Words

Spelling Strategies

2. Reading

Scanning

Skimming

Reading for Understanding

Proofreading

Literacy Skills

Student

Handbook Subject:

____________________

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Contents

1. Vocabulary and spelling

Key words and definitions for your subject

Root Words

Misspelt words

Spelling strategies

2. Reading

Reading Skills

Proofreading

Recommended reads

3. Writing

Punctuation

Sentences

Paragraphs

Connectives

Homophones

Note Making

Essay Writing

4. Speaking & Listening

Active Listening

Presentations

Discussions

Asking Questions

5. Appendices

Appendices

Deeper Questioning Grid

Skills Evaluation

Solo Taxonomy

Challenge Chart

Literacy Mat

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Vocabulary and Spelling Key words and definitions for your subject

Root Words

Misspelt words

Spelling strategies

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Subject Key Terms

These are important terms that you will need to know for this course.

Subject Specific Key

Terms Definition/meaning

Example: Osmosis The diffusion of a solvent through a semipermeable membrane

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Textbooks for your subject contain glossaries of key words; these are lists already available to

you that you could possible use to identify key words for your course. Ask your teacher or staff

in the LRC to point you in the right direction.

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Root Words and Meaning

Knowing where words and part of words come from and knowing their original meaning can help

you to understand the full meaning of a word that you may use in this course:

General Root

Words

Meaning Subject Specific

Root Words

Meaning

anti (Gk)

aqu (L)

bath (Gk)

bio (Gk)

calc (L)

centr (Gk)

crypto (Gk)

crystallum (L)

dexteritas (L)

e (L)

epi (Gk)

equi (L)

geo (Gk)

graph (Gk)

hydro (Gk)

ignis (L)

iso (Gk)

ite (Gk)

lite (Gk)

meta (Gk)

morphe (Gk)

Pluto (Gk)

pod (Gk)

port (L)

rupt (L)

sed (L)

sinister (L)

solidus (Gk)

sphere (Gk)

sub (L)

sym (Gk)

therme (Gk)

trans (L)

zoo (Gk)

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Misspelt words

Sound-alike words

These are words that are easy to confuse. Make sure you know what they mean and can use

them correctly:

1. Accept/except

2. Are/our

3. Course/coarse

4. Effect/affect

5. Lightning/lightening

6. Loose/lose

7. Off/of

8. Passed/past

9. Practice/practise

10. Principal/principle

11. Their/there/they’re

12. To/too/two

13. Weather/whether

14. Were/where/we’re

Commonly misspelt words by students studying this course

These are words which students who study this course commonly misspell. Make sure you know

how to spell each correctly (see spelling stratagies):

Example: Abundant

11.

1.

12.

2.

13.

3.

14.

4.

15.

5.

16.

6.

17.

7.

18.

8.

19.

9.

20.

10.

21.

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Spelling Strategies

These are ways to help you learn to spell words throughout your time on this course and also for

when you come to revise:

1. Use a good dictionary or spelling-

checker if using a computer. The LRC will

have copies of dictionaries and

thesauruses as well as other reference

material.

2. Carry a pocket dictionary, electronic

dictionary or dictionary app on your

smartphone

3. In an exam if you are unsure of a

spelling, find another word or structure

the sentence in a different way to get

round the problem

4. Make up mnemonics to help remember

words

5. Make sure you understand why words

are spelt the way they are

6. Rote learn & memorise difficult spellings

(look, cover, write, check)

7. Look at words inside words

8. Sound out a word very slowly,

emphasising each syllable, or sound

element, to remind yourself of how to

spell it

9. Work out how a word is formed when a

prefix is added (‘dis’, ‘mis’ or ‘un’)

10. Commit a catchy rule to memory (‘i

before e except after c when the sound

is ee’

11. Compile your own spelling list and keep

this on your desk or on your notice-board

12. Generate an interest in words

13. Learn root words, prefixes and suffixes

14. Record new words on index cards, one

word per card, with the meaning of that

word on the back

15. Use Study Support resources to help with

spelling, such as the Study Support

Moodle Page.

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Reading about spelling

Want more information about spelling? Still need more guidance or still confused about commas,

colons and semi-colons?

Speak to your teacher or staff in the LRC; they may be able to recommend good resources

that will help you.

See the Study Support Moodle page for easy worksheets and additional resources to help

you understand and practice your punctuation and grammar.

http://bit.ly/1fVgamQ

Alternatively, see below for some general recommended reads to help you improve your spelling

or your vocabulary:

Collins Easy Learning: Grammar & Punctuation

By Stella Cottrell (2008)

An extremely good and simple to follow guide to help with many aspects

of studying, including revision, researching, preparing for exams, reading

skills, etc.

Available in the LRC

Class code: 423

Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach

to Punctuation

By Lynne Truss (2009)

Anxious about the apostrophe? Confused by the comma? Stumped by the

semicolon? Join Lynne Truss on a hilarious tour through the rules of

punctuation that is sure to sort the dashes from the hyphens.


Class code: 421.1


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Reading Reading Skills

Proofreading

Recommended reads

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Reading Skills

Scanning and skimming are essential skills to acquire especially when studying for exams,

answering questions or writing essays. With so many books, articles and web pages available, how

do find the most relevant information you need?

Scan

Skim

Read

Review

1. Active reading.

You should now have a strong sense of what you are about to read. This not only means that you

will cover the ground much faster: it also means that the various points and ideas will register

much more definitely. Furthermore, there is an important by-product: you will enjoy the “full read”

much more. Your confidence will be higher because you know what the stuff is about, and you

will also find it pleasant to have a dialogue with the text rather than have to plough submissively

through it.

Scanning

Scan the textbook, using the contents page or index for the section or topic area you need to study.

Skimming

Skim read the section or topic area of the book using the following ideas.

Read the headings, subheadings and any chapter titles.

Read the introduction, the conclusion, and any interim summaries there may be.

Read and look at any graphs, illustrations, diagrams and tables.

This will take five minutes at most, and provide an immediate sense of the overall shape and focus of the

material to be read. The text is no longer alien to you. Having spent five minutes doing this you are now

ready to dig deeper.

Read the first and last sentences of each paragraph.

You can get a rough idea of what a piece is about, at considerable speed, by skimming quickly through

the first and last sentences or so of every paragraph. You can move from paragraph to paragraph at

high speed, while your brain estimates the likely nature of what you are missing out. Obviously at this

stage in your reading, you are only getting to know the material, not mastering it.

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Read

At this stage you are reading to learn, and in order to learn you need to follow exactly what the text is

saying. So now you should slow right down, taking it bit by bit and read in a “normal” A to Z fashion.

However, to really make sense of what you are reading, you need to read actively.

Underline or highlight the key points and terms.

One method that can help is to underline or highlight important words. If you make too many markings,

you defeat the purpose; nothing stands out. The trick is to underline or highlight sparingly. Aim to pick out

key words, not whole sentences; don’t worry about capturing everything. You can always go back to the

textbook again.

Write the topic area each paragraph covers in the margin of your textbook.

When you go back to a marked text to write up your notes into a neat format, you can quickly tune in to

those earlier thoughts – especially if you have written comments in the margin.

Sometimes as you read you will get stuck. When this happens, don’t give up or sit staring at the page; find

a way to tackle the problem.

Look up unfamiliar words in a dictionary.

Re-read a sentence a number of times, breaking it down into smaller chunks.

Draw a sketch diagram or concept map to work out what the text is trying to explain.

Visualise images in your head.

Look for examples in the text that help illustrate the meaning.

Review & questioning.

This stage is a kind of “mopping-up operation”. Now you should read it through again (A-Z style), actively

looking for anything you’ve missed or remain unsure about. Questioning what you read is another way to

keep your mind active while you are reading. You need to ask questions such as;

What is this telling me?

How does it fit with what I already know?

Could I now explain it to somebody else?

Can I now summarise the text in my own words?

Reading is a core study skill. The purpose of it is to enable you to learn. But learning is not a passive

process; you don’t just let the words wash over you. You have to make sense of them as you read and

then use them to think. Reading requires the following strategies to be effective:

Drawing upon prior knowledge.

Understanding the purpose of the text.

Ability to decode words.

Continually clarifying & checking understanding.

Visualising images in your head.

Making predictions.

Ability to ask questions.

Ability to summarise the text.

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Proofreading

Proofreading is vital in ensuring that you do not have any mistakes in your work. It is something that

always needs to be done to make sure our work makes sense and actually communicates what

we are trying to say. Proofreading after an exam may well be quick and cursory, but proofreading

after completing an assignment or essay will be more time consuming and thorough.

Try reading your text backwards from the last word to the first. Your brain won’t be tempted to self-

correct without consciously making you aware of any error.

Use this checklist to help you proofread your work:

Have I checked?

( or ) Have I used capital letters, full stops & commas correctly?

Have I used apostrophes correctly? Have I written in sentences (subject/verb/object)?

Do my sentences make sense and read well?

Does each sentence lead on from the one before?

Have I written in clear paragraphs?

Does each paragraph cover one topic?

Does each paragraph have a topic sentence?

Have I explained the topic sentence and given examples?

Have I used connectives to improve the flow of my writing?

Have I used the correct homophone?

Have I checked the spelling?

Are my facts correct?

Have I answered the question?

Has somebody else proofread my work?

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Recommended Reads for the course

Recommended reading list for the course

Extra reading is good for you! Not only for improved understanding of a wide range of issues but

also to put into your UCAS application and give you something to talk about in any interview you

might subsequently have.

The LRC can help with choice of books available, and staff can help you to search for books

relating to your subject.

Example: The Study Skills Handbook




skills, etc.

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Reading about reading

Are you still not sure about reading techniques? Want to improve your reading and analytical

skills?

Speak to your teacher or staff in the LRC, they may be able to recommend good resources

that will help you.




Alternatively, see below for some general recommended reads to help you improve your reading

skills:

The Study Skills Handbook




skills, etc.


Class code: 378.17

Advanced Study Skills: A Student’s Survival Guide

By Christine Ostler and Frances Ward (2009)

A very simple resource to read and follow, this book gives some very easy

techniques to improve reading and general study skills.


Class code: 378.17


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Writing Punctuation

Sentences

Paragraphs

Connectives

Homophones

Note Making

Essay Writing

Referencing

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Punctuation

Punctuation is a collection of marks and signs which break words up into groups and give other

helpful clues and information about their meaning. The purpose of punctuation marks is to make it

easier for the reader to understand the exact meaning of written words.

Capital letters start a new sentence and are used for all proper nouns (e.g. days, places, months,

names of people, names of buildings, organisations, institutions, periods in history, book titles, play

titles, song titles). However, when they are used as adjectives no capital letters are needed.

Full stops are punctuation marks to show a strong pause. They are used at the end of a full

sentence, except when the sentence is an exclamation or a question. Full stops are also used in

some abbreviations, for example e.g.

Commas are used to mark a brief pause, much shorter than a pause made by a full stop. It can

be used to separate two words, or groups of words, in a sentence, in order to make the meaning

clear. For example:

Lists - when there is a list of words in a sentence, each word in the list is separated from the

next by a comma.

Dates – commas are used in dates to separate the year, the day, month or season.

Complex sentences – two or more simple sentences joined together by conjunctions (but,

or, nor, either, though, after, neither) are separated by a comma before the conjunction.

Subordinate clause – a subordinate clause (a less important part of the sentence which

does not make sense on its own) is often separated from the main part of the sentence by

a comma, especially if it comes before the main clause.

Inessential words & phrases – commas are used to separate words or phrases in a

sentence. The words enclosed by the commas could be left out without changing the

general sense of a sentence.

The comma splice is one of the most frequent mistakes made when using a comma. The comma

splice occurs when a comma is used to connect two independent clauses.

In this example the two clauses make sense on their own. Connecting them with a comma is

incorrect.

Jim usually gets on with everybody, he is an understanding person.

If you have two independent clauses that need to be separated, you have several choices:

You can make them into two sentences using a full stop. This is probably the easiest solution but

may not be the best in terms of style or developing your argument.

Jim usually gets on with everybody. He is an understanding person.

You can use a semi-colon. Semi-colons should not be overused but can be very powerful when

used in the correct situations. In our example, using a semi-colon suggests a link between the two

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clauses without stating that link specifically. This can be a powerful tool in developing a

convincing argument.

Jim usually gets on with everybody; he is an understanding person.

You can introduce a conjunction to connect the sentences. By doing this, you make the

connection between the two more explicit.

Jim usually gets on with everybody, as he is an understanding person.

Still having difficulty with punctuation?


that will help you.




Alternatively, see below for some general recommended reads to help you improve your

punctuation:

Collins Easy Learning: Grammar & Punctuation

(2009)

With clear, concise explanations on everything from adverbs to word order,

and from apostrophes to semicolons, this book is indispensable for

understanding correct usage.


Class code: 423

Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach

to Punctuation


Anxious about the apostrophe? Confused by the comma? Stumped by the

semicolon? Join Lynne Truss on a hilarious tour through the rules of

punctuation that is sure to sort the dashes from the hyphens.


Class code: 378.17


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Sentences The essential skill in writing is the ability to generate a “correct” sentence, followed by another

“correct” sentence, and so on. By “correct” here I mean a sentence that follows the conventions

of Standard English in its punctuation, spelling and grammar. In order for any sentence to

communicate effectively, it must follow some basic rules.

This is, however, only true of written sentences. Perhaps the most important thing to realise about

using language is that speaking and writing are very different activities with different conventions

that we need to keep separate. In speech we rattle along, communicating in a highly effective

but usually less precise and less formal manner than in writing.

In formal writing, every sentence has to be grammatically cohesive in order to be clear and

comprehensible; it has to hang together as a unit. In this section I concentrate on the task of

achieving this level of basic correctness. My main advice is this: keep it simple and you will not go

wrong. It is a far better idea to produce writing that is clear and correct than something that is

ambitious but faulty. Your real target, however, is to produce work that is straightforward and

methodical in structure yet complex in terms of the ideas expressed; if you can write correct

sentences you will be able to achieve this goal.

Simple sentences

A sentence is a grammatically complete unit; a group of words that makes sense. These are

simple sentences, and the technical term for them is also “simple sentences”. They consist of a

subject, a verb, and an object.

I like geology.

In this example, I is the subject, like is the verb, and geology is the object. Usually the subject

comes first in the sentence: it is what the sentence is about. Then follows the verb, which “agrees”

with the subject, the two going together: we write I like but he likes. The verb must match the

subject. The object, if there is one in the sentence, usually follows the verb. Another correct, simple

sentence would be:

My grandfather collects rocks.

Every sentence needs at least a subject and a finite verb: for example, David coughed. “Finite”

means that the verb shows when something was done, that it has a tense. So, David coughs is the

present tense; David coughed is the past tense. Most people would know that if we wrote David

coughing that something was wrong with the sentence, that we would need to insert another

verb part such as is or was before coughing. And most people would realise that we cannot write

David to cough and make sense. For sentences to work, they have to have the appropriate verb

form, and this is usually the present or the past tense, or a combination of words using additional

verbs such as will, shall, could, is.

The commonest structure of simple sentences is, then, subject/verb/object. Can you see from

these examples how straightforward the logic of a sentence is? You have a subject, and then you

go on to offer a little more information about the subject through the verb and the rest of the

sentence. The basic elements of a sentence (subject, verb and object) are known as a main

clause, and as a unit of words they make sense grammatically.

Whenever you write you should be making a quick mental check that your sentences have a

subject, a verb and, usually, an object. Making such a check should become instinctive, just as

we instinctively check various things when driving. There are a lot of terms used to describe and

analyse the structure of sentences, but the only ones you really need to know are subject, finite

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verb and object. For all other practical purposes you can label everything else “other sentence

elements”.

Compound sentences

Writing would, of course, be easy if it consisted exclusively of the generation simple sentences. But

it would become boring and repetitive, and impose limits on what we could say and what ideas

we could express. It is also the case that a sequence of simple sentences is difficult for the reader

to follow since there seem to be no connections between points. Compound sentences are just

simple sentences joined together by a connecting word.

I like geology and my grandfather collects rocks.

The connecting word in a compound sentence is likely to be either “and”, “but” or “or”, and is

known as a conjunction. The term main clause is a way of describing the basic elements of

subject, verb and object in a sentence. So, in a compound sentence you get two main clauses,

where each has a subject and a verb. They are main clauses because each of them could stand

on its own as a sentence and make sense. Although the compound sentence is a very

straightforward structure, it can be used to produce a strong impact.

Complex Sentences

Just as a simple sentence becomes jerky and monotonous, it is almost equally monotonous to

have too many main clauses that depend upon a linking “and”. By adding a comma after the

first two linked sentences a subordinate or dependent clause is created. As its name suggests, this

is a clause that depends on the main clause and cannot stand on its own as a sentence. So, a

complex sentence is a technical term meaning sentences made up of one independent main

clause and one or more dependent (or subordinate) clauses. Most subordinate clauses are

introduced by words such as “although”, “because”, “if”, “when”, “until”, “unless” and “whereas”.

The purpose of subordinate clauses is to add something extra to the main statement contained in

the main clause or clauses. Complex sentences are so called because their structure is more

complex than that of simple sentences, not because they contain more complex ideas.

Nevertheless, because complex sentences display a more sophisticated sentence structure, they

immediately add a feeling of maturity of expression to the sentence. This kind of use of a

subordinate clause is the main complication to get hold of in sentence construction; if you can

use subordinate clauses confidently, you can say anything. But if you can consciously vary the

kind of sentences you write, changing perhaps from simple to compound to complex, or

deliberately using a simple sentence structure for dramatic effect, then you will also show your

reader that you are in control of your material and have thought about both its form and content.

Through the use of two subordinate clauses, several sentences can be compressed into a single

sentence, but which are still easy to follow. The main benefit for the writer, however, is that the

compression makes the sentence seem more considered and weighty than the same idea

expressed in a sequence of simple sentences. One important thing to remember is how to signal

the beginning of the subordinate clause through the use of the comma, with another comma to

signal the end of the clause. If the subordinate clause forms the end of the sentence, it will finish,

of course, with a full stop. Consider the difference between the raw version of a scientific account

here, and the version that is rewritten with a focus on moulding the sentences. This is the simple

version:

The brain is an organ. It controls most of the body’s activities. It is the only able to produce

“intelligent” action.

At one level, there is nothing wrong with this. It does, however, suffer from being a little stilted

because the sentences all follow the same pattern. It can be rewritten as:

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The brain, the organ that controls most of the body’s activities, is the only organ able to

produce “intelligent” action.

Through subordinate clauses, the three simple sentences have been compressed into one,

although only two words have actually been lost. It is clear that the second and third sentences in

the first version are on the same theme as the first sentence, that they expand on it, and so it is

fairly easy to see how the sentences can be put together naturally and form a more interesting

statement.

Producing Well-crafted Sentences

So, now you know how to construct a sentence, but how do you learn to write really well? All of us

have the potential to transform ourselves into excellent writers. All that is required is some thought

about the process of writing, readiness to follow the accepted rules, and a willingness not only to

write but to revise and give a great deal of attention to detail. It is worth the extra effort: if you can

write well you will find that this will also enable you to think more clearly. In other words, sorting out

your writing problems can help you sort out your ideas. The main thrust of this section is concerned

with explaining how to do this, looking in particular at the opening paragraph of an essay.

Good sentences do not just happen! A sentence needs to be designed and built by the writer.

There might be a first draft, where you just pour out everything you know and everything you want

to say, but then you have to start writing and revising in order to transform your original idea into a

finished product. This is something that is underestimated in terms of its importance to producing a

good essay.

This process has to start with the first sentence of an essay. The most common mistake with a first

sentence is overloading: that is, trying to pack too much into one sentence. The impression that is

created for the reader is that the student has started on a sentence with no idea about where it is

going to arrive; consequently, the sentence will appear to be a piece of thinking aloud rather

than a well-crafted sentence. This idea can be illustrated with a simple example. This is the

opening sentence of a letter. The faults in evidence, however, are characteristic of the faults that

appear at the start of essays. It is note from a parent about a student’s illness:

“David was not able to attend school yesterday seeing as how the problem he is having with

headaches has come back again.”

There are two issues here. One is problem about tenses, of slipping between past (was) and

present (is). But the bigger problem is that the writer attempts to carry too much information in

one sentence. Where it really stumbles is with the words seeing as how, which is an awkward

transition as the writer tries to establish a bridge between two main clauses. The problem could

have been avoided by stopping the sentence at an earlier point:

“David was not able to attend school yesterday. He has been having problems with headaches,

and the problem has come back again.”

The first sentence is kept relatively short. A second sentence has been created, but strict control is

maintained here by means of the simple device of introducing the comma to create a decisive

break between the two clauses in this compound sentence. So, as you start to write remind

yourself that a long, snaky introductory sentence is likely to lead to problems. Start with a simple

sentence; then move to more complicated sentence structures as you expand your ideas, but

ones in which you maintain control over each section within the sentence.

It is useful to think of the first sentence of a paragraph as the topic sentence. In the revised version

of the letter above, the topic sentence is: David was not able to attend school yesterday. It is

effective as an opening because it is such a controlled, almost dramatic, statement. Most essays

can start in a similar way: you can create an initial dramatic and arresting effect by having a

simple sentence that stands alone, not tangled up in subordinate clauses and details. Often by

23 | P a g e

saying less you actually say more, principally because you will have thought quite carefully about

the construction and impact of the topic sentence.

By writing a short, dramatic first sentence it shows you have grasped an important point: you are

always writing for an audience. There is something terribly dull about an essay that starts, “In this

essay I will consider......”. What you want is a topic sentence that gains the reader’s attention: it

can do this, however, by simply stating the issue, and then stopping. The sentences that follow in

the paragraph must then develop the topic. And, as your treatment of the issue gradually

becomes more elaborate and expansive, the second and subsequent sentences need to

become more complicated in structure, but only to the extent of introducing additional main

clauses and subordinate clauses within the recognised rules of sentence composition.

The most minor surgery can quickly transform an essay into a good piece of written work. If you

follow a handful of basic rules about sentence construction and punctuation, you can, within

minutes, turn even a piece of work that is groaningly awful into a polished performance. And this is

always the case. The problems in students’ writing are always the same problems. The answer is

always the same answer: that is, “pay attention to the basic rules”. Here the questions you need

to ask yourself when revising and editing an essay:

1. Have I written a sentence?

2. Do I need a compound sentence?

3. Do I need subordinate clauses?

4. Have I produced all these elements in accordance with the rules?

5. Does my sentence make sense and read well?

Paragraph Logic

There is a three-part structure to the paragraph. An idea is introduced in the topic sentence,

which is then elaborated in the body of the paragraph; at the end, however, the paragraph

arrives somewhere new, in effect creating a topic and a direction for the next paragraph of the

essay. It is useful to bear in mind this idea of how a paragraph advances when you write an essay,

because it helps you pay attention to how each sentence leads into, and on to, the next

sentence. So, a good well-constructed paragraph will have a clear, ordered structure that starts

with a topic sentence, moves through elaborations of that topic and then arrives at a firm point

ready for the next paragraph.

Summary

Look at each sentence you write and its function in the paragraph. Use simple sentences followed

by complex or compound sentences, but always stick to the basic rules of grammar, i.e. make

sure that every sentence has a subject/verb/object pattern. Lastly, make sure you are in control of

any extra elements that you add, or introduce into, each sentence. Keep checking the following:

1. Is this a sentence?

2. Am I in control of the complications in the sentence?

3. Have I got the right words in the right order?

4. Does each sentence lead on from the sentence before?

5. Do the separate sentences combine to form an effective paragraph?

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Paragraphs

Paragraphs are needed in all extended writing. In order to maintain and make obvious a clear

structure, you must be aware of the nature of the paragraph as the basic structuring unit in any

extended writing. Basically, every paragraph should represent and flesh out a key point or issue, so

that the reader is able to state what each paragraph is about.

A paragraph is a set of sentences. There is no rule about how many sentences there should be in

a paragraph. It should be at least four or five lines in length, but not too long or the reader will get

lost. No one-sentence paragraphs! (They give the impression that you read the Sun a lot, which

you obviously don’t!)

Each paragraph should have what is known as a topic sentence, near the beginning, that

announces the theme of the paragraph. The paragraph should not deviate from this theme or

introduce any new themes. As discussed in the previous section on sentences, there should be a

three-part structure to a paragraph, often referred to as PEE (point/explanation &

evidence/evaluation).

The first sentence should be the topic sentence which should state the point of the

paragraph. This first sentence should somehow be linked to, or contrast with, the last

sentence of the previous paragraph.

The next sentences in a paragraph should extend the point made in the topic sentence, by

explaining your ideas in more detail and then adding examples or evidence to back these

ideas up.

Finally, each paragraph should conclude with some evaluation or analysis of the evidence

presented earlier in the paragraph.

The introduction paragraph should announce clearly the theme of the essay. Show the examiner

you know what they are asking and that you have understood every significant word of the

question. In the introduction paragraph you should firstly set the scene, define the key words and

give some relevant background information. Then say what you or this essay will do by defining

your version of the title and make it clear. List the examples or evidence you will use to help you

answer the question. These will then be used as the structure of your essay. If the marker knows

from the beginning what you are going to do, s/he can bear it in mind and be aware that you are

sticking to the point and developing it, because s/he will know what the point is.

The last paragraph should very briefly sum up your findings in your essay and refer back to the

original question set. The main thing is to make each paragraph a solid unit that develops a

clearly announced sub-theme of the essay. This way the plan that's behind the essay will be

obvious (not too obvious: don't write subheadings before every paragraph) and the marker will

not have that terrible lost feeling that immediately precedes giving the essay a low mark in

disgust.

25 | P a g e

Connectives

A connective is a word or phrase that links a sentence. A conjunction is used to link clauses within

a sentence. Connecting adverbs link sentences and paragraphs together and makes your writing

more interesting and powerful. Connecting adverbs are often placed at the start of sentences

and are used to improve the flow of writing across sentences and paragraphs.

Use this table to add a variety of connectives into your writing:

Use Connective examples

Giving examples for example, for instance, such as.

Adding information also, and, as well as, too, furthermore, moreover.

Contrasting while, but, however, whereas, in contrast, on the other hand,

alternatively, none the less.

Comparing similarly, the same, equally, also, as well, too.

Highlighting a point chiefly, mainly, more than ever, above all, in particular,

specifically.

Listing in order firstly, secondly, thirdly, next, meanwhile, afterwards, finally,

lastly.

Explaining for example, in other words, that is to say.

Indicating the result therefore, consequently, as a result.

Homophones

Homophones are words that sound the same when spoken but are spelt differently and have a

different meaning. The Greek prefix homo means “the same”.

Make sure you know this list of most commonly confused homophones:

Accept/except

Allowed/aloud

Are/our

Caught/court

Course/coarse

Effect/affect

Here/hear

Lightning/lightening

Loose/lose

Off/of

One/won

Pair/pear

Passed/past

Plain/plane

Practice/practise

Principal/principle

New/knew

Their/there/they’re

To/too/two

Weather/whether

Week/weak

Were/where/wear/we’re

Which/witch

Wood/would

Note taking

The Cornell system of note taking can be used with your regular notebook for each of your

classes. All you need are pages with a wide margin on the left-hand side and another one at the

bottom of the page. After using this system, you should see an improvement in study skills and

grades.

The large space to the right of the wide margin and above the summary area is the record

column where you write your notes. In the record column, take notes of lessons, power points, and

any other information that is pertinent. This could include rough notes (don’t use complete

sentences, instead leave out articles, and abbreviate words often), definitions; lists; or diagrams.

The recall column and summary area should remain empty as you write your notes.

You should always review your notes after class for at least 15 - 20 minutes. After reviewing your

notes, use the recall column to write down the key questions that the lesson notes answer. This will

help later in preparing to study for exams. You can also add the topic / paragraph headings if

this note taking method has been used for reading. You can test your retention of the topic by

covering the record column and try to answer the questions you have listed in the recall column.

Lastly, the summary area should be used to condense a page of notes down to one or two

sentences to summarise each page of notes. Each note page should have its own summary and

should be done after every lesson.

The reading for the lesson should have been undertaken before the lesson in order to improve

your understanding and to ease the note taking process. The lesson is a two way process, it is an

opportunity to grill your teacher on their understanding of the subject by asking more probing

questions that can only be done by reading and your teacher can then give you help and

support to push your understanding to the next level.

Affect and effect

The word affect is a verb which means “to cause change in something”.

Sue changed her job because it affected her health.

The word effect is a noun which means “result” or “consequence”.

The change in job had a good effect and she was no longer ill.

27 | P a g e

Note taking sheet (Photocopy this page and use!)

Course:

Lesson Topic:

Date:

Recall Column Record Column

Questions which

the lesson notes

answer.

Lesson notes.

Summary Area

Condense the page of notes into 1 or 2 sentences.

28 | P a g e

Note making

Note making is different to note taking. Note making is all about turning your rough notes from

lessons, reading and other sources into a neat record in a file or notebook.

Either using your notes from lessons or from reading of the course textbook restate the main ideas

using your own words. Do this in your head at first then write a sentence or two in your notebook

which captures the main idea but in your own words. DO NOT COPY. Add other notes if

necessary. Draw diagrams, sketches, mind maps and concept maps to help illustrate your ideas.

The process of forcing yourself to put the ideas into your own words offers excellent feedback that

you understand the material and are learning it.

Once you have recorded these ideas in your own words into your notebook or file you will have

an excellent set of notes to revise from. You will also have gone through an important learning

process just making the notes which will help your understanding and recall of the material at a

later date.

29 | P a g e

Essay Writing

An essay is an organised collection of your ideas, backed up with examples, on a set question,

which is clearly written and presented. In other words the essay must be well structured (i.e.

organised) and presented in a way that the reader finds easy to follow and clear: it must look tidy

and not present any obstacles to the reader. It must have a clear readable interesting style. But,

above all, it must answer the question. This is the centre of it: this and this only, gets the marks.

Your first task is to read and dissect the question carefully (doing words & key words). The second

task is to get the material together (i.e. reading and research) or from your memory if writing

under exam conditions!

So: you've gathered the material, read it, made notes, and had some ideas. How do you write the

essay? Behind every essay there must be a plan. Think of an examiner or teacher, having to read

a large number of student essays. A decent level of concentration is hard to maintain. They get

lost, and lose the thread, just as you do in class! It is essential therefore that the essay is well

planned and clearly obvious to the reader. In order to achieve this, the easiest way is to complete

an essay planning sheet before writing the essay. See the section on paragraphing to help write

your essay.

Behind everything said so far there are two themes. One, just to repeat it yet one more time, in

case you might have missed it, is: you must answer the question. The other is this: Always put the

reader first. College teachers are obviously paid to read your essays. So they will. However, if you

can imagine the sheer labour of having to read a large number of essays on the same topic, you

can imagine that no-one really likes doing it. It is hard work, and they would normally rather be

doing something else. Therefore, if they're not immediately seduced by the clarity and beauty of

the thing they're reading, they may get irritated. If this happens they won't be able to throw it

away and do something else, so they will get even more irritated. The end product of this will be: a

poor mark. Or at least, a worse mark than you would otherwise get, even if the ideas are good. So

ALWAYS PUT THE READER FIRST by making your essay as beautiful, compelling, and as

professionally presented as possible!

Introduces the

main point of the

paragraph.

Announces the

theme of the

essay.

Series of

paragraphs which

answer the

question.

Summary and

refers back to

original question.

30 | P a g e

Account for Give reasons for.

e.g. Account for the presence of high concentrations of radon gas in some

buildings.

Analyse Provide a detailed description and explanation of a subject. Often used with

diagrams, photographs or examples.

e.g. With specific reference to one actual (or potential) landfill or underground

site, analyse the suitability of the site for the type of waste disposed.

Assess Evaluate the subject suggesting several explanations which need to be ranked

in your answer.

Compare &

Contrast

Look for similarities (compare) and/or differences (contrast) between things.

e.g. Compare the changes in radon gas emissions before and after an

earthquake with the changes in groundwater levels (identified in wells) over

the same period of time. Explain your answer.

Describe Give a detailed or graphic account of.

e.g. Describe the properties of aquifers that enable them to store

groundwater.

Discuss Investigate or examine by argument; give reasons for

and against. Examine the implications.

e.g. Discuss the effectiveness of the methods used to minimise loss of life and

damage to property in active volcanic regions.

Evaluate Make an appraisal of the worth of something, in the light of its truth or

usefulness.

Explain Make plain; give reasons for. Interpret and account for.

e.g. Explain the geologically related hazards that may result from the overuse

of aquifers.

Outline Give the main features, or general principles, of a

subject, omitting minor details and emphasising

structure and arrangement.

e.g. Outline the social and economic advantages and disadvantages of

attempting to predict earthquakes.

To what

extent

Asks students to evaluate the success or otherwise of

one argument or concept over another. The essay should

present a conclusion, supported by arguments.

e.g. Using one or more case studies, describe the extent to which the

destructive effects of lava flows might be controlled.

31 | P a g e

The following list covers how your essays will be assessed.

1. The relevance of your answer to the essay title.

2. The evidence presented to substantiate (back up) the argument, including references to

specific examples.

3. The structure and clarity of the argument in support of the answer.

4. Your apparent understanding of, and expertise in, the topic area.

5. Presentation.

6. Use of language (spelling, punctuation & grammar)

Summary

Description

Mark

banding AS Mark Band Criteria

Excellent

Not the perfect answer, but purposeful, demonstrating a secure

grasp of knowledge and understanding and few significant

omissions. Well-supported and illustrated with detailed examples

selected from named geological terminology. Few errors in

grammar, punctuation and spelling

Very

Good/Good

Sound answers with relevant material providing evidence of good

knowledge and understanding. May be limited in terms of

supporting material and breadth of coverage but appropriate

examples selected. Ideas expressed with clarity with only occasional

errors in grammar, spelling and punctuation.

Quite Good/

Modest

A reasonably secure grasp of the basics but some deficiencies in

knowledge and understanding although use is made of geological

terminology. Examples and illustrations may lack detail or may not

relate to real geological situations. Reasonable use of language

with adequate spelling and punctuation.

Minimal/

Weak

Answers show limited basic knowledge and understanding, lacking

directness and organisation; tendency to rehash prepared material

and answer by inference. Superficial use of examples. Deficiencies

in use of language evident; weaknesses in spelling and punctuation

apparent.

Very Weak

Little evidence of knowledge & understanding with erroneous or

repeated material evident. Candidate is unable to address the

question. Largely irrelevant; possibly too brief. Language skills poor,

with spelling, grammar & punctuation errors becoming obtrusive.

32 | P a g e

Referencing

Referencing is important for a number of reasons, and these become more acute as you progress

through level 3, whether your study A Levels or BTEC, and especially if you go on to University or

the world of work. Referencing is important because:

It avoids and charges of plagiarism, which is in effect

stealing someone’s work or ideas and presenting

them as your own.

It provides your reader with information about where

you found your information and allows them to follow

this up to read the same information themselves.

It supports your argument or your work by referring to

credible data or sources

It tells your reader, whether it be your teacher or the

examiner, that you have consulted a broad range of

relevant sources.

It’s just simply good academic practice!

Cite sources in the main body of your text using footnotes, reference all the sources you have used or

referred to in your bibliography at the end of your piece of work.

How to reference

The main way of referencing sources is known as the Harvard Referencing System and looks like this;

Books

<Authors family name + Initial + book title +

place of publication +publisher +date of

publication >

Example:

Smith, T, Psychology in Our Times, Cheltenham,

Nelson Thornes Publishers, 1967

Journals

<Authors family name + Initial + article title +

journal title + edition + series + year + page

numbers >

Example:

Lu, H. and Miethe, T.D., Legal Representation

and Criminal Processing in China, British Journal

of Criminology, 42 (2) 2002, pp. 267-280

Websites/online sources

<AUTHOR(S) (Year) Title of document [Type of

resource, e.g. CDROM, email, WWW]

Organisation responsible (optional), available

from: web address [Date accessed]>

Example:

UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD LIBRARY (2001) Citing

of Electronic Sources of Information [WWW]

University of Sheffield, available from:

http://www.shef.ac.uk/library/libdocs/hsl-

dvc1.pdf [Accessed 23/02/07]

List your sources the moment you start your research, this will save you a lot of time later on!

Be consistent! The Harvard reference system is only one way of referencing. Other subjects may

have alternative ways to reference sources but it’s always best to remain consistent.

Referencing

Referencing lists the full

details of the original source

to allow others to find it.

Citation

When you quote or list a

source in your writing citing

points out to the reader that

the idea or source has come

from elsewhere

http://www/

33 | P a g e

Reading about writing

Are you still having problems with your writing? Finding it difficult to structure an essay? Is your note

taking a complete mess?


that will help you.




Alternatively, see below for some general recommended reads to help you improve your writing:

How to Write Better Essays

By Bryan Greetham (2008)

this book is the constant source of assistance and inspiration you need to

tackle your essays with confidence! It includes practical techniques show

how to analyse, criticise, discuss and evaluate material, improve your style,

revise your final draft and avoid plagiarism. Be aware thought that this title

is not as easy to follow and read and others in the same series.


Class code: 378.3

AQA Extended Project Companion


Although written for Extended Project students this resource still offers great

help in research methods, referencing sources and presenting information.


Class code: 378.17





skills, etc.


Class code: 378.17


34 | P a g e

Speaking & Listening Active Listening

Presentations

Discussions

Asking Questions

35 | P a g e

Active Listening

Active listening is the basis of quality discussion and learning. It is a communication technique

which requires the listener to feed back what they hear to the speaker, by way of re-stating

or paraphrasing what they have heard in their own words, to confirm what they have heard and

moreover, to confirm the understanding.

To listen actively the listener must give total attention, putting everything else out of their mind,

and requires a high degree of concentration to do it properly and really take in what people say

is.

Look at the person who is talking and maintain eye contact.

Listen carefully and actively to the person talking.

Encourage the speaker to continue.

Do not interrupt the person talking, especially with counter arguments. Allow the speaker to

finish each point before asking questions for clarification.

Respond non-verbally as appropriate using nods, frowns, smiles, quizzical looks…. (this is

technically known as mirroring).

Use grunts, yups, ahas and other verbal signs to show your continued attention.

At intervals sum up and feedback what has been said (paraphrasing is the acid test of

active listening).

Active listening does not involve asking questions, except for clarification.

The way to become a better listener is to practice "active listening." This is where you make a

conscious effort to hear not only the words that another person is saying but, more importantly, try

to understand the complete message being said.

Presentations

The skills needed to make effective presentations include:

Audibility – make sure everyone can

hear you.

Eye contact – look at and engage with

the audience.

Keep to the point

Relevance

Pace – slow down and talk more slowly

than you feel is necessary!

Use of visual aids

Structure – introduction, middle &

conclusion (“say what you are going to

say, say it, and then summarise what you

have said”)

Smile

Body language

Know your audience

Be confident

Time management

Relax

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphrasing

36 | P a g e

Discussions

Being able to have a good group discussion has many benefits. It increases conceptual

understanding of the topic being covered; it develops independent learning skills; and improves

motivation and engagement. However, effective group discussions require the following social

skills if they are to be successful:

Active listening

Agreeing

Asking for help

Asking questions

Building on others’ ideas

Checking for understanding

Clarifying understanding

Coaching

Coming to a consensus

Contributing

Decision-making

Disagreeing appropriately

Encouraging contributions

Expressing an opinion

Helping

Leading

Praising

Problem solving

Respecting differences

Responsibility

Staying on task

Taking turns

Tolerance

Good discussions require members of the group to:

Co-operate

Use positive language even if they disagree

Listen actively

Take it in turns to speak

Share their opinions

Remain on task

All members of the group contribute

Encourage others to contribute

Value differences

This diagram

shows talk stems

to encourage

group discussions.

37 | P a g e

Asking Questions Learning to ask your own questions is probably the most effective tool to improve your learning.

The Question Formulation Technique is a 6-step method to develop your ability to generate your

own questions.

1. Find a focus - The “QFocus,” as it is called, is a prompt that serves to focus student questions so

that you can explore more expansive ideas. With a clear, direct thought to focus your thinking,

you can begin formulating and posing questions around this idea.

2. Brainstorm - Constrained by a few simple rules to help people stay focused, you formulate as

many questions as possible. At this point, you are asked not to judge the quality of the

questions, nor pursue any answers. This is much like the classic “brainstorming” process, where

ideas are generated in a free, uninterrupted flow.

3. Refine – You then work with the questions you have created, reformulating them as open- and

closed-ended questions. You categorize them and make them clearer, more focused and

more apt to yield the desired answers.

4. Prioritise - Using lesson plans and teaching goals, the teacher will help you select your top

three questions and use them to zero in on the most important aspects of the material.

5. Determine next steps - Together with your teacher you review the priority questions and make

decisions about how best to use them for learning. The questions can be used to drive

experimentation, further reading, research and/or discussion.

6. Reflect - The teacher and students review their questions in the context of the six steps they

have worked through to produce them. According to the developers of this technique,

“Making the QFT completely transparent helps students see what they have done and how it

contributed to their thinking and learning. They can internalise the process and then apply it in

many other settings.”

Higher order thinking skills question template.

Recall

When did ________ take place?

List the ________ .

Define the term ________.

What is a ________?

Who did ________?

Name ________.

Analysis

How does ________ work?

Sort these ________ .

Use the table to determine ________ .

Use the graph to determine ________ .

Graph ________ .

What caused ________ ?

What is another possible cause of ________ ?

Outline the ________ .

Based on the written description, draw a

diagram.

Draw your own map of ________ without

What does ________ symbolise?

Find examples of [a literary device] in your

readings.

Analyse the ________ in ________ .

Classify these ________ according to ________ .

Separate the ________ from the ________ .

Translate ________ .

Analyse how ________ .

Explain how ________ works.

What was the author's point of view?

How did the author convey ________ ?

38 | P a g e

tracing or copying.

Use the map to determine ________ .

In what sequence did ________ happen?

Break ________ down into its component

parts.

Give an example of ________ .

What literary form is being used?

What technique is being used?

What information is needed?

Is the information relevant?

Into what groups can you organise these?

Draw a picture that illustrates what's

described in the story ____

What words does the author use to paint an

image of ________ in your mind?

How were ________ used to ________ ?

What kind of a ________ is this?

Which one doesn't belong in this group?

What is the function of _______ ?

What is the purpose of ________?

What is the relationship between ________ and

________ ?

What is the pattern?

Use manipulatives to illustrate a concept.

Build a model of ________ .

Measure ________ .

Comparison

How is ________ like ________ ?

How are ________ and ________ different?

Compare the ________ before and after

________ .

Compare the character ________ at the

beginning of the story and at the end.

Distinguish between ________ and ________ .

Compare ________ with ______.

On what dimensions might you compare

________ and ______ ?

Which one is the biggest / oldest / tallest?

Inference

Hypothesise what will happen if ________.

Predict what will happen if ______.

Apply the rule to ________ .

Solve the problem ________ .

Predict how the story ________ will end.

What is the main idea of the story?

What is the overall theme of ___ ?

What is the moral of the story?

Develop of plan to ________ .

Propose and describe an invention that fills

some need.

Write a research paper on ______.

Based on your readings, what can you

conclude about ________ ?

What was the author's point of view?

Solve a logic puzzle.

What if ________ ?

What rule applies here?

What generalisation can you make from this

information?

Create a ________ .

Design a ________ .

Propose a solution to the problem of ______

Evaluation

Was ________ worth the costs? Explain your

answer.

Was the argument convincing? What makes

you think so?

Did ______behave appropriately? Why?

What would you have done in this situation?

Why?

Write a critique of ________ .

Was this experiment well designed? Defend

your answer.

Judge which is the best solution to the

problem of ________ ? Why do you think so?

How well are the conclusions supported by

the data/ facts /evidence? Explain.

Did ________ choose a wise course of action?

Give reasons.

Apply a scoring rubric to this piece of work.

Explain why you are assigning each score.

What would you have done in this situation?

Why?

Review a book, performance, or exhibit. Justify

your evaluation.

Which ________ is the best? Why do you think

so?

Whose arguments/evidence was more

convincing? Why?

If you were the judge, what would your

decision be? Why?

Give and justify your opinion on __.

39 | P a g e

Metacognitive Questions

Go “meta” at the start of the lesson…

What do you want to learn today?

What strategies might you use to help you learn in this lesson?

What skills do you have that might be useful?

What might hinder your learning?

When have you had to think like this before?

What have you learned that is similar?

What do you already know that might be useful?

How will you know that your learning has been successful?

Go “meta” at during the lesson…

What are you currently thinking about?

What connections have you made?

How do you feel about the lesson?

How have you got involved in the lesson?

What should you do to further your thinking?

What breakthroughs have you made?

Are your strategies working?

What do you want to know more about?

Go “meta” at the end of the lesson…

What are the key aspects you have learnt during this lesson?

How are you going to remember this learning?

What did you learn that you didn’t know before?

What have you learned that could be useful elsewhere?

What have you learned elsewhere that is like this?

How will you apply what you have learned?

What skills, strategies and principles worked best and why?

Where else could you use these skills, strategies and principles?

40 | P a g e

Reading about speaking

Still having difficulty presenting? Do you find it hard to work in groups?


that will help you.




Alternatively, see below for some general recommended reads to help you improve your

speaking skills:

How to Prepare, Stage and Deliver Winning

Presentations

By Thomas Leech (2004)

A concise guide for anyone giving a presentation, from in-class

demonstrations to presentations to CEOs! This resource will help you to

prepare and focus your presentation, and engage your audience.

Available as an eBook through the LRC

http://bit.ly/1hB47vt

Class code: 658.4




of studying, including working with others, group work, and talking and

listening skills, etc.


Class code: 378.17


http://bit.ly/1hB47vt

http://site.ebrary.com/lib/ncpontefract/docDetail.action?docID=10052852&p00=presentation+skills

41 | P a g e

Appendices Deeper Questioning Grid

Skills Evaluation

Solo Taxonomy

Challenge Chart

Literacy Mat

42 | P a g e

43 | P a g e

SKILL AREA POOR SATISFACTORY GOOD OUTSTANDING

VOCABULARY

Root Words

Technical Words

Spelling

Use of Strategies

READING

Scanning

Skimming

Reading for

Understanding

Proofreading

Extra Reading

WRITING

Punctuation

Sentences

Paragraphs

Connectives

Homophones

Note Taking

Note Making

Essay Writing

44 | P a g e

SPEAKING Presentations

Discussions

Asking Questions

LISTENING

Active Listening

Ability to

Paraphrase

Discussions

ATTITUDES

Resilience

Responsibility

Reflection

Reliability

Motivation

Independence

Mindset

45 | P a g e

Solo Taxonomy

FIRST

Multistructural Stage

“I know loads of things about what we are

learning.”

Describe

List

Outline

Name

Define

Identify

Find

Label

Draw

Unistructural Stage

“I know one thing about what we are learning.”

Prestructural Stage

“I have no idea!”

Describe

List

Outline

Name

Define

Identify

Find

Label

Draw

Multistructural Stage

“I know loads of things about what we are learning”

Unistructural Stage

“I know one thing about what we are learning”

Prestructural Stage

“I have no idea!”

46 | P a g e

Challenge Chart

Extended Abstract Stage (“Expert Stage”)

“I can apply my understanding to a new context.”

Relational Stage

“I can link concepts together and explain why they

are related.”

47 | P a g e

48 | P a g e

literacy booklet a4

Documents

spelling key words

zoo gk

g e root words

g e misspelt words

geo gk graph gk hydro

glossaries of key words

general root words

bath gk bio gk calc