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Office Preparation

Unless the particular study design requires otherwise, stream survey reaches shouldalways be defined before setting out into the field. Property access, riparian continuity,and the streams' geomorphic context are all more manageable if approached beforehandusing a combination of maps, databases, aerial photographs, and geographic informationsystems (GIS). The segment identification procedures outlined in the TFW AmbientMonitoring Methods manual (Schuett-Hames et al. 1994) are useful for delineatingstream reaches for field investigation. Most streams in the county have already beentyped (according to the TFW method) by gradient, confinement, and general habitat type.This typing is available in the database compiled by the Salmon and Steethead HabitatInventory and Assessment Program (SSHIAP) and can be accessed from the MAA dataserver (ftlrnt4\data\gis\shapes\SSH_NS4.shp). The SSHIAP maps, while not perfect, areconsistent with both the TFW protocol and those used by state, tribal, and industrybiologists conducting watershed analysis according to Washington State Department ofNatural Resources methods (WFPB 1997). The SSHIAP points are revised frequently, socheck the shapefile for updates before beginning a survey. The Washington Departmentof Wildlife has compiled a catalog of stream features (Williams et al. 1975) that, whileoutdated in many suburban districts, is still of immense value in determining fish access,species distribution, and habitat suitability. The Washington Department of Fish andWildlife database of spawner survey observations can often supplement the streamcatalog in terms of fish abundance. The SSHIAP and spawner databases are currentlyavailable on the MAA data directory (\\WLRNT4\data\.. . ).

The entire length of a stream does not have to be sampled in the field. Property accessproblems often prevent extensive surveys, but even in the case of perfect access manyresearchers sub-sample streams to increase their efficiency. Montgomery et al. (1995)surveyed reaches from 8 to 24 bankfull channel widths, and their repeated surveysdiffered by no more than one pool per reach. McHenry et al. (1998) surveyed LWD over100 meter stream reaches on the Olympic Peninsula and were able to calibrate resultswith surveys of the same reaches done in 1982 (Grette 1985). Hankin and Reeves (1988)measured one out of every 10 habitat units and visually estimated the dimensions of theother nine, achieving an r2 of 0.93 between the measured and the estimated habitat areas.May et al. (1997) sampled a minimum of 25 percent of over 100 reaches in 22 PugetSound Lowland streams, but results on the adequacy of the sample size have yet to bedetermined. The DNR standard methods for watershed analysis (WFPB 1997) suggestfield measurements encompass 15-25 percent of the stream segments in each basin.

Field Methods

Establishing the reach location

Habitat unit surveys will begin at the downstream end of the reach and proceed upstream,even though labeling of the left-bank and right-bank features should be done as if the

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Bisson et al. (1982) was one of the first papers to associate fish preferences with specifichabitat types, and most current survey protocols are based on this work. The Bisson et al.(1982) paper divided riffles into three habitat types – low gradient riffles, rapids, andcascades—and pools into six habitat types – secondary channel pools, backwater pools,trench pools, plunge pools, lateral scour pools, and dammed pools. They classified glidesas intermediate between pools and riffles.

Hawkins et al. (1993) used a hierarchical approach to break two categories (fast waterand slow water) into 18 different habitat types typically found in wadable streams.Definition of these 18 habitat types (7 riffle/cascades, 6 scour pools, and 5 dam pools)was left to literature that is not widely available (Helm et al. 1985). Nevertheless, theHawkins paper clearly demonstrates the utility and practicality of nesting multiple habitattypes into two or three summary units, such as pools and riffles. The authors in Hawkinset al. (1993) equated fast and slow water with riffles and pools, respectively, using theterms interchangeably. The 18 habitat types in Hawkins et al. (1993) are a subset of the24 habitat units defined in what is commonly referred to as the "FHR" methodology(McCain et al 1997) and an expansion of the 14 habitat types in Bisson et al. (1982).

Hankin and Reeves (1988) developed a sophisticated and statistically defensible habitatand fish abundance estimation technique on four habitat types – pools, riffles, glides, andside channels—based on the habitat classification in Bisson et al. (1982). Theyemphasized, however, that accurate estimation of habitat areas was contingent on a singleexperienced observer making all of the visual estimates. Reeves et al. (1989) used datacollected using the Rankin and Reeves (1988) method to develop a limiting factors modelfor coho in the western Cascades. That model enjoys a wide acceptance among fisheriesbiologists and is often cited as the most reliable method of assessing limiting factors tosalmonids.

Beechie et al. (1994) shortened the procedures in the Reeves limiting factors model –while expanding the habitat types to pools, riffles, ponds, lakes, mainstem, and sidechannel sloughs—and estimated the factors limiting coho in the Skagit watershed. TheBeechie model was voted the best paper to appear in the North American Journal ofFisheries Management for the year it was published.

The Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission developed stream survey methods to beused by all cooperators in the Timber-Fish-Wildlife (TFW) Ambient Monitoringprogram. These methods were consistent with the watershed analysis procedures for useby the state departments of Natural Resources (WADNR) and Fish and Wildlife(WDFW). The original TFW stream survey methods included pools, riffles, cascades,and pool tailouts, but emphasized that tailouts (the way they were defined in thatdocument) usually only occur in large, low-gradient rivers (Schuett-Hames et al. 1994).An updated TFW habitat unit survey protocol reduces the fluvial habitat units to only .pools and riffles (Pleus et al. 1999). Reasons for the abbreviated habitat list include 1)problems with habitat unit identification, 2) inconsistent habitat boundary identification,and 3) fluctuation in habitat types at various stream discharges (Pleus 1995). The TFWAmbient Monitoring manual (Schuett-Hames et al. 1994) and the succeeding manuals

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1995) will be classified in King County surveys as lateral scour pools. McCain et al.(1990) specify that lateral scour pools are confined to less than 60 percent of the channelwidth, and should be sub-divided into those formed by logs, boulders, root wads, andbedrock. Habitats otherwise classified as lateral scour pools, trench pools, mid-channelpools, and convergence pools will be stored in the database as scour pools.

Dammed pools occur upstream of a complete or nearly complete channel obstruction.Typical obstructions include debris jams, landslides, and beaver dams. Water velocity istypically low and substrate sizes tend toward small gravels and sand.

Glides are wide, shallow "pools" flowing smoothly and gently, with low to moderatevelocities and little or no surface turbulence. Substrates usually consist of cobble, gravel,and sand. The TFW protocols specify "tailouts" where many biologists would identify aglide (Schuett-Hames et al. 1994). Habitats formerly or otherwise classified as runs willbe stored in the database as glides.

The following habitat types are usually not described in habitat survey protocols designedfor forested watersheds. However these habitats are common in King County and will beincluded as available habitat types in the King County database.

Ditches are man-made channels (glides) created to carry runoff from fields androadways. Some ditches may have once been small streams but have since beenstraightened, cleaned, or otherwise modified and are now artificially maintained. Ditchesare typically straight, and are similar to glides in that they often have low velocities butdo not have pool-like channel dimensions. They are typically found in agricultural zonesand along road and railroads rights of way.

Debris complex habitat units are low-gradient stream segments with an overabundanceof LWD, swirling flow, and indistinct pool or riffle morphology. The dominant feature isa conglomeration of woody debris. Flow is typically chaotic, with varying proportions offast and slow water (% slow water should be noted). Number of LWD pieces should becounted and, depending on the purpose of the survey, measured.

Culverts are not favorable habitat for fish, but are encountered in many King Countysurveys and can not be ignored. Culvert survey protocols, which address passageproblems, are considered separately from stream survey protocols. However, quantifyingculvert length (and number) as a proportion of stream length may be an important factorin assessing habitat characteristics. Including pipes and culverts explicitly will avoidhaving to interrupt and re-start otherwise continuous habitat surveys.

Braids are a type of riffle that occur where the sediment load is exceeding the transportcapacity of the stream under the current hydrologic regime (Leopold and Wolman 1957,Kellerhals et al. 1976). Braids result from an over abundance of sediment, which oftenoriginates from forest roads, washouts, or landsliding, and thus indicate a stream that hasbeen impacted by watershed activities such as timber harvest. Either an increase indischarge or a decrease in sediment supply can return a braided channel to a single-thread

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The downstream and upstream end of each habitat unit will be noted in the STA columnsof the survey form. In most cases the STA U/S of one habitat unit will be the same as theSTA D/S of the next habitat unit. The habitat form will be clearer if both columns arefilled in for each habitat unit (it doesn't take much time and avoids confusion). Habitatsub-unit categories (for example, those listed in Hawkins et al. 1993 or Bisson 1982) canbe applied to each habitat in the HabType column of the survey form. This two-columnmethod ensures a consistent accounting of pool-riffle ratios while allowing flexibility indeciding which habitat variables are most important for the survey and it's intendedpurpose. It also allows the concurrent delineation of side channels without interruptingthe mainstem habitat survey. Each habitat unit should extend at least half way across thechannel width to qualify as a new habitat unit (WFPB 1997, USDA Forest Service 1998).In cases where a pool occurs in part of a riffle but does not qualify as a new habitat unit,the column %POOL should be used to note the percentage of that riffle that is actuallypool habitat (USDA Forest Service 1998). Using the %POOL column in combinationwith the HabID column allows an accurate and consistent tally of both pool-riffle ratiosand the amount of pool habitat in a given reach. The %POOL column is also useful foreliminating observer doubt in steeper cascade reaches where pocket pools comprise asubstantial amount of otherwise turbulent habitat.

Stream Width

Habitat width should be measured at least three times on longer habitats and noted ineach of the width columns (W1, W2, W3), with an average width computed back in theoffice. Units of measurement on the field form will be in meters unless otherwise noted.For shorter or simpler habitats a single width measurement is sufficient. See Schuett-Hames et al. (1994) for useful diagrams of where to limit the width measurement onpartially-inundated boulders and large cobbles.

Bankfull width should be measured only on habitat units where an accurate assessment ofthe bankfull flow is possible (Williams 1978, Dunne and Leopold 1978). Typically thisoccurs on long, straight riffles with a clearly-definable floodplain, distinct terraces, abruptstreambanks at the ordinary high water mark, or ample cobble bars topped with flattenedareas of pea gravel or fine sediments (Leopold and Wolman 1957). A detailed discussionof various bankfull indicators can be found in Harrelson et al. (1994). A bankfullelevation that is consistent over several channel widths requires that the water surfaceslope be essentially the same as the floodplain slope (Leopold and Maddock 1953,Emmett 1975). The water surface slope at a pool is essentially zero. Bankfull depth isoften irrelevant (or misleading) at pools and, according to some survey protocols,bankfull width should not be measured there (USDA Forest Service 1998).

Riffle and Pool Depth

Depth is measured differently in pools and riffles. Pools require two depth measurements,one at the deepest and one at the shallowest points. The pool maximum depth is self-explanatory. The pool crest measurement (or tailout depth) is taken at the deepest point

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diameters vary according to stream width, as in Table (Schuett-Hames et al. 1999,WFPB 1997).

Table . Minimum size to qualify LWD as a key piece.Bankfull Width Diameter Length

meters feet meters feet meters feet0 — 5 0-15 0.40 1.3 8 266-10 15 — 30 0.55 1.8 10 3311 — 15 30 — 45 0.65 2.1 18 60

— 20 45 — 60 0.70 2.3 24 79

Depending on the use of the survey some observers may need to measure each piece ofLWD while for others a quick tally of LWD in different size classes may be sufficient.King County surveys will follow either a Level I or Level II assessment protocoldepending on the needs of the party conducting the survey and the time and effortavailable for LWD counts.

For King County Level I surveys the size of LWD will be lumped into three size classes.Only LWD lying wholly or partially within the area inundated by bankfull flow (zone 2,Robison and Beschta 1990) will be counted. All LWD pieces on the division betweentwo habitat units should be tallied on the same line as the habitat unit most affected, or bydefault with the downstream unit (since this unit will most likely be affected by any flowdirected over or around the LWD). Minimum length of LWD will be two meters (6 feet).Root wads can be of any size that has an effect on stream morphology or habitat, butshould generally not be less than about 25 centimetes in (bole) diameter. Units ofmeasurement on the field form will be meters and centimeters unless otherwise noted.The LWD pieces for a Level I survey will be grouped into the three diameter classes inTable 1. These diameter classes coincide with those used in the King County andWADNR riparian analyses, but unfortunately do not coincide with either TFW or MountBaker Snoqualmie National Forest protocols for LWD surveys (Schuett-Hames et al..1999, USDA Forest Service 1998, WFPB 1997).

Tablel. LWD diameter classes.Diameter Class Diameter (inches) Diameter (cm)Small 4-12 10-30Medium 12-20 30-50Large 20+ Greater than 50

Each row on the habitat unit survey form will have four columns for tallying LWD. Hashmarks ( ) will be entered for LWD pieces in each diameter class, with root wads in thefourth column. In many instances it may be useful to note the measured diameter of poolforming LWD pieces, particularly when those pieces are the smallest pieces formingpools in that reach (minimum pool-forming diameter for the reach). Minimum pool-forming diameter measurements can be entered in the column MIN in the LWD section(back) of the field form.

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Table 2. Riparian vegetation types for King County stream surveysType Code DescriptionConifer dominated C Forested, more than 70% of trees are coniferHardwood dominated H Forested, more than 70% of the trees are hardwoodMixed M Forested, no dominance greater than 70%Shrub S Dominated by woody stemmed vegetation that does

not reach > 40' at maturity, e.g., willows (salix),dogwood (cornus), and salmonberry (rubus).

Grass or Cleared G Pasture, row crops, maintained right-of-ways,orchards, parkland, landscaped areas, vacant fields,marshes and wetlands not in open water.

Urban U Greater than 70% of RCU is paved or built-up.Includes roads, levees, railroads, and bridges.

Table 3. Size classifications for riparian trees.Type Code Description

Small S Dominant trees in the RCU: 3" < DBH < 12"Medium M Dominant trees in the RCU: 12" < DBH < 20"Large L Dominant trees in the RCU: 20" < DBHNot applicable X Value applied to the shrub, grass and urban classes

Table 4. Density classes for riparian trees.Type Code DescriptionDense D More than 1/3 of the RCU is covered by treesSparse S Less than 1/3 of the RCU is covered by treesNot applicable X Value applied to the shrub, grass, and urban classes

Some studies may require a finer-scale approach to riparian condition than that availablein the WADNR method, and some stream inventories may choose not to look at ripariancomposition at all. In the cases where riparian zone data are collected it will be mostuseful if the RCUs in Tables 2-4 are used to fill in the blanks for LBrip and RBrip on thehabitat unit survey form.

The three categories in tables 2-4 are combined and listed in the appropriate columns onthe field form. For example a riparian zone on the left bank with a typical stand of 20-year-old alder would get HMD (for hardwood, medium, dense) in the LBrip column. Ifthe right bank was a mature, mixed-deciduous forest with at least 30% conifer understorybeginning to accede to the canopy it would probably get MLD (for mixed large dense) inthe RBrip column. Observers should interpret the riparian canopy as it would appear froman aerial photograph. Before going out in the field at least one observer should practicedelineating riparian condition units using aerial photographs and a stereoscope. Beforemaking riparian calls in the field each observer should also practice visually estimatingthe diameter classes of trees (at breast height, or 4.5 feet from the ground) and checkingthe visual estimates with a diameter tape. Refer to the watershed analysis methodology

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Instead of visual estimates, many state, tribal, and Federal fisheries agencies in theNorthwest use pebble counts to classify substrate (Wolman 1954, Booth et al. 1991,Ralph et al. 1991, Harrelson et al. 1994, WFPB 1997, USDA Forest Service 1998).Pebble counting consists of measuring the intermediate axis of 100 stones chosen fromthe river bed along a transect or from a grid (Wolman 1954). From the pebble sample acumulative frequency distribution is plotted from which grain sizes may be read. Themedian diameter (D50) and the diameter of the 84 th percentile (D84) are values used bymany fluvial geomorphologists to characterize bedload transport in gravel beddedstreams (Booth 1991, Kondolf and Li 1992).

Field techniques for the pebble count usually require an observer and a note taker. Thereach in question may include both pools and riffles, pools only (usually tailouts, forspawning gravel surveys), or riffles only, depending on the needs of the survey. Thereach location and character should be noted on the pebble count field form (Form 2).The observer paces across the bankfull channel width on a transect perpendicular to theflow. For multiple-habitat-unit pebble counts multiple transects are chosen, but typicallythe count is taken in a single "representative" riffle (USDA Forest Service 1998, Ralph etal. 1991). At each step the observer chooses a stone from under the tip of his or her boot.The tendency is to choose larger rocks, so the "first blind touch" technique is employedto minimize bias (Rosgen 1996). Observers should avoid looking down when choosingstones and try to select the first stone touched by the tip of a finger (Wolman 1954,USDA Forest Service 1998). Large boulders can be measured with a stadia rod. Eachstone is measured on the intermediate axis, in millimeters, using a pocket ruler. Thelongest axis is the length, the shortest axis is the thickness, and the intermediate axis isthe width. The intermediate axis determines whether or not a pebble would pass througha soil sieve. See Harrelson et al. (1994) for a good discussion of pebble count techniquesthat includes a useful diagram of the intermediate axis.

Each pebble is tallied according to a modified Wentworth scale (Form 2). The observertells the note taker the measurement of each pebble, who tallies them in the appropriatecategory. If no note taker is available a voice activated pocket tape recorder is useful forrecording the measurement (as long as the background noise of the stream isn't too loud).The recording can be played back as the 100 stones tallied on the field form. The notetaker and observer can swap duties halfway through (or more often) to alleviate chilledhands. Cumulative frequencies can be totaled and plotted in the field, or saved for dataentry in the office. The resulting frequency distribution represents the proportion of eachgravel size class as it is found on the stream bed.

Data QA/QC

The most convenient, flexible, and widely-used data entry techniques usually involvespreadsheets. However, the flexibility afforded by spreadsheets often results in streamdata that is inconsistent between streams, or even between habitat units in the samereaches of the same stream. To avoid inconsistency and streamline data interpretation,King County employees will enter habitat survey data into a database constructed for thatpurpose. The data entry screens will be arranged to mimic the field forms, and stream

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References

Beechie, T., E. Beamer, and L.Wasserman. 1994. Estimating coho salmon rearing habitat and smoltproduction losses in a large river basin, and implications for habitat restoration. North AmericanJournal of Fisheries Management 14:797-811.

Beechie, T.J., and T.H. Sibley. 1997. Relationships between channel characteristics, woody debris, and fishhabitat in northwestern Washington streams. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 126:217-229.

Bilby, R.E., and J.W. Ward. 1991. Characteristics and function of large woody debris in streams drainingold-growth, clear-cut, and second-growth forests in southwestern Washington. Canadian Journalof Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 48: 2499-2508.

Bisson, P.A., J.L. Nielsen, R.A. Palmason, and L.E. Grove. 1982. A system of naming habitat types insmall streams, with examples of habitat utilization by salmonids during low str'eamflow. In N.B.Armantrout [ed.] Acquisition and Utilization of Aquatic Habitat Inventory Information:Proceedings of the Symposium. [Portland, OR, October 1981].

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