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© United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), 2007

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United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeP.O. Box 30030, Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254 � 20 � 7623060Fax: +254 � 20 � 7623588www.unhabitat.org/waterwww.unwac.org

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The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expressionof any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status ofany country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries,or regarding its economic system, or degree of development.

UN-HABITAT does not owe any responsibility, whatsoever, for incorrect/inappropriate information collectedfrom different sources, or in documents, maps, or quoted reports of Research, Consultancy and thecollaborating Organisations. No material in this publication can be reproduced or presented in any form or byany means without prior permission of UN-HABITAT.

The information, analysis, conclusions and recommendations presented in the Publication do not necessarilyreflect the authenticity and views of UN-HABITAT, the Governing Council of UN-HABITAT or its Member States.

ISBN No.: 978-92-113-1918-7

HS Number: HS/942/07E

Local Actions for Sustainable Development

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Local Actions for Sustainable Development onWater and Sanitation in Asia-Pacific Region

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ForewordIn a world where some 1.1 billion people lack access to safe water and 2.4 billion people lack access tobasic sanitation, the provision of these vital and life sustaining services that protect their health andimprove their productivity is, without a doubt, one of the best ways to alleviate poverty. Nearly two millionchildren die, needlessly, every year for the lack of water or for its poor quality. Millions of girl children areforced to trade education for collecting water or drop out from schools for the lack of even minimalsanitation facilities. There is no better starting point to reduce child mortality or more effective way topromote universal primary education or gender equality other than providing basic water and sanitation.Access to these services is also a concrete way to make significant improvements in the lives of a billionpeople living in slums. Unfortunately, two thirds of the global poor without access to safe drinking waterand three fourths of the global population without access to safe sanitation, live in the Asia andPacific region.

Despite substantial investments by the Governments, access to these basic services remains a formidablechallenge. The water and sanitation sector suffers from the tendency to invest in new assets and facilities,paying less attention to conserve and manage existing resources. The burden associated with inadequatecoverage and access, and of inefficient service delivery, falls most heavily on the vulnerable and the poor.

These challenges are complex, but by no means insurmountable. There is no magical or universalsolution to these problems due to wide variability of country-specific and local conditions. The first step isthus for Governments to translate the global goals on water and sanitation into country and city-leveltargets. This also requires the identification and adoption of innovative, appropriate, affordable andculturally acceptable solutions.

UN-HABITAT has been addressing these issues through its regional programmes to support participatingGovernments in attaining the water and sanitation and slum upgrading targets of the MDGs. It does soby promoting pro-poor water and sanitation investments and governance frameworks involvingcommunity participation and public-private partnerships with a focus on gender mainstreaming andcapacity building.

I am happy that UN-HABITAT is bringing out this publication in support of its 'Vision 2020'on the deliveryof MDGs on water and sanitation in the Asia-Pacific Region. My hope is that it will inspire Governments ofthe region in taking new initiatives for finding solutions that are replicable, sustainable and can bebrought to scale. I believe that the experiences presented in this publication also provide examples ofgood practices that are relevant to other countries and regions in their respective initiatives for the timelyattainment of the MDGs.

Anna Kajumulo TibaijukaUnder-Secretary General, United NationsExecutive Director, UN-HABITAT

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ForewordNearly half of the global population now lives in cities, and this is expected to rise to two-thirds by the year2030. The world's cities today harbour one billion slum dwellers, who live with severe overcrowding, intemporary structures and without access to the most basic amenities. As a result of these harsh conditions,the urban poor face unprecedented risks to their health, ability to earn or stay in school, and face even deeperlevels of poverty. This demographic shift is also putting significant pressure on water resources and services.

In the Asia and the Pacific Region, about 1.8 billion people - nearly half of the region's population - stilllive on $2 a day or less. More than 620 million of them live in extreme poverty of earning $1 a day orless. One in five people do not have access to safe drinking water and almost half of the population in theregion do not have access to proper sanitation. Poverty in all its aspects remains the region's mostdaunting problem.

Water and sanitation are key factors in reducing poverty, improving livelihoods, and promoting economicgrowth. The Asian Development Bank in partnership with UN-HABITAT has been financing investments forpro-poor and community-based water and sanitation through initiatives that test new models for servicedelivery, and along the way, building the capacity of government, utilities and communities themselves.These initiatives help demonstrate and provide new knowledge to be shared about successful local actionsin various countries.

This publication supports the initiatives of the Asia-Pacific Water Forum for universal access to safedrinking water and basic sanitation for all. It focuses on the themes of decentralisation, empowerment,and partnerships among local authorities, and capacity development of civil society and service providers.

Despite the challenges this region faces, we should be encouraged by the local actions documented in thispublication. In all, this publication offers 58 local water actions in 26 countries in the Asia and the Pacificregion, including various actions supported by ADB. These actions will be useful to governments andpractitioners striving to identify affordable solutions that will accelerate their achievement of the MillenniumDevelopment Goals.

Ursula Schaefer-PreussVice PresidentKnowledge Management and Sustainable DevelopmentAsian Development Bank

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AcknowledgementsUN-HABITAT and ADB have been addressing the issues of water and sanitation to support the participatinggovernments in the Asia-Pacific region for achieving their localised Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) relating to Water and Sanitation (WATSAN). UN-HABITAT promotes city-level initiatives as localactions which are replicable, transferable and proven instruments on ground realities. These initiatives areexpected to be the most appropriate solutions that would help in scaling up WATSAN services in a cost-effective and sustainable manner as per the requirements and acceptability of the communities.

In collaboration with the Government of India, UN-HABITAT organised the first Asia-Pacific MinistersConference in New Delhi in December 2006, which formulated a Framework of Action for Meeting theMDGs on Water and Sanitation in the Asia-Pacific Region. This was based on the detailed deliberations onthe �Vision 2020� document prepared by UN-HABITAT in collaboration with Asian Development Bank(ADB), the Water and Sanitation Programme (WSP) of World Bank, WaterAid London, Gender and WaterAlliance (GWA), the Netherlands, Asia-Pacific Water Forum (APWF), Japan and the Government of India.UN-HABITAT facilitated in developing the Vision 2020 document which was unanimously endorsed by allthe participating governments at the Ministerial Conference. This Publication on �Local Actions forSustainable Development on Water and Sanitation in the Asia-Pacific Region� has been prepared to lendsupport to the implementation of the Vision 2020.

The Publication has been prepared under the guidance of Mr. Bert Diphoorn, Director (Ag), HumanSettlements Financing Division, UN-HABITAT and the close direction and overall supervision of Mr. AndreDzikus, Chief, Water and Sanitation Section II, Water, Sanitation and Infrastructure Branch, UN-HABITAT.Dr. Kulwant Singh, Chief Technical Advisor, Water for Asian Cities Programme, UN-HABITAT, developed theconcept, design and coordinated in bringing out the publication with the support of Mr. C. Vijaya Kumar,Publications Officer, UN-HABITAT who prepared and edited the local actions and Mr. Jogesh Arora,UN-HABITAT who provided the administrative assistance.

ADB has provided significant support in the preparation of the publication. ADB initiatives in partnershipwith UN-HABITAT have been helping to demonstrate and provide new knowledge about successful localactions to be shared among the participating countries. The recent ADB - UN-HABITAT enhanced MoUwhich focuses on urban water and sanitation infrastructure with a commitment of US$ 1 billion investmentsin the next five years (2008-12), would further facilitate in generating many new local actions in the regionand enable the country governments to derive benefits for the timely achievement of water and sanitationrelated MDGs.

This publication would not have been possible without the contribution and timely support of variouspartner organisations and the UN-HABITAT professionals in the Asian region. For the professional supportand for sharing their experiences, UN-HABITAT owes a great deal to The Energy and Resources Institute(TERI), New Delhi, Byrraju Foundation, Hyderabad, Rural Development Institute, Dehradun, Mahila ChetnaManch, Bhopal, Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage Board, Sulabh International Social ServiceOrganisation, New Delhi, Solutions Exchange for Water Community, United Nations DevelopmentProgramme (UNDP), India and international organisations including Asian Development Bank, WaterAid,Gender and Water Alliance, Streams of Knowledge Global Coalition of Water and Sanitation ResourceCentre Foundation, Best Practices and Local Leadership Programme of UN-HABITAT and Water andSanitation Programme of World Bank and the UN-HABITAT professionals in the region.

UN-HABITAT together with ADB and APWF specially acknowledges the contribution of Dr. K.E. Seetharam,Principal Water and Urban Development Specialist, ADB, Mr. Ravi Narayanan, Vice President of APWF andProfessor Albert Wright, Former Chair, MDG Task Force on Water and Sanitation for their profound peerreview and valuable suggestions in improving and modifying the publication as well as widening itsusefulness.

Andre DzikusChiefWater and Sanitation Section IIUN-HABITAT, Nairobi

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Contributors of Local ActionsPartner Organisations

� Dr. K.E. Seetharam, Principal Water and Urban Development Specialist, Asian Development Bank,Manila, The Philippines

� Mr. Vibhu Nayar, Project Director, TNRWSP, Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage Board andIAMWARM, Chennai, India and Mentor � Change Management Group

� Dr. Bindeshwar Pathak, Founder, Sulabh Sanitation and Social Reform Movement,Sulabh International Social Service Organisation, New Delhi, India

� Dr. D. R. Prasada Raju, Byrraju Foundation, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India� Mr. Harpreet Singh Kandra, Associate Fellow, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi, India� Dr. Sara Ahmed, Chairperson, Gender and Water Alliance, Ahmedabad, India� Ms. B. Maithili, Director, Rural Development Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India� Mr. Depinder S. Kapoor, Country Representative, WaterAid India, New Delhi, India� Ms. Mamita Bora Thakkar, Regional Manager, WaterAid India, Bhopal, India� Ms. Nirmala Buch, Chairperson, Mahila Chetna Manch, Bhopal, India� Ms. Rashmi Saraswat, Mahila Chetna Manch, Bhopal, India

United Nations and other International Organisations

� Mr. Ravi Narayanan, Vice President, Asia-Pacific Water Forum, Japan� Ms. Rory Villaluna, Executive Secretary, Streams of Knowledge Global Coalition of Water and

Sanitation Resource Centre Foundation, Manila, The Philippines� Mr. Pankaj Kumar, Moderator, Environment-Water Community, Solutions Exchange for

Water Community, United Nations Development Programme, New Delhi, India� Dr. Roshan Raj Shrestha, Chief Technical Advisor, Water for Asian Cities Programme, Kathmandu, Nepal� Mr. Avi Sarkar, Chief Technical Advisor, Mekong Region Water and Sanitation Initiative (MEK-WATSAN),

Vientiane, Lao PDR� Mr. Zhenshan Zhang, Chief Technical Advisor, Beijing, P.R. China� Dr. Pradip K. Nandi, Chief Technical Advisor, Water for Asian Cities Programme, Bhopal, India� Mr. Mohan Krishan Mudgal, Technical Advisor, Water for Asian Cities Programme, Bhopal, India� Mr. Ramanuj Banerjee, Programme Officer, Water for Asian Cities Programme, Bhopal, India� Ms. Anjali Manandhar Sherpa, Programme Associate, Water for Asian Cities Programme, Kathmandu, Nepal

Mr. Ravi Narayanan, Vice President, Asia-Pacific Water Forum, Japan, prepared the Vision 2020document for UN-HABITAT on the "Delivery of the MDGs for Water and Sanitation in the Asia-PacificRegion", which was finalized in consultation with Asian Development Bank, Water and SanitationProgramme of World Bank, WaterAid London, Gender and Water Alliance, the Netherlands andthe Government of India.

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ContentsExecutive Summary / 15

Part 1: Delivery of MDGs on Water and Sanitation in the Asia-Pacific Region: �VISION 2020� / 17Part 2: Local Actions for Sustainable Development on Water and Sanitation in

Asia-Pacific Region / 25

Section I: Pro-poor Water and Sanitation Governance / 27

1. Building Infrastructure and Improving Institutions, Azerbaijan / 292. Policy Reforms and Sustainable Service Delivery, Puer, China / 313. Slum Environmental Sanitation Initiatives, Madhya Pradesh, India / 344. Poverty Mapping Framework for Infrastructure Interventions, Madhya Pradesh, India / 385. Developing a Urban Water Demand Management Strategy, Madhya Pradesh, India / 426. Urban Governance in Environment and Public Health, Surat, India / 467. Sustainable Waste Management Initiatives, Gujarat, Pakistan / 488. Institutional Framework for Improved Management, Tajikistan / 519. Partnerships for Reconstruction of the War-torn Nation, Timor-Leste / 52

Section II: Integrated Policy, Planning and Management / 55

10. Urban Rehabilitation and Employment Programme, Afghanistan / 5711. Rehabilitation of Public Utility for Sustainable Water Supply, Phnom Penh, Cambodia / 6212. A National Water Conserving City, Jinan, China / 6513. A Water-saving City, Nanjing, China / 6914. Himalayan Water and Sanitation Programme, Uttarakhand, India / 7315. Democratisation of Water Governance, Tamil Nadu, India / 7616. Aquifer Management: A Green Path to Sustainable Development of Marginal Dry Lands, Iran / 8017. Integrated Sanitation, Public Health and Environment Improvement, Kiribati / 8118. Environmental Waste Management System, Ahmadi, Kuwait / 8419. Water - A Cooperation Tool for Resource-sharing, Kyrgyz Republic / 8520. Integrated Pro-poor WATSAN Systems, Siddhipur, Nepal / 8621. Mitigating the Effects of Drought, Uzbekistan / 91

Section III: Appropriate Technologies / 93

22. Cost-effective and Appropriate Sanitation Systems, India / 9523. Pro-poor Water Purification and Bottling, Andhra Pradesh, India / 9924. Simple Solution for Drinking Water Makes a Big Difference, Indonesia / 10325. Rainwater Harvesting � A Viable Option, Kathmandu Valley, Nepal / 10526. Reed-bed Wastewater Treatment System: Sunga Wastewater Treatment Plant, Nepal / 10827. Kanchan Arsenic Filter � Removable Technology for Arsenic and Microbiological

Contamination, Nepal / 11028. Decentralised Wastewater Management: Big Results from Small Solutions, Liloan, the Philippines / 11529. Technology Turns Water Weakness into Strength, Singapore / 11730. Geographic Information Systems for Improved Infrastructure Services, Qatar / 119

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Section IV: Community-managed Initiatives and Awareness / 121

31. Community Interventions Ensuring Sustainability, Dhaka, Bangladesh / 12332. Community-managed Pro-poor Demand-responsive Initiatives, Madhya Pradesh, India / 12433. Social Inclusion and Empowering the Marginalised - the Gram Vikas Way, Orissa, India / 13034. Community - Municipal Partnerships for Improved Sanitation, Pune, India / 13135. Water Utility Management by Customer Awareness, Yokohama, Japan / 13436. Community-based Pro-poor Governance, Xieng Ngeun, Luang Prabang, Lao PDR / 13637. Samriddha Aawas: Promoting Eco-community through Resource Management,

Kathmandu, Nepal / 13838. Software Enhances Hardware: Pro-poor Partnerships and Community Awareness,

Papua New Guinea / 14139. Institutionalised and Community-based Approaches, Agusan del Sur, the Philippines / 14340. Campaigning and Awareness Initiatives, Ukraine / 144

Section V: Gender Mainstreaming and Empowerment / 145

41. Developing a Gender Mainstreaming Strategy for Equity and Sustainability,Madhya Pradesh, India / 147

42. From Alienation to An Empowered Community: Gender Mainstreaming Approach to a SanitationProject, Tiruchirapalli, India / 150

43. Making Rural Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Gender Sensitive and Pro-poor, Nepal / 15444. Initiative of One and Relief for All: Women�s Leadership, Banda Golra Village, Pakistan / 15645. Ladies First: Accessible Water for Entrepreneurial Women, Pakistan / 160

Section VI: Innovative Financing / 163

46. Revolving Funds for Financing Water and Sanitation Infrastructure, Madhya Pradesh, India / 16547. Micro-financing Mechanisms through Revolving Funds: Comparative Experiences, India / 17048. A New Approach to Financing Pro-poor Investment for Drinking Water Supply,

Ananthapur District, India / 17449. Infrastructure Financing Reforms to Shape Up Public Sector, Ahmedabad, India / 17850. Capital Cost Recovery Approach for Urban Poor, Butwal, Nepal / 18051. Financing Practices for Service Delivery in Small Urban Centres, Cambodia and Vietnam/ 183

Section VII: Human Values-based Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Education / 185

52. Initiatives for Human Values-based Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Education,Madhya Pradesh, India / 187

53. Thrust for Value-based Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Education, Southeast Asia / 190

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BoxesSection II: Integrated Policy, Planning and Management / 55

2.1 Water Conservation Conscious city, Fukuoka, Japan / 682.2 Integrated Approach for Eco-city, Hanam, Korea / 90

Section III: Appropriate Technologies / 93

3.1 Household Level Water Treatment Systems, Nepal / 114

Section IV: Community-managed Initiatives and Awareness / 121

4.1 Orangi Pilot Project for Small Urban Centres, Karachi, Pakistan / 1284.2 Participatory Process for Neighbourhood Rehabilitation, Baghdad, Iraq / 140

Contents

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AbbreviationsAARAMBH Advocacy for Alternative Resources, Action, Mobilisation and BrotherhoodACT Association for Community TransformationADB Asian Development BankAIHPH All India Institute of Hygiene and Public HealthAMC Ahmedabad Municipal CorporationARG Artificial Recharge of GroundwaterAPWF Asia-Pacific Water ForumBGMS Bhartiya Gramin Mahila SanghBPL Below Poverty LineCAP Catchment Area ProtectionCAWSS Central Authority for Water Supply and SewerageCAWST Centre for Affordable Water and Sanitation TechnologyCBO Community-based OrganisationCEE Centre for Environment EducationCFT Child-friendly ToiletCLTS Community-led Total SanitationCMG Change Management GroupCMWSS Community-managed Water Supply SchemeCPF Community Participation FundCPWS Comprehensive Protected Water SupplyCRISIL Credit Rating and Information Services of IndiaCWRM Community-based Water Resource ManagementCWASC Community Water and Sanitation CommitteeDDC District Development CommitteeDENR Department of Environment and Natural ResourcesDFID Department for International DevelopmentDMA District Metered AreaDSK Dushtha Shasthya KendraDTR Direct Technical ReportDUDA District Urban Development AgencyDWASA Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage AuthorityDWSS Drinking Water Supply SystemECOSS Ecotourism and Conservation Society of SikkimENPHO Environment and Public Health OrganisationEPCO Environmental Planning and Coordination OrganisationFGD Focus Group DiscussionFIR First Information ReportGAP Gender and Poverty ApproachGIS Geographic Information SystemGMS Gender Mainstreaming StrategyGOAP Government of Andhra PradeshGOMP Government of Madhya PradeshGRET Group Research Exchanges TechnologiesGUARDIAN Gramalaya Urban and Rural Development Initiative and NetworkGVS Gram Vikas SamithiGWA Gender and Water AllianceHIHT Himalayan Institute Hospital TrustHLL Hindustan Lever Ltd.HUL Hindustan Unilever Ltd.HVWSHE Human Values-based Water, Sanitation and Hygiene EducationIAFI International Fund for Agriculture DevelopmentIBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and DevelopmentIBSUM Indian Bank�s Special Unit for Micro Finance

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IDP Internally Displace PersonsIEC Information, Education and CommunicationIFI International Financial InstitutionIG Income GenerationJNNURM Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal MissionJNTU Jawaharlal Nehru Technical UniversityJFPR Japan Fund for Poverty ReductionJSC Joint Stock CompanyKAF Kanchan Arsenic FilterKAP Knowledge, Attitude and PracticesKMC Kathmandu Metropolitan CityLCS-CAHE Low Cost Sanitation and Community Awareness and Health EducationLGSP Local Government Support ProgrammeLPCD Litres Per Capita Per DayL&T Larsen and Toubro Ltd.MAPP Municipal Action Plan for Poverty ReductionMC Municipal CorporationMCM Mahila Chetna ManchMDG Millennium Development GoalMEK-WATSAN Mekong Region Water and Sanitation InitiativeMFI Micro Finance InstitutionMIS Management Information SystemMIT Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyMLALAD Member of Legislative Assembly Local Area Development FundMoU Memorandum of UnderstandingMPLAD Member of Parliament Local Area Development FundNASC National Arsenic Steering CommitteeNEWAH Nepal Water for HealthNGO Non-governmental OrganisationNGOFUWS NGO Forum for Urban Water and SanitationNGPES National Growth and Poverty Eradication StrategyNRCS Nepal Red-Cross SocietyO&M Operation and MaintenanceOPP Orangi Pilot ProjectPACB Primary Agricultural Cooperative BankPCWS Philippine Centre for Water and SanitationPDA Pilot and Demonstration ActivityPDCA Plan-Do-Check-ActPGTWP Puer General Tap Water PlantPMC Pune Municipal CorporationPMU Project Management UnitPOU Point-of-Use Drinking Water TreatmentPP Poverty PocketPPSA Poverty Pocket Situation AnalysisPPWSA Phnom Penh Water Supply AuthorityPTA Parent Teacher AssociationPUB Public Utilities BoardPWS Protected Water Supply SchemePWSC Provincial Water and Sanitation CentreQEE Quality and Equity in EducationRBI Reserve Bank of IndiaRBTS Reed-bed Wastewater Treatment SystemRDI Rural Development Institute

Abbreviations

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RGA Rapid Gender AssessmentRHEP Rural Health and Environment ProgrammeRO Reverse OsmosisRSF Revolving Sanitation FundRWF Revolving Water FundRWHPP Rain Water Harvesting Promotion ProgrammeRWS Rural Water SupplyRWSSSP Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Support ProgrammeSADC Swiss Agency for Development CooperationSCP Sustainable City ProgrammeSEAMEO Southeast Asian Ministers of Education OrganisationSESI Slum Environmental Sanitation InitiativeSGSITS Shri G.S. Institute of Technology and ScienceSHE Sanitation and Hygiene EducationSHG Self-help GroupSMC Surat Municipal CorporationSODIS Solar Water DisinfectionSRSP Sarhad Rural Support ProgrammeSSSWSP Sri Sathya Sai Water Supply ProjectSWM Solid Waste ManagementTA Technical AssistanceTCWM Total Community Water ManagementTDS Total Dissolved SolidsTERI The Energy and Resources InstituteTFET Trust Fund for East TimorTISA Transitional Islamic State of AfghanistanTOT Training of TrainersTWAD Board Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage BoardUCSF Urban Community Support FundUFW Unaccounted-for WaterUGD Urban Ground DrainageULB Urban Local BodyULG Urban Local GovernmentUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNICEF United Nations Children�s FundUSAID United States Agency for International DevelopmentVDC Village Development CommitteeVWSC Village Water and Sanitation CommitteeWAC Water for Asian Cities ProgrammeWAN WaterAid NepalWASH Water, Sanitation and HygieneWATSAN Water and SanitationWCPC Water Consumer Protection CommitteeWDM Water Demand ManagementWHO World Health OrganizationWMR Water Meter ReaderWRP Water Resource Planning and ConservationWSP Water and Sanitation ProgrammeWSUC Water and Sanitation Users CommitteeWTF Wastewater Treatment FacilityYWW Yokohama Waterworks Bureau

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The Asian continent represents the world�s mostpopulous region with most of the world�s largest citiesand it is the global economic powerhouse of thefuture. By 2030, half of the Asian population will beliving in the cities and Asia alone will account formore than half of the world�s urban population. TheAsian region is experiencing the dynamics ofeconomic growth, rapid urbanisation and poverty.The reality is that more than two-thirds of the globalpoor live in Asia and more than 620 million peoplelive on one dollar per day or less. Asia is the home tohalf of the world�s slum population. Almost two-thirdsof the global population without access to safedrinking water and three-fourths of the world�spopulation without access to safe sanitation live inAsia. The burden is heaviest on the poor and onwomen, affecting their health, safety and dignity.

Despite substantial investments in providing drinkingwater and sanitation by the country governments,access to these services remains a challenge. Thechallenges are no doubt complex, but by no meansinsurmountable. A concrete, realistic and achievableplan of action with vision, implementation strategiesand monitoring mechanisms is needed to meet thewide variance in country-specific conditions. Whilesome countries do have plans but not the means ofimplementation, many developing countries do noteven have plans on how to transform the principlesand guidelines of the Millennium Summit intoconcrete actions.

UN-HABITAT has been addressing these issues tosupport the participating governments in the Asia-Pacificregion in attaining water and sanitation related MDGsin a sustainable manner by promoting city level:

� Pro-poor water and sanitation governance;� Conservation and demand management;� Environmental sanitation initiatives;� Gender mainstreaming;� Community-managed approaches;� Capacity building; and� Value-based water, sanitation and hygiene

education.

These initiatives are proven instruments on groundrealities and help to scale up water and sanitation(WATSAN) services in the region in a most cost-effectivemanner with sustainable means as per the requirementsand acceptability of the communities. There have beenseveral instances of local actions/practices evolvedunder these initiatives by the governments, the peoplethemselves, non-governmental organisations or byappropriate partnerships, which have been successfully

implemented. These local actions/practices areconsidered as appropriate solutions which are replicableand transferable to other cities and regions.

UN-HABITAT and its collaborators prepared a �Vision2020� document on the �Delivery of the MDGs forWater and Sanitation in the Asia-Pacific Region�,which articulated the core elements on a region-wideapproach to water and sanitation which areappropriate to the aspirations of the Asian countriesdespite varying conditions and challenges.

In support of this initiative, the publication on �LocalActions for Sustainable Development on Water andSanitation in Asia-Pacific Region� aims at supportingthe country governments of the region in achievingtheir localised MDGs relating to water and sanitationby sharing such solutions that can be easilyreplicated, scaled up and sustainable besides beingcost-effective and innovative. It brings forward theproven practices in different parts of the region,which are pro-poor, appropriate, affordable andacceptable to the user communities.

The Publication presents 58 Local Actions beingpracticed in 26 Nations of the Asia-Pacific regionwhich include Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh,Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq,Japan, Kiribati, Korea, Kuwait, Kyrgyz Republic, LaoPDR, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, thePhilippines, Qatar, Singapore, Tajikistan, Timor-Leste,Ukraine, Uzbekistan and Vietnam, organised underseven thematic areas in seven Sections:

Section I: Pro-poor Water and SanitationGovernance

Section II: Integrated Policy, Planning andManagement

Section III: Appropriate TechnologiesSection IV: Community-managed Initiatives and

AwarenessSection V: Gender Mainstreaming and EmpowermentSection VI: Innovative FinancingSection VII: Human Values-based Water, Sanitation

and Hygiene Education

The thematic areas are considered in congruencewith proven initiatives of UN-HABITAT in the Asia-Pacific Region, supporting the governing principlesof the Vision 2020 - �Policy as Practice�, with themain focus on Pro-poor Governance, IntegratedPolicy and Planning, Appropriate Technologies,Partnerships, Community Awareness andParticipation with Gender Involvement and Value-based Education on Water, Sanitation and Hygiene.

Executive Summary

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The experiences presented in the Publication areexpected to provide a road map to the implementingauthorities, reflecting new knowledge, flexiblestrategies, and facilitating a framework towardsfaster WATSAN services in the region.

The Local Actions have been documented with thesupport of UN-HABITAT professionals in the regionand in partner organisations. Each Local Action, ingeneral, illustrates the situation before the initiativewas started, the objectives and strategies,mobilisation of resources, the impact of the practice,lessons learned, sustainability and transferability.

Section I on �Pro-poor Water and SanitationGovernance� presents 9 Local Actions beingpractised in Azerbaijan, China, India, Pakistan,Tajikistan and Timor-Leste with primary emphasis onpro-poor sector reforms and transformation as wellas principled governance in the promotion ofWATSAN services.

�Integrated Policy, Planning and Management�practices governed by Leadership, Political Will,Democratisation, Regulatory Mechanisms andTransparency, are illustrated in Section II through 14proven practices in Afghanistan, Cambodia, China,India, Iran, Japan, Kirabati, Korea, Kuwait, KyrgyzRepublic, Nepal and Uzbekistan.

Section III on �Appropriate Technologies� exhibitsthe importance of appropriate, affordable andculturally acceptable technologies, as instruments foraugmenting the water and sanitation facilities andpresents 10 such Local Actions being practised inIndia, Indonesia, Nepal, the Philippines, Singaporeand Qatar.

The impact of �Community-managed Initiativesand Awareness� has been dealt under Section IVthrough 12 Local Actions from Bangladesh, India,Iraq, Japan, Lao PDR, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua NewGuinea, the Philippines and Ukraine.

Developing �Gender Mainstreaming Strategy andEmpowerment� has been the new strategy inpromoting sustainable development and services inthe water and sanitation sector, which is the subject ofSection V. Five pioneering Local Actions from India,Nepal and Pakistan are presented in this Section.

�Innovative Financing� practices benefiting thesmall urban centres in particular, would help promoteefficient and effective service delivery of water supplyand sanitation services. Six Local Actions fromCambodia, India, Nepal and Vietnam are illustratedin Section VI.

UN-HABITAT recognises the need for promoting anew ethic on water and sanitation, based onuniversal human values of mutual respect and carefor the environment. Human Values-based Water,

Sanitation and Hygiene Education (HVWSHE) is astrategic and long-term intervention which canprovide a foundation for more sustainable practicesand are integrated in UN-HABITAT�s governingpolicies. Section VII on �HVWSHE� showcases theexperiences and the impact of value-based educationon water and sanitation in the environment and thesociety in India and Southeast Asia.

In a nutshell, the publication presents various LocalActions from different countries of the Asia-PacificRegion which are pro-poor, affordable, appropriate,culturally acceptable and extremely useful. Theselocal actions/practices share several �lessonslearned�, which are significant for the countrygovernments and practising professionals in supportof their efforts to achieve the MDGs on water andsanitation. These primarily include:

� policy reforms � from policy as intention to policyas practice

� dynamic leadership and political will� technical sustainability of facilities� financial sustainability ensuring continued flow of

funds to maintain services� institutional sustainability to preserve the

standards of consistent services� environmental sustainability to ensure continued

supply of quality services� overarching the importance of gender mainstreaming� indispensable role of NGOs and partnerships at

all levels� generating credibility in external interventions

based on on-the-ground performance� involvement of civil society organisations in design

and management� capacity building of CBOs and NGOs in project

development and delivery as well as insustainability, decision-making process, financialmanagement, technical operations, monitoring,evaluation and extending proper linkages withlocal governments

� significance of HVWSHE in promoting changes inbehaviour and attitudes

� instituting user contributions and use of revolving funds� culture of accountability and transparency in

operations� improved public disclosures and information base.

The publication will serve as a Guide Book forcountry governments, functionaries at all levels ofoperation, professionals, NGOs, CBOs and thoseengaged in improving the quality of life by promotingdrinking water supply and safe sanitation. It is hopedthat the Local Actions illustrated in the publicationwould provide new directions and insights and act astools for the practitioners and policy-makers forscaling up sustainable water and sanitation deliveryto facilitate the achievement of the MDGs set for2015. The authorities using these Local Actions areencouraged to modify and develop appropriateapplications suitable to the local environment andalso share the same with others.

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Introduction: Water, Sanitation andQuality of Life

�Every citizen, woman, man or child, withoutexception, in every country in Asia has the right tosafe water and safe water and sanitation for her orhis health and well being. It is in the power ofevery country to meet this obligation by 2020through commitment, leadership, innovation andwith full participation of all its citizens.�

Where We Are: Realities andChallenges

In September 2000, governments across the world,including Asia-Pacific region, made a commitmentto the UN Millennium Development Goals. Thisunprecedented step was a universalacknowledgement of the seriousness of theproblems of poverty, its causes and consequencesglobally. The importance of providing safe waterand sanitation in the fight against poverty wasrecognised from the outset. Specific targets wereset to halve the proportion of people withoutaccess to safe water and sanitation by 2015.

Since then, the importance of the provision of safewater and sanitation to fundamental aspects ofdevelopment and well being, and indeed thelinkages to the other MDGs, has been widelyacknowledged. Subsequently, several studies andtask forces, including the UN Millennium ProjectTask Force on Water and Sanitation and the AsiaWater Watch 2015, have emphatically made thecase for the importance of the water and sanitationMDG target, and highlighted its pertinence toimproving health, education and economicdevelopment and quality of life generally. Thechallenges, however, are considerable.

Scale of Service Shortfalls

Progress towards these targets in the Asia-PacificRegion has been less rapid than anticipated. TheHuman Development Report of 2006 States thatalmost two out of every three persons in the worldwithout access to safe water and three out of fourwithout access to safe sanitation live in Asia. Over635 million people in the region are without safewater, and 1,880 million without safe sanitation.

According to the Asia Water Watch 2015 report,the number of people without safe sanitation inurban areas actually increased between 1990 and2002. At current rates of progress, the MDGs willnot be met for sanitation in many countries of Asia.

The Challenge

A heavy burden on the poor, women and children

The burden associated with inadequate coverageand access and of inefficient service delivery fallsheaviest on the most vulnerable and the poorest.Two out of three of the unserved earn less than $2per day, and are unable to make household levelinvestments to compensate for unreliable andunsafe services. Poor citizens, women and childrenare also the most excluded from decision making.Lack of access to safe sanitation affects women themost not only in terms of their health but also theirdignity and safety, particularly in areas of conflictor those affected by disasters. Women and girlsespecially find their productivity impaired by theirsocial roles and the costly and time-consumingtasks of collection and storage of water. Because ofthe lack of access and the poor quality of services,low tariffs often do not help the poor, who are lesslikely to be connected in the first place and rely oninformal vendors.

Sector transformation � a priority

The task ahead is, therefore, not just amechanistic one about finance andinfrastructure. The sector unfortunately suffersfrom a tendency to invest in the creation of newassets and facilities, while neglecting themanagement and maintenance of those assetsover time. Financial dependence on higher tierfunds further weakens local jurisdiction, leads towaste and a disregard for the requirements ofcustomers and citizens. Higher tier support,ostensibly aimed at the poor, is often misdirectedas generic subsidies fail to reach the poor. Rigidpolicy and legal frameworks deny the actual andpotential roles of large and small-scale privatesector providers. The financiers remain anddeprive the sector from the full contributions andinnovations they could provide. These realitieshave left the sector inefficient, costly and out oftouch with those it is supposed to serve.

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Dealing with these challenges requires anunswerving commitment to address issues ofequity and inclusion, balance the multiplerequirements of urban, peri-urban and ruralareas at a time of rapid and unplannedurbanisation, and bring service provision intouch with the people required to use and payfor those services. Such a challenge calls for asense of urgency and far-reachingtransformation to instill sensitive, imaginativeand accountable governance and fundamentalchanges in attitudes and behaviour, a culture ofservice and responsibility and awareness bygovernments and citizens alike.

Above all, the response needs to be imbued with asense of urgency. Given the huge backlog andnumbers involved, it is no longer enough forcountries in Asia to aspire to meet the MillenniumGoals. As an obligation to their people and as anexample to the rest of the world total provision ofsafe water and sanitation for basic human needsby 2020 can be the only option.

Closing the Gap: Two Cardinal Sets ofPrinciples

Asia is a region of great diversity in all its aspects -systems of administration, culture and availabilityof water. There can, therefore, be no one blueprintapproach for the full provision of safe water andsanitation services to the people of each country.There are multiple routes to match different set ofcircumstances, particularly at the micro level.However, there are a number of general or macroprinciples which, when adapted to the contextualcircumstances of each country, can result in bigand beneficial changes, particularly for the poorand vulnerable.

The fundamental premise on which progress can bemade is that ensuring (which is different from directlyproviding) the delivery of water and sanitationservices is squarely the responsibility of each nationalgovernment in Asia. But to be successful, they willneed above all, determined leadership and thepolitical will that is absolutely necessary to maintainthe commitment that will be needed.

Principled Governance

The first step on this journey and the overarchingframework is principled governance which, in thecontext of the provision of safe water andsanitation will have its different nuances in eachcountry in the region. But there are certain aspects

of governance which are common and coverpolicy, attitudes and practices.

Pro-poor Approach

Of these, there are several attributes related toattitude and approach which are particularlyimportant in ensuring that governance isprincipled, both in the setting of policy and itspractice, and goes beyond efficiency (which isundoubtedly important) to a commitment to equityand the interests of poor and vulnerable peopleand in particular, to women.

� The first is according the provision of water/sanitation services to poor communities (whichin the urban context means a focus on slumsettlements, both �recognised� and�unrecognised�) top priority in the setting ofpolicy and following it up with a commitment toprovide the necessary resources. This wouldmean that MDGs are not just national targetsand the first step to full provision but alsotargets at local level. The consequences of suchan emphasis would be that reliable andaffordable water and sanitation services forpoor communities would not merely be theoutcome of planned projects but the startingpoint in their design and execution and bebased on an attitude of respect not patronage.

� The second is embracing a culture ofaccountability which would necessitate not just�passive� transparency (e.g., putting outinformation on policies on the website) but alsoan active engagement in debate and discussionon policies and their consequences, projectdesigns and their alternatives and impactassessments with unserved communities inlocations and idioms where the participation ofcommunities as key stakeholders is real and nota token activity on a checklist.

� The third which is a natural consequence of theabove two is a determination to reach the �lastmile�, an emphasis on speedy delivery, especiallyto poor communities. This can only be done ifthere is a willingness to understand the inherentdiversity of communities and their different needs,try new approaches and avoid prevarication.

� The fourth, which is especially important in anenvironment where there is a general shortageof resources, should be an emphasis onsustainability in all its aspects (technicalsustainability of facilities e.g. operation andmaintenance, financial sustainability ensuringthe continued flow of funds to maintainservices, institutional sustainability to preserve

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the standards of consistent service andenvironmental sustainability to ensure thecontinued supply of water and to avoiddeterioration in quality).

Institutional Reform

While there is now a broad agreement about theneed for institutional reform, performance remainspatchy and, in several countries, urban policy inparticular remains mired in confusion. There is nodoubt that policy reform is a complex subject at atime of rapid growth and the diverging interests ofseveral stakeholders. However, there are some issuesthat need to be addressed as a matter of urgency.

� While decentralisation in the governancearrangements to local levels of government isimportant, it has to move off the statute booksand be accompanied by real devolution of fiscaland managerial responsibility and a clearunderstanding of roles. Timing and terms oftransfer of responsibility are equally importantso that changes in governance structures areaccompanied by measures to ensure therequisite management capacity exists toundertake the expected tasks before transfer ofresponsibilities and that local entities are notsaddled with unsustainable levels of debt. Thismay require �write-off� of debts in some cases.

� Whoever is the service provider, whether agovernment-owned entity with independentauthority or a local community-owned networkor a private sector or NGO provider orcontractor, the introduction of independentregulatory systems to ensure the affordabilityand reliability of safe water and sanitationservices, particularly to poor people, combinedwith a system of incentives and sanctions to beapplied to encourage the swift in thecompletion of projects, is important.

� Finally, given the record of delayed projects orinitiatives that have been reversed, shortduration projects, using fast track mechanisms,which begin to deliver safe and affordablewater and sanitation, within the span of apolitical cycle, can protect the interests of poorcommunities from the effects of politicalchanges, which can result from a competitivepolitical environment.

From Policy as Intention to Policy asPractice

Meeting the exacting standards of good governanceas described above and to actually deliver results is

no easy task and would need a number of steps andinitiatives. These include the following:

Focused Generation and Application of Resources

Inadequate and ill directed financial flows,together with poor technical and managementcapacities can and do frustrate otherwise positivepolicy initiatives and cripple water and sanitationservice delivery. Corrective measures in the area offinance are often painful but necessary for theexpansion of supply, for proper maintenance andfor an equitable distribution of costs and usercharges. Measures to introduce improvementscould examine the following:

� While there is an overall need for financialresources from general budgetary sources andin some cases from external sources (grants orloans) especially for capital expenditure, inmany situations there is a need to transferresources from the better off including industrialand commercial establishments (who oftenbenefit from perverse subsidies and low tariffs)to poor communities (who suffer from highcosts in terms of time and money fromunreliable supplies of expensive water) throughbold increases in tariff levels with generous andtargeted subsidies for poor families. Thispolitically unpopular move is necessary not onlyto generate resources to maintain and improveservice levels but also to manage demand froma conservation point of view.

� Provision of sufficient resources for operationand maintenance may seem obvious but isoften neglected in actual practice and mayrequire continued subsidies for central funds tothose local bodies/service providers who arenot able to generate enough resources fromconsumers in their areas (applicable to bothurban and rural situations where there arelarge numbers of poor people and fewer highpayers including industrial and commercialestablishments).

� Investment in training and skill development atall levels of local service providers (often themost neglected tier of government when theservice provider is the local municipality) notjust as a one-off exercise but on a continuingbasis to keep up with technical and systemimprovements as they happen in different partsof the region is necessary to ensure that waterand sanitation services receive the kind ofprofessional management that is proportionateto their importance as a fundamental basicservice. A case can also be made for similar

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inputs focused on local elected representatives(mayors, members of locally elected bodies attown and village level) who can only dischargetheir obligations with proper information andsome subject knowledge.

� Civil Society organisations not only championthe cause of poor people but introduceinnovations in technical designs, managementsystems (including the role of women�s groupsin traditionally male bastions such as technicalmaintenance of public water and sanitationfacilities) and accountability measures such associal audits. They are also generally morecost-effective than either governmentdepartments or the private sector. Specificresources allocated to them would be a big stepforward, particularly in outreach to poorcommunities.

� Public disclosure of water and sanitationbudgets and the regular scrutiny of expenditureis part of an accountability mechanism, whichcan help to direct resources to the right places(such as slum settlements) and to combatcorruption. This is a measure to be appliedacross the board whoever is the user of funds,whether government departments or civilsociety organisations.

� Often it is the problems of big metropolitancentres that occupy the attention of policymakers and service providers. Secondary townsand peri-urban areas receive disproportionatelysmall amounts of time, attention and resources.This is a situation that has to be corrected ifthere is to be any chance at all of achieving fullprovision of water and sanitation services.

In order that positive policy initiatives facilitatesustained water and sanitation delivery followingmeasures may be considered within country context.

� Targeted fiscal support for those that cannotobtain access otherwise. The challenge is toachieve economic costing of water, and then totarget those specific groups of consumers thatneed support.

� A focus on operation and maintenance:Fiscal, political and professional incentives areoften towards asset creation. The need,however, is to develop and encourageappropriate fiscal incentives to improveoperations and maintenance, and to mobilisethe support of policy makers at all levels forsuch an approach.

� Investment in training and skill development:Concerted effort is needed to enhance the skillsof officials at provider level, and the awareness

of issues and options among providers, policymakers and regulatory agencies. At aninstitutional level such professionalisation willbenefit from a clearer separation of these roles.A well-designed awareness and capacity set ofprograms could bring to the fore the need fornew approaches and equip those concerned topursue those options. The area of greatest needis arguably that of local service providers, and itwill be important not just to build capacity as aone-off exercise but on a continuing basis. Itshould keep track with technical and systemimprovements, and knowledge-sharingthroughout the region. Care should be taken tonot merely focus on professional staff, but alsoto build awareness and understanding amonglocal elected representatives (mayors, membersof locally elected bodies at town and villagelevel) who can only discharge their obligationswith proper information and some subjectknowledge.

� Improved public disclosure: The disclosureof water and sanitation budgets, regularscrutiny of expenditure, and release ofinformation on operational conditions is partof an accountability mechanism which canhelp to direct resources to the right places.There is a need to create fiscal and legalincentives and systems that would enhancebetter disclosure. It should be applied to allgovernment departments, public utilities orcontracted private operators. A fullytransparent sector would also entailaccessible information on the activities of civilsociety organisations.

� Improved Data: Better information will make itmore possible to measure performance,address problems (such as leakages) and serveconsumers according to their specificrequirements. Key elements of suchimprovement would be integrated informationmanagement, including reform of accountingand budgeting practices, development ofmonitoring and evaluation mechanisms,consumer feedback systems andcommunications strategies and improving dataabout water production, infrastructure,payment, subsidies and operating costs, as wellas customers. Civil society organisations canplay an important part in the generation ofaccurate information about water andsanitation facilities, not just their availability butalso their usage and their impact on the lives ofpoor people.

� Fast-tracked project mechanisms: Thesustainability of improved delivery hinges oninstitutional change, but the record of delayed

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projects or initiatives requires specialmechanisms to expedite projects. This isessential to address urgent backlogs and also apotentially powerful tool to develop goodpractices and approaches.

Integrated Policy and Planning

Confusion in policy development, administrationand accountability between governmentdepartments with a stake in safe water andsanitation provision including the ministries ofhealth, urban development, water resources andpossibly others is not unusual and more likely inrapidly growing urban conglomerations. VariousGovernment departments with a stake in safewater and sanitation provision including theministries needed to take various steps to handlethe situation arising out of rapidly growing urbanconglomerations. Practical steps to improve thesituation could include the following:

� Inclusive and coherent policy and planning:As far as national policy and planning isconcerned, it is important to cut across differenttypes of contexts � from big metropolitancentres to secondary towns and peri-urbanareas. The requirements may be different, andit is important to adopt a differentiatedapproach that allows those at theimplementation level to be creative and flexible,but within coherent policy frameworks onaspects like standards, issues of universalaccess, core governance criteria and fiscal andfinancial sustainability.

� Environmental considerations: In order toavoid harmful environment consequences suchas water logging and mixing of sewage withstorm water, it is important to plan water andsanitation projects in an integrated manner andnot sequentially. Sector planning can, therefore,not be insulated from broader city, district orlocal planning, or from, for example, planningfor waste management, which could haveserious consequences in terms of waterpollution and the obstruction of naturaldrainage flows.

� Dealing with wider planning and land issues:Policies relating to land tenure and occupancyrights in �unrecognised� slums in urbanconglomerations sometimes result in very largenumber of poor people being left out of waterand sanitation projects. This is an issue thatcannot be neglected or delayed. People, ratherthan formal land titles, should be the basis forwater and sanitation coverage efforts if full

provision water and sanitation facilities are to beachieved of. Equally rehabilitation policies forpeople evicted from their dwellings should includeprovision for safe water and sanitation facilities.

� Role separation to govern the policy-implementation link: The effectiveimplementation of projects, management ofassets and delivery and financing of servicesrequires a set of institutions with clearresponsibilities and roles, on the basis of whichthey can be held accountable. The MDG targetswill remain out of reach unless institutionaltransformation takes place.

The Use of Appropriate Technology andSystem Models

Current demographic trends and the rapid andchaotic growth of urban centres in manycountries in Asia together with growing demandson existing water sources make the search forinnovative technologies and neighbourhood-centred approaches a task of considerableimportance. A number of technological andsystem techniques and approaches can help inthe rapid and focused spread of water andsanitation services, particularly among poorcommunities. Among the ones, which are worthpursuing, are the following:

� The use of GIS to map urban and ruralsettlements to plan water and sanitationprojects and to track coverage patterns,particularly those of poor communities. This is atechnique which could well be used by poorcommunities themselves and provide animportant tool to ensure accountability;

� The use of e-governance systems for openadministration including transparent usercharge collection, attention to customercomplaints and regular scrutiny of maintenancehot spots where special attention is needed tomaintain service levels and quality;

� The development of systems to track leakagesin piped networks, a measure with wideranging benefits including reduction of wastageand increase in revenues. This is an area wherethe expertise of the private sector could beparticularly relevant;

� The recycling of wastewater using newertechnologies including membranes and filters;

� The introduction of local or in situ sewagetreatment systems and technologies to avoid theenvironmentally unsustainable and financiallyunaffordable models of city-wide water-bornesewage systems;

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� The introduction of techniques to collect andstore rainwater to augment water supplies as arigorously enforced policy;

� The introduction of small piped networks wherethe operation and maintenance of water andsanitation services are left to local communities orlocal entrepreneurs acting as service providers; and

� The introduction of simple water quality testingkits which can be used widely and by manystakeholders including educational institutions.

All these are measures where there is a wealth ofexperience in Asia and where all stakeholders,including governments and their agencies, theprivate sector and civil society organisations haveplayed a notable part.

Partnerships

While the primary responsibility for water andsanitation services is that of national governmentsthere is enough experience to show that they willneed partnerships with others such as civil societyorganisations (not just NGOs but also user groups,community-based organisations and associations,research institutions and others) and the privatesector to be able to reach the levels of coverage,especially among poor communities, that will benecessary to reach the ambitious objective of fullcoverage.

The need for clarity of roles for CSOs is particularlyimportant. Currently, they are often used in the roleof contractors to develop �awareness� or in the taskof community organisation to facilitateparticipation in water supply projects and schemes,the designs and operating parameters of whichhave already been decided. This approach is notlikely to lead to the kind of joint effort that isnecessary. The involvement of CSOs in the designphase, and particularly in the scrutiny andassessment of progress, will add huge value tojoint efforts and in reaching the last mile ofreaching poor communities. It is also worthmentioning that civil society organisations can playan important part in the generation of accurate

information about water and sanitation facilities,not just their availability but also their usage andtheir impact on the lives of poor people.Partnerships by their very nature depend on trust.This will require not only demonstratedcompetence among the partners but also changesin attitude. Government authorities and civil societyorganisations, including NGOs, will need to adoptan open attitude to the sharing of information andthe ability to work together.

Awareness

Though the task of reaching the MDGs and fullservice provision in countries is formidable butcertainly achievable. It will require the activeparticipation of all citizens. There needs to be abig investment in massive awareness campaignsinvolving educational institutions, legislatures,mass contact organisations and people at largewith a concerted and imaginative use of themedia and all types of communication methodsto overcome the taboos relating to discussionsabout sanitation and generate the levels ofinterest and understanding of issues relating towater and sanitation and most essentially,hygiene and the enthusiasm which can sustainthe energy and commitment to reach the goal ofsafe water and sanitation services for all thepeople of Asia.

Three imperatives are particularly important:

� The need for a concerted campaign over thenext five years to raise awareness and generatethe drive and momentum to change policiesand governance practices and build sectorcapacity;

� The need for a multi stakeholder approach ineach country to achieve synergies and a unitedeffort; and

� The need for active sharing of information andexperience across the region as part of a regionwide initiative.

With clarity of purpose and unity of effort, the2020 vision can be achieved.

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Section I : Pro-poor Water and Sanitation GovernanceSection II : Integrated Policy, Planning and ManagementSection III : Appropriate TechnologiesSection IV : Community-managed Initiatives and AwarenessSection V : Gender Mainstreaming and EmpowermentSection VI : Innovative FinancingSection VII : Human Values-based Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Education

SECTION I

Pro-poor Water andSanitation Governance

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It is widely accepted that good governance is vitalfor improving the quality of life in cities. Studieshave established that there is a clear relationshipbetween governance and human development.Better water and sanitation governance for theurban poor implies that the government needs toensure the poor and the vulnerable to obtainadequate water and sanitation. The operationalexperience of UN-HABITAT confirms that goodgovernance is the difference between a well-managed and inclusive city and the one that ispoorly managed and exclusive. The result of goodgovernance is �sustained development� that givespriority to the poor, advances the cause of women,sustains the environment and creates neededopportunities for employment and other livelihood.The UN-HABITAT approach to pro-poorgovernance is to develop a framework that allowswater and sanitation reforms and investments toreach the poorest of the poor. The approachemphasises the building of partnerships as well asthe governing principles that include:

� Involving civil society to influence priorities andinvestments;

� Specific attention to women, adolescent girls andboys, children and the marginalised people;

� Mechanisms to articulate interests of thevulnerable and hold accountability tostakeholders;

� Regulatory frameworks that protect providersand consumers alike; and

� Encouraging responsive, affordable andsustainable services.

Addressing the key features of this approach,9 local practices from Azerbaijan, China, India,Pakistan, Tajikistan and Timor-Leste are illustratedin this Section, as summarised below:

Azerbaijan: the efforts in building waterinfrastructure provide a model for much-neededreform that supports partnership between privatesector participation and the consumers.

Pro-poor Water and Sanitation GovernancePeoples� Republic of China: the Puer City inYunnan Province focused on pro-poor reformpolicies, pricing measures and efficiency in themanagement by mobilising political will, raisingawareness through advocacy, information andeducation, capacity building, promoting newinvestments in the sector.

India: under Slum Environmental SanitationInitiative of UN-HABITAT in the cities of Bhopal,Indore, Gwalior and Jabalpur in the State ofMadhya Pradesh, significant improvements havebeen made in the lives of slum communitiesthrough creating �open defecation free� slums,improving access to safe water, sanitation andhygiene practices and mobilising men and womenfor community action. The initiative has usedPoverty Mapping as an instrument to prioritise theslums for investments based on poverty andenvironmental infrastructure deficiency matrix. AWater Demand Management Strategy andImplementation Plan has been evolved for thesecities to assess and regulate non-revenue water.The municipal reforms brought out in the city ofSurat, Gujarat, have been a model approach inaddressing the problems of the Environment andPublic Health by adopting the principles of goodurban governance.

Pakistan: the financial and environmentalsustainability with social equity has been theunique feature of the Gujarat Sanitation initiativeto provide sanitation services to the poor and thesocially excluded.

Tajikistan: a pilot and demonstration activity inJomi District, has been initiated to create a newinstitutional framework for managing drinkingwater supply.

Timor-Leste: the experience illustrates howpartnerships between various water sectorstakeholders can reconstruct the war-torn countryand provided water to the people.

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No other country in Central Asia comes close to Azerbaijan in expanding its water coverage in bothurban and rural areas. The country�s efforts in building water infrastructure and improving its institutionsand services are sure to bring Azerbaijan closer to its goal of providing access to adequate potablewater at low costs. Improvements in Azerbaijan�s water supply and sanitation services (WSS) will be feltby its urban populace by 2010 with increased support from Asian Development Bank (ADB) and otherdonors for WSS infrastructure, as well as the Government�s initiative to improve the quality, reliabilityand sustainability of these services in the towns of Goychay, Agdash, and Nakhchivan. This project shallprovide a model for much-needed reform that supports private sector participation and effectivepartnership with consumers by bringing Infrastructural and Institutional Development.

AZERBAIJAN

Building Infrastructure and Improving Institutions

Background

The WSS sector in the Republic of Azerbaijan isburdened with inefficient operations, outdated andrundown physical infrastructure, and severefinancial constraints. As paying customers,Azerbaijan�s citizens receive water at irregulartimes of the day and is usually unfit forconsumption. The Government Service Providers orSuKanals have focused on engineering-designingand constructing expansions of the system andneglected the operations and maintenance of thecurrent system, including its financial managementand commercial performance.

Objectives

To provide adequate potable water supply at lowcost to the people of Goychay, Agdash, andNakhchivan by promoting infrastructure andinstitutional development.

Resources

ADB and other donors ramp up their support forwater supply and sanitation infrastructure inAzerbaijan�s towns.

Process

The WSS Project consists of two components:

� Infrastructure development: Construction of newand efficient distribution systems for Goychayand Agdash, and rehabilitation of theNakhchivan system; and

� Institutional development: Promotinginstitutional reform and capacity buildingthrough private sector participation, theestablishment of Joint Stock Companies (JSCs)in each of the towns and communityinvolvement through water user associations.

The project will also pilot new approaches forthe WSS sector as a basis for other sector-widereforms in the three towns.

Institutional reform in Azerbaijan�s WSS sector willbegin with replacing the State-owned and operatedSuKanals with open-type, JSCs in each of the projecttowns. These new water utilities are co-owned by theGovernment and private sector operators. Theprivate sector will be involved to provide internationalexpertise in operating, managing and maintainingthe new WSS facilities through a managementcontract and to train local personnel to take fullresponsibility for the operating services.

The new utility companies will:

� own assets constructed and rehabilitated underthe project, and be responsible for theoperation, management, and maintenance ofnew WSS systems;

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Section IPro-poor Water and Sanitation Governance

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� have independence on financial, managerial,operational, and staffing decisions; and

� report to specific State agencies, and beaccountable for their performances.

The project will also test the innovation of townwater users associations, which will be formed asadvocacy groups to represent consumer interests.They will be recognised by the water utilities asimportant partners in customer satisfaction andservice delivery. They undertake public informationcampaigns about effective use of WSS services andrepresent members� concern over servicestandards, quality, and tariffs.

Expected Results

The urban water supply and sanitation project shallbring change to benefit 147,000 people in Goychay,Agdash and Nakhchivan, providing access toadequate potable water at low costs by 2010through WSS improvements and new infrastructure.

These include:

� New well fields to replace non-functioningones, including those destroyed by floods;

� New pipe systems, elevated reservoirs, andchlorinating facilities to replace the existingwater distribution system;

� New main and branch sewers, seweragepumping stations, and waste stabilisationponds.

Sustainability of the initiative

The improvements to the Azerbaijan WSS systemare in accordance with ADB�s water policy forincreasing people�s access to water supply andsanitation. The ADB water policy advocatesprojects that support optimisation of agency forfunctions, private sector participation,autonomous service providers, tariffrestructuring, user participation, greater waterquality and system efficiency, and betterwastewater management. The Azerbaijan urbanwater supply and sanitation project undertakesall of these issues with the new utilities in thethree project towns. The project�s design wasrated as �exemplary� by ADB for its attention toInstitutional improvements, partnering ofGovernment, Private Sector, and Communities innew service delivery and new water systems.

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A cooperation project between Puer General Tap Water Plant (PGTWP — a Local Water Utility) and UN-HABITAT has been initiated for promoting Community-based Water Supply and Sanitation facilities in PuerCity, Yunnan Province, P.R. China, under the Mekong Region Water and Sanitation (MEK-WATSAN) initiative.The Project�s priority is to provide safe water and sanitation to low-income residents. The project focuses onthe reform policies, pricing measures towards the poor and efficiency in management. The initiative seeks toachieve by mobilizing political will, raising awareness through advocacy, information and education; trainingand capacity building; by promoting new investments in the urban water and sanitation sector; and bysystematic monitoring of progress towards MDGs relating to water and sanitation. The project is a usefuldemonstration of how communities can mobilize and work effectively with the local authorities to meetthe MDGs.

PUER, YUNNAN PROVINCE, P.R. CHINA

Policy Reforms and Sustainable Service Delivery

Background

Puer City is located in southwest of Yunnan. It is animportant secondary town on the express highwayfrom Kunming to Bangkok. Historically, it was akey commercial place for the tea industry. The ruralimmigration has been increasing because of thereform of production system in rural areas andimprovisation of production efficiency. Watersupply and sanitation service coverage in Puer Cityis about 60%. Some communities are still usingwater from shallow wells and water ponds.Sanitation is also a big problem of the city,particularly in the city outskirts where more poorpeople are staying.

Scope of the Project

The Project has three components comprising ofWater Supply, Policy Support and Capacity Building,and Sanitation. The scope of the Project includes aninitial rapid assessment to address the ethnic orgender issues, as well as assist in the developmentof a participatory framework. In conjunction withthe surveys and the designs, work plans have beendeveloped for all stakeholders, includingimplementation arrangements and procurementpackages. Parallel to the implementation facilities,pricing policies and structures are being developedand implemented, billing and collection systemswill be established, operation and maintenancesystems initiated, and community awarenessprogrammes organised. A simple and appropriatemonitoring system has been evolved for thesustainability of the project. In essence, aframework of sustainability will be developed.

Objectives and Strategies

� Achieve pro-poor water and sanitationinvestments in the city;

� Enhance institutional and human resourcecapacities at local and regional levels for thesustainability of improved water and sanitationservices;

� Enhance local private sector participation;� Reduce the environmental impact of

urbanisation on the Mekong River and itstributaries;

� Enhance economic development throughimproved water and sanitation, as well asrelated income-generating activities;

� Demonstration of how a community can workwith a water supply entity to acquire safe waterand adequate sanitation that meet its needs;

� Improved community awareness ofenvironmental sanitation; and

� Enhanced capacity of PGTWP and local artisans.

Mobilisation of Resources

The pilot project is to construct a branch pipeline toconnect four communities with population of3,200. The total investment is US$ 120,000 forwhich UN-HABITAT provides US$ 60,000. PuerMunicipal Government committed to provide US$30,000 through its General Tap Water Plant, whichis responsible to organise and implement theproject. The Communities will provide US$ 30,000in kind. The local Government is committed tomake the follow-up investment on water treatmentplant and main pipes to increase the water supplycapacity.

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The project has drawn the attention of theprovincial and municipal governments. Thegovernment officials have expressed full supporttowards the project. The urban planning authorityhas provided the geographical map free ofcharge. The Water Resources Management Bureauhas coordinated the implementation of the project.Nanping township government took theresponsibility of organising communities.

Puer General Tap Water Plant provides technicalsupport to the project. It is responsible for thedesign, procurement of materials, training thelocal artisans and public awareness about theproject. With the financial and technical support ofUN-HABITAT, local resources in terms of finance,technical and human resources have beenmobilised.

Process

The stakeholders� workshop of MEK-WATSANprogramme was convened by the Ministry ofConstruction in July 2005 in Kunming, YunnanProvince. There was participation from theDepartment of International Relations of MOC,Yunnan Provincial Construction Department,Jinghong, Puer (Simao) and ShuangjiangGovernments and Design Institutes. For ensuringthe implementation of the programme, a leadinggroup was set up in Yunnan Provincial ConstructionDepartment and project offices were set up in eachof the three cities.

After signing the cooperation agreement, PuerGeneral Tap Water Plant has organised a

consultation meeting attended by all stakeholders.A participatory framework and an integratedimplementation plan have been developed, andaccordingly, PGTWP made a survey and theassessment. A detailed network design was madein consultation with the communities to make thedesign, meeting with the demand of thecommunity development as well as the investment.Based on the design, PGTWP procured thematerials by tendering.

The residents of the communities have contributedto the water supply network and sanitation facilitieseither by labour or in-kind. Some poor peoplehave increased their income by working for theproject. The drainage system was jointlyconstructed with community road project that wasinvested by the township government. PGTWPprovided construction materials and technicalguidance for drainage system construction.

To ensure the quality of the project and capacitybuilding of the local artisans, PGTWP organisedtwo workshops with onsite training. With thetraining and working in this project, some peoplewill be benefited by getting jobs in labour marketafter its completion.

PGTWP has worked with price control authority toadjust the price structure. The Table-1shows thecurrent price:

PGTWP, together with governments, developed thepolicy to subsidise the low-income households forimplementation of the new water price.

Results Achieved

The main branch pipes of water supply have beenlaid down. The length is about 1000 metres. About100 connections have been completed. Meter hasbeen installed in each household. Some publictaps will be installed for the poor rural immigrants(tenants). The project will provide tap water formore than 3,200 residents on completion. With theroad construction, about 980 metres drainagesystem has been developed and connected to thetrunk main. Some municipal solid waste collectionfacilities are being implemented.

The express highway from Kunming to Bangkok isunder construction, and the Chinese section hasbeen completed. This road has promoted thetourism industry and economic development ofPuer City as it is situated along the road. Theproject has several advantages. It does not only

33

provide the water and sanitation services to morethan 3,200 residents, but also provides a modelthat shows how communities can mobilise andwork effectively with local authorities to meetMDGs. It has also promoted the follow-upinvestment. The third water treatment plant with aninvestment of US$ 675,000 is under constructionto meet the increasing water demand. An industrialdevelopment park is under construction.

Women have participated in the project both at theplanning and construction stages. Local artisanswere trained during the implementation of theproject. PGTWP has increased its own capacity byattending the international workshop andinformation exchange. PGTWP staff have beenmore familiar with the international practicesthrough the implementation of the project. Thisproject has facilitated income generation to thepoor families.

Sustainability

The project was initiated at the request of communityresidents for improving their living standards andliving environments. The interviews have shown thatthe residents desire to obtain clean water and safesanitation. They have the willingness to pay for theservice in future. They would like to make theircontribution to support the project.

The project has obtained the support of citygovernments. The Municipal Government has setup the policy on subsidy for the low-incomehouseholds. Nanjing Township Government hascommitted to help the community to establish a

management mechanism to manage the waterand sanitation facilities.

The project has conducted public awarenesscampaign. The city residents, particularly in thefour project communities, have improved theirknowledge on water conservation and watersaving. Further more, PGTWP will be responsiblefor the maintenance of network to ensure thenormal operation of the project.

With the improvements in the environment andliving conditions, more and more people arecoming forward to invest in Puer City.

Lessons Learned

Installation of �meter� for each household is animportant measure to ensure water conservation,billing and cost recovery. Due to the residentregistration system in China, some ruralimmigrants cannot obtain the subsidy from thegovernments. This needs to be addressed andimproved in other projects. The project has donesome work on policy improvement, such as waterprice policy. However, the focus should bebroadened towards wider policy regulatory issues.

Transferability

During the project implementation, PGTWP hasderived inspiration from Lao PDR, India and Nepaland also shared experience from Jinghong city.The experience obtained from this project will beused in Puer, Jinghong, Shuangjiang and othercities in Yunnan Province and China.

Household 2.8 2.00 0.80 Household, social welfare units and fire fighting, etc.

Administration 2.8 2.00 0.80 Government, school, research institute,social communities, hospital, gardening, etc.

Industrial 3.8 3.00 0.80 Industrial plant, transportation and fish farming, etc.

Commercial 4.10 3.30 0.80 Commercial trade, restaurant, hotel, construction site, etc.

Special 8.00 7.20 0.80 Sauna, car washing, etc.

Final AmongPrice Tap Waste

Category Water water Users Specification

Table-1: Price Structure


34


Slum Environmental Sanitation Initiative (SESI) is a part of UN-HABITAT�s Water for Asian CitiesProgramme, which focuses on developing approaches for making interventions at city and locallevels, to extend coverage to unserved households with higher levels of sustainability. The citiesselected for SESI are the same cities - Bhopal, Gwalior, Indore and Jabalpur, where the ADB isinvesting in upgrading the city-wide water and sanitation infrastructure. The overall purpose is todemonstrate and develop approaches for slum improvement (with focus on water, sanitation andhygiene) with select local Non-governmental Organisation (NGO) partners, which could influencethe larger investments in the cities and access to services by the marginalised. It is envisaged thatthis pilot project will demonstrate ways to promote pro-poor water and sanitation governance sothat the poor have affordable access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities which mayimprove their health, productivity and alleviate poverty through better income generation andlivelihood opportunities. It is also hoped that this project will be able to influence the adoption ofcommunity approaches including community financing and low cost technology options to influencethe larger urban sanitation welfare schemes.

The project covers about 65 slums in the four cities. Significant improvements have been made inthe lives of slum communities through creating open defecation-free slums, improving access tosafe sanitation and water, improving hygiene practices and mobilising men and women forcommunity action.

MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA

Slum Environmental Sanitation Initiatives

Introduction

In Madhya Pradesh, a central Indian State, theprocess of urbanisation gained momentum when theState registered an urban growth rate of 52.92%between 1971 and 1981. The rate of growth seemsto be tapering off since then, yet the growth of urbanpopulation in the State (31.19%) was higher than thenational average (31.13%) during 1991-2001. Theurban population constitutes 26.6% of the totalpopulation of the State which is comparable to thenational average of 27.7%, making it the sixth mosturbanised State in India.

A study by WaterAid, on Water and SanitationStatus in Urban Areas of Madhya Pradesh (2005)found very poor coverage of urban populationthrough tapped water source apart frominadequacies in proximity of sources. Whileavailability of infrastructure is accounted foraccessibility to water in the government records, thestudy noted that 93% of towns in Madhya Pradeshhave less than 70 lpcd of water as against theminimum supply norm of 135 lpcd. The study alsorevealed that only 63% of the urban centres receivewater daily, while 28% of towns receive watersupply once in two days and 9% towns once in two

or more days. Sanitation coverage is also reportedto be very low and no city is covered by a sewagenetwork. Base-line studies in the selected slums ofthe four cities have revealed that almost 40% of thepopulation is dependent on water that is availablefor less than 1 hour per day.


The primary purpose of the project is todemonstrate and develop approaches for pro-poorinvestments to improve water and sanitationconditions in slums. This pilot project is to test anew partnership model involving differentstakeholders including NGOs, Communities,Government, and elected representatives, whereeach of them have a specific role to play. This pilotproject aims to improve the water, sanitation andhygiene status amongst 20,000 families in 65slums in the four cities, leading to open defecation-free poverty pockets, while demonstrating anapproach for pro-poor urban governance. Theobjectives of the project are:

� To demonstrate a community-led approach forchanging urban governance in favour of the poorand improving the conditions of slums;

3

35

� To test as a pilot, the partnership betweenUN-HABITAT, WaterAid India and the MunicipalCorporations;

� Improving access to safe water and sanitation inselected slums to end the practice of opendefecation; and

� Developing sustainable community-owned, managedand operated water and sanitation facilities.


The project is jointly implemented by UN-HABITAT,WaterAid India and the City Municipal Corporations,with the support of implementing partners, viz.Advocacy for Alternative Resources, Action,Mobilisation and Brotherhood (AARAMBH) in Bhopal,SAMBHAV Social Service Organisation in Gwalior,Bhartiya Gramin Mahila Sangh (BGMS) in Indore,KSHITIJ and Association for CommunityTransformation (ACT) in Jabalpur. UN-HABITAT,WaterAid and the Municipal Corporations financiallysupport this project. All the three partners have aunique and significant role to play in the project toenhance the outputs and learnings.

Process

SESI aims to develop best practice models forimplementing integrated water, sanitation andhygiene projects, to maximise the health benefits,which are also cost-effective and sustainable. Thispilot project emphasises on enhancing people�scapacities for adopting safe hygiene behavioursand generates demands for sanitary facilitiesthrough use of relevant information, education andcommunication (IEC) materials.

The key activities under this project include:

� Mapping the poor in the 4 cities � a city-widemapping for all poverty pockets, used forselection of slums for further intervention. Theslums are to be selected on the basis ofinaccessibility to basic services and prevalenceof Below Poverty Line (BPL) families;

� Base line situational analysis for benchmarking ofdata on access to safe water, sanitation, hygienepractices, willingness to pay, institutional situation;

� Community mobilisation and awareness onsanitation and hygiene;

� Training and capacity building of Self-helpGroups (SHGs), NGOs and slum-level groups;

� Value-based Water, Sanitation and HygieneEducation component � focus on hygienebehavioural change through school andcommunity hygiene programmes;

� Infrastructure development � individual andcommunity toilets, solid waste management,drinking water points and roof rainwaterharvesting, among others;

� School sanitation activities; and� Documentation and learning.

Awareness building, meetings with communities todisseminate hygiene messages, motivating andmobilising communities to construct toilets,sensitising them about the ill effects of opendefecation, rallies and camps, formed thehallmark of community facilitation exercise doneby the partners. Simultaneous efforts were made inthe project to constantly dialogue and negotiatewith the Municipal Officials to take up waterrelated works, provide dustbins in the slums,provide water points in slums and also laydrainage works. Provisions were also made in theproject for pro-poor funding, in the form ofrevolving loan, to enable the poor to gain accessto credit, to construct individual household toilets.Simultaneous efforts were made to orient the staffof Municipal Corporations and electedrepresentatives through stakeholder consultationsand workshops, on pro-poor approaches, needfor integration of hygiene with water andsanitation, sustainability and importance ofcommunity consultation, role of Corporators andofficial staff, etc. Exposure visit of MunicipalCorporation Officials and Corporators (electedpublic representatives) were organised toBangalore and Tiruchirapally (Trichy) wherecommunity-managed sanitation initiatives arerunning successfully.

Results Achieved

A few notable outputs in the first year were:

� Six open defecation-free slums � the firstinitiative in Madhya Pradesh;

� 3000 families have access to safe sanitation �Household (HH) toilets;

� 6 School Sanitation Blocks constructed withrainwater harvesting structures;

� 5 new community toilets constructed andmanaged by communities;

� 1000 mts. of underground drainage restored/created � by Municipal Corporations;

� 50 water sources restored;� 100 women�s groups spreading the message of

safe hygiene;� 63 Community Water and Sanitation

Committees working;


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� Dustbins and rickshaw vans provided in theslums � for door to door garbage collection;

� 1100 families started using compost pits, soak pits;� Corporators and elected representatives trained and

exposed to issues of Water and Sanitation; and� A large Data and Information base/GIS Maps

created for all the Slums.

Discernible impacts can be seen in the following areas:

� Increased levels of awareness regarding safehygiene and sanitation practices amongstcommunities, especially women leaders andchildren. The emphasis on school hygieneeducation and the spread of hygiene messagesthrough SHGs has contributed to enhancedawareness and knowledge amongst womenand children, who will act as hygieneambassadors.

� Inclusion of the poor and the marginalisedmembers of the slum communities in planningprocess � providing them with a platform toparticipate in the form of SHGs andCommunity-based Water and SanitationCommittees (CWASCs). Participation of womenin the SHGs have considerably increased, andprovided them with opportunities to makedecisions regarding locations for latrines, oninvestments for hardware structures and oninterventions for slum improvement.

� Trained masons are a major human resource in theslums, who are actively engaged in the promotionof low-cost individual Household latrines.

� An overall sense of community ownership andsense of responsibility for taking up slum

improvement activities is remarkably evidentamongst the people. Few slum communities arein the process of declaring themselves opendefecation-free, totally changing the face ofthe slums.

� Construction of toilet facilities in the slums havenot only provided increased convenience butalso dignity to women and adolescent girls, whowere under constant threat of physical abusewhile going out in the open for defecation.

Impact at the strategic/sector level

� Availability of sanitation fund has improvedaccess to credit the urban poor to constructtoilets. Process is on to get the guidelines forsanitation fund adopted by the localgovernment as this will enable rapid upscalingof sanitation coverage.

� Open Defecation-free slums is a new mantra(strategy) in the selected slums of the projectcities. Entire communities, so far unaware of theconcept of HH toilets or Community Toilets, arenow actively engaged in constructing pits forlatrines, forming SHGs for management of thesanitation fund.

� The Poverty Mapping reports have, in terms ofthe issues, highlighted the interrelatedness ofinfrastructure issues, and as qualitative datahave so forcefully brought out the need to takea holistic approach rather than providing oneor the other kind of infrastructure and expectinglong-term sustainable impact.

� The Poverty Mapping exercise has also beensignificant because it:

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� Takes into account all Poverty Pockets �notified and non-notified.

� Has been able to identify a large number ofnon-notified slums in all cities.

� Inter Poverty Pockets (PP) � WATSANdeficiency zero in the most deficient.

� The qualitative study focused on understandingthe extent of lack of access and implicationsof infrastructure deficiency on education,especially girls, health and livelihoods.

� Engaged Corporators and local residents in anexposure visit to best practices in urbanWATSAN sector in South India, as an outcomeof which, councillors have constructed Child-friendly toilets and are proposing communitytoilets to be managed by SHGs, on the modelsset up in Trichy.

� Stakeholder consultations organised in eachcity, which were attended by respective cityMayors, City Municipal Commissioners, cityengineers, Corporators and a large number ofother stakeholders have been very effectiveforums to share the findings of Poverty PocketSituation Analysis (PPSA) and get theseendorsed, but also to seek their commitment tothe project. Government admitted that this wasthe first time such a massive survey has beendone by anybody and these hold significantvalue for the ADB project.

Sustainability

The project emphasises on working through localpartners and with communities, to ensure that thereis full ownership of the project in planning,implementation and monitoring. WaterAid ensuredthat there exists a capacity within the community sothat the benefits are sustained and communities areempowered to demand and receive benefits from themunicipalities. Some of the concrete steps taken were:

� The CWASCs formed at the slum level forplanning, coordination, monitoring of the project,have been oriented on various aspects of urbanwater and sanitation, their role as members ofthis group, and have been trained onorganisational development aspects. Members ofCWASCs have successfully interacted with localcorporators to demand their attention and timefor the project and seek their greater involvement.

� The local partner organisation has assumedgreater responsibilities in interfacing with theMunicipalities and Government officials,Corporators, and local leaders and they havebeen successful in mobilising funds for activitiesto be done by the Municipal Corporations.

� Involvement of SHGs in all the project activitieshas given greater confidence that activities will besustained over a long time. SHGs are closelyinvolved in decision related to constructinglatrines, slum sanitation activities etc. Involvementof SHGs has resulted in improved usage of assets.Involving women and children in hygienepromotion programmes have resulted indiscernible changes in water handling practicesand handwashing practices, at the HH levels.

Lessons Learned and Transferability

The first year has yielded good learningopportunities, both from working in the field andfrom strategic relationships built over the past oneyear. A few lessons learnt were:

� Providing alternate financing options, in theform of sanitation loan to communities cangreatly enhance the pace of adoption oftoilets in the urban context. The need fortoilets is well articulated by the community inmany cases but lack of adequate community-based financing options has been a deterrentin taking up toilets. Majority of thecommunities that have chosen to work with,belong to the most deprived sections likeragpickers, those with very limited source ofincome and other deprived groups. It is alsofelt that targeting subsidies to these genuinelymarginalised sections motivates them toadopt latrines.

� It is important to integrate provision of safedrinking water and improved sanitation withhygiene education in order to achieve improvedhealth outcomes. It is essential that hygieneeducation is integrated right from the beginningin order to ensure greater adoption and usageof sanitation facilities.

� A significant outcome of the Poverty Mappingexercise has also been the identification of alarge number of non-notified slums in all the4 cities, underlying the need for taking servicesand entitlements to these areas.


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One of the main obstacles to inclusive urban planning is the lack of up-to-date, comprehensiveand sufficiently detailed information about urban areas. As a result of this gap in information,many informal settlements are left out in the city-wide planning and process. In the metros as wellas in many big cities in particular, large proportion of the urban population live in slums in India.The urban projects undertaken in these cities tend to ignore significant slum improvementinterventions. The development plans have really not addressed the issue of the marginalisationof the poor in the cities, often leading to their spatial exclusion. They are pushed out of the city,where services are poor and investments are low.

Slum Environmental Sanitation Initiative (SESI), a part of UN-HABITAT intervention in the four citiesin Madhya Pradesh — Bhopal, Gwalior, Indore and Jabalpur, with population of over 1 millioneach, emphasizes in identifying slums/poverty pockets, based on the status of water and sanitationservice deficiency. The initiative uses Poverty Mapping as an instrument to prioritize the slums forinvestments, based on poverty and environmental infrastructure deficiency matrix.

A detailed survey titled Poverty Pocket Situation Analysis (PPSA) was carried out in the four projectcities. PPSA aims at ranking poverty pockets in terms of availability and access to water and sanitationfacilities. This is not a household survey. The data under this study has primarily been derivedfrom key informant interviews and group discussions and reflects the multiple and overlappingperspectives of different stakeholders in all the poverty pockets of the four selected cities. Thisprocess involves spatial mapping of infrastructural deficiencies in the slums and a base line surveyof the individual household for monitoring the MDG parameters for sustainable access to improvedsanitation and safe drinking water. The final outcome of this mapping exercise is the selection ofthe most vulnerable slums for water and sanitation intervention under SESI.


Poverty Mapping Framework for InfrastructureInterventions

Introduction

The State of Madhya Pradesh has very poorcoverage of urban population through tappedwater sources and sanitation facilities, inaddition to its gaining momentum in the processof urbanization. Most affected by this lack ofbasic services are the city�s poor who constitutea sizeable population and live in the slums.Official data on the slum population includingbasic service delivery status, status of BPLfamilies etc. are either very old or inadequate.The rate of increase in urban poverty andpoverty pockets in the large cities of MadhyaPradesh further makes the Census data and theexisting municipal data irrelevant. In this context,a study was taken up to find out the status ofwater and sanitation in the poverty pockets ofthe project cities in the State.


� To select Poverty Pockets (PPs) in consultation withthe Municipal Corporations of the four projectcities covering 5,000 households for projectintervention, having concentration of the poor withhigher deficiency in water and sanitation; and

� Collate data on all the Poverty Pockets on theavailability of environmental deficiencyparameters for starting the Municipal ActionPlan for Poverty Reduction (MAPP), a processinitiated by the Municipal Corporations underthe ADB project.


This initiative is a collaborative effort between UN-HABITAT, WaterAid and the local MunicipalCorporations. The mapping of the poor in the city

4

39

was done in order to monitor the impact of theintervention on targets 10 and 11 of goal 7 of theMDG on water and sanitation at the local level.The slums were selected on the basis of thismapping exercise in consultation with thecorporation and the partner NGOs, viz. Advocacyfor Alternative Resources, Action, Mobilisation andBrotherhood (AARAMBH) in Bhopal, SAMBHAVSocial Service Organisation in Gwalior, BhartiyaGramin Mahila Sangh (BGMS) in Indore, KSHITIJand Association for Community Transformation(ACT) in Jabalpur. Approximately, 500 officials ofthe Municipal Corporations and 600 NGO staffwere involved in this survey. Several rounds ofconsultations were conducted with the MunicipalCorporation staff and local counterpart NGOs.Each questionnaire had a provision for dualsignature of both the entities. The total costinvolved in implementation of this initiative wasUS$ 11,628 in each of the project cities, which wasfunded by ADB.

Process

This initiative started with the collection of baselinedata by a physical survey which illustrates thelocation and condition of the poor in variouslocalities and establishes baseline values for theMDG indicators in each of the areas, establishingprogramme management indicators.

The questions in the survey form were regardingpopulation (no of households, no of families belowpoverty line, total population, etc.), presence ofinfrastructure (roads, street lights, schools,

anganwadi, balwadi, health centres, etc.) access towater supply (hours of water supply, no of individualand community water connections, quality of water,etc.) and access to sanitation (individual andcommunity toilets, open defecation practice, solidwaste management, etc). The data analysis providedinformation on PPs with least access to water andsanitation and where the number of people livingbelow poverty line was high apart from access toinfrastructure. Based on the individual povertypocket�s information on these counts, PPs werecategorised and ranked. In order to triangulate thequantitative data as well as to collect information onquality and status of available infrastructure andbasic services impacting quality of life in PPs,qualitative surveys were also undertaken in few slumsseparately using participatory exercises forcommunity�s direct feedback from six poverty pocketsin each of the cities for final analysis.

In the selected PPs for project intervention, abaseline survey at the household level was latercarried out to assess the status of water andsanitation services besides the knowledge, attitudeand practices (KAP) of the slum residents in theirhygiene behaviour. This information wassubsequently used for the development ofoperational plans for project interventions. Further,the baseline data was also used to define GISlayers and mapping of the status of these pocketsthrough visual maps in GIS.

The below flow chart explains various stagesinvolved in the process of data collection duringPPSA exercise:

� Develop a multidisciplinary team- NGOs, volunteers, andmunicipal authorities

� Develop tools for survey Questionnaire, FGD outline,transect methodology etc.

� Training of multi-disciplinary teams/enumerator

� Visit the slum� Map the settlement and identify key leaders� Mark key features in the map� Carry out Poverty Mapping Questionnaire Survey in small

groups in the community� Undertake transect in the slum- triangulate the existing data

� Analyze the data along MDG parameters� Rank the slums for availability of WATSAN facilities� Prioritize the slums for WATSAN interventions

� Divide the slums intoclusters

� Mark key features in theclusters

� Form groups for FGDs inthe clusters

� Carry outIntra SlumInequities QuestionnaireSurvey

� Carry out Survey forBaseline situation

� Mark households in themap and createhousehold database

Intr

a S

lum

s In

equ

ity S

urv

ey &

Bls

Cluster Survey and Base LineData in the selected slums


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Results Achieved

This study finds that the number of poverty pockets(see Table below) and their population in these citieshave been severely under-reported in the officialrecords. There are 55 to 65% gaps in the estimationof number of PPs between official data and currentsurvey. While the Census 2001 reports 8.3%(125,720) Bhopal�s population in 209 slums (Census2000), the present survey recorded 128,170households in the 380 poverty pockets/slums. Evenconsidering a conservative estimate of 5 membersper households, it multiplies the household�s numberto a much higher figure of 640,850 persons, which ismore than 45% of the city�s population recorded in2001, i.e., 1.43 million. The presence andidentification of a large number of unnotified slumsunderscores the importance of formalising these andalso the urgent need to take facilities andentitlements to the large concentrations of HHs insuch PPs. The study revealed a high percentage ofHHs having access to improved water sources, whichwas indicative of the presence of infrastructure butdid not necessarily ensure the required availability ofwater to the HHs.

Survey data using participatory methodologiesprovide contrasting answers to the queries relating toaccess to water, sanitation and basic infrastructure.These are indicative of the complexity of the issues athand. In the absence of piped water supply tohouseholds and low water tables in many areas, insummer a household may have to spend as much as4-5 otherwise productive hours in fetching water. Thistakes away their time from other livelihood activitiesand puts a tremendous burden on women inparticular. Households pay private water providerswhere quality of water is anyone�s guess. Waterscarcity has also been found to be one of theimportant reasons for the discontinuance ofeducation of adolescent girls, who are generally

given the responsibility of fetching water for thehouseholds. Each water source has a number ofpeople dependent on it resulting in a tremendousamount of pressure on each source. Opportunitycosts of accessing water are high, as households loseout on income contributions by one or the otherproductive member due to the need for someone totake responsibility to fetch water and, on the otherhand, pay high amounts of money to privateproviders to get this basic service.

Qualitative findings reveal the seasonality of wateravailability, predictably the summer season beingthe worst for the inhabitants in the poverty pockets.Water supply through municipal taps get reducedconsiderably as well as through handpumps, borewells and tube wells. Water is supplied throughmunicipal tankers, but this also fails to fulfill therequirements. The qualitative survey also foundthat even where sources of water were present, thedependence of the community was graduallyincreasing on the same source over time due toincrease in population. Therefore, lack of access isnot just a function of complete absence ofinfrastructure but also of an increasing populationdependent on available sources and interventionswhich need to be planned in this light.

Lower access to quality sanitation facilities andservices is mainly hindered by the current status oflow availability and poorly maintained sanitation andsanitary conditions. Qualitative survey noted thateven the households, which have got personal toilet,prefer to go for open defecation. One importantreason for this has been lack of water for cleaningand flushing the toilets. The other reason has beenthe lack of a proper drainage system, which result inchoking of these toilets very frequently. Thisinformation of about 1,540 slums were collected,analysed and uploaded onto the GIS and later madeavailable to the Municipal Corporations.

Details Bhopal Indore Gwalior Jabalpur

Total no of poverty pockets identified 380 604 229 324

Total households 128,170 176,545 60,787 109,866

Number of household living in the poverty pockets 63,921 19,614 10,452 26,726Below Poverty Line

% of household living Below Poverty Line 49.8 11.1 17.19 24.33

% hh living in the poverty pockets with access to 95.80 66 96.11 96improved water source (average)

% hh living in the poverty pockets with access to 58.0 84 68.49 54improved sanitation (average)

% hh living in the poverty pockets defecating in open 42 16 31.50 45.7

% hh living in the poverty pockets with piped water supply 30.8 28 65.14 34.3

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Sustainability

The data generated through the survey would helpin implementing other pro-poor initiatives in theproject cities. This data has been used by theGovernment of Madhya Pradesh for implementingbasic services for the urban poor in the projectcities and act as a tool for monitoring the status ofthe slums for convergence of the resources and atthe same time, would help in assessing theinfrastructural deficiencies and plan interventions.The factors leading to sustainability include:

� Financial: The use and leveraging of resources,including cost recovery, indicating how loans arebeing paid back and their terms and conditions;

� Social and Economic: Gender equity, equality andsocial inclusion, economic and social mobility;

� Cultural: Respect for and consideration ofattitudes, behaviour patterns and heritage; and

� Environmental: Reducing dependence on non-renewable resources (air, water, land, energy,etc.) and changing production, consumptionpatterns and technologies.

Lessons Learned

The Poverty Mapping Framework revealed that thenumber of slums in the project cities has increased

considerably as compared to the Census surveyconducted in 2001 by Government of India. Theprocess was designed to provide the framework forparticipatory planning between Corporation andcommunities at the neighbourhood level and needfor undertaking such surveys at frequent intervalsto monitor the achievement of MDGs.

Transferability

This programme provided the framework forparticipatory planning between Corporation andCommunities at neighbourhood level, aimed atnetworking slum improvements to city-wideinfrastructure. The poverty mapping data andreports have been handed over to the StateGovernment and Municipal Corporations forpreparing the Municipal Action Plans for PovertyReduction under the DFID-funded Madhya PradeshUrban Services Project Programme. Under theMAPP process, the majority of the Projectinvestments will be dedicated to improving majorenvironmental infrastructure throughout the urbanareas of the project cities. The Poverty MappingFramework adopted in the four project cities is apathfinder for pro-poor water and sanitationgovernance and becomes an essential and integralpart of any city/town economic and socialdevelopment.


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Developing a Urban Water Demand Management Strategy

Traditionally, adding new infrastructure and tapping additional water resources is seen as the only way totackle problems related to water supply. An effort to look at all service issues in a holistic way is missingaltogether. This study on �Water demand management strategy (WDM) and implementation plan� for thecities of Bhopal, Indore, Gwalior and Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh is aimed at proposing interventions thatimprove efficiency in water distribution and use in urban water supply networks. WDM itself refers to theimplementation of policies and measures that control or influence the water demand. This will potentiallylead to long-term sustainability of the available water resources and infrastructure and also imbibe a cultureof conservation of a commodity that otherwise considered free.

The study has been successful in establishing a baseline of the current operations. In the process, issuescritical to water supply in each city have been identified and the water demand management strategies havebeen formulated under three heads: Technical, Financial and Institutional. A systems approach has beenadopted while formulating the WDM strategies and a phased implementation plan has been suggested. Thebaseline of operations will also help in gauging the success of any future interventions.

Rising capacities on WDM and the implementation strategies at different levels have been the built-in processwithin the implementation agency. An attempt has been made to motivate the participants in these programmesand feedback has been obtained on the assessment exercises, proposed strategies and pilot projects duringdifferent interactive sessions with the stakeholders. Such sessions have been successful in triggeringbrainstorming on different aspects of water resource management in the context of urban areas.

It is anticipated that the respective municipal corporations will use this WDM strategy document in the routineplanning process to bring in reforms and in judicious identification of projects for implementation. The ADBis also using the recommendations made to select projects for future funding. The digitised GIS maps preparedusing the available base maps can be used for better management of daily operations.

Introduction

Assessment studies undertaken in the project citiesof Madhya Pradesh suggest that the availablewater supplies theoretically translate into per capitaavailabilities ranging between 150-170 lpcd. Yet,with the estimated non-revenue water at around28-45%, the present water supply problems can beattributed more to the lack of governance andinadequate monitoring infrastructure rather than toany scarcity of the water resources.

The study aimed to ensure long-term sustainabilityof the available water resources throughinterventions targeted at improving efficiency inwater distribution and use in urban water supplynetworks. UN-HABITAT commissioned this study onWater Demand Management (WDM) in the cities ofMadhya Pradesh to The Energy and ResourcesInstitute (TERI), New Delhi. The study is fundedunder the Water for Asian Cities (WAC)Programme, which is a collaborative initiative

between the UN-HABITAT, the Asian DevelopmentBank (ADB) and Governments of Asia. The studywas supported by the Government of MadhyaPradesh through the Municipal Corporations andPublic Health Engineering Departments in eachcity.


The specific objectives of the study, in each city,were to:

1. Assess existing water supply operations coveringtechnical, financial and institutional aspectsincluding water balance and establish abaseline using the data collected.

2. Formulate a detailed Water demandmanagement (WDM) strategy andimplementation plan for the cities.

3. Build capacities at different levels.4. Prepare digitised GIS maps using the available

base maps.

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It is envisaged that water saved from theimplementation of WDM strategies can be used toprovide access to the underprivileged that areuncovered or inadequately covered by the presentdistribution system. This would lead to an equitabledistribution and wiser use of the resource,increased consumer satisfaction and better qualityof life.


A partnership approach has been followed duringthis project study, which is supported by theUN-HABITAT with contributions from TERI. Otherpartners in the study include the Government ofMadhya Pradesh, Shri G.S. Institute of Technologyand Science (SGSITS) and Environmental Planningand Coordination Organisation (EPCO). The ADBis using the recommendations made in this study todecide projects for funding support.

Comprehending the multidisciplinary facets of thisassignment, the team on the project comprisedengineers, planners, economists, environmentalscientists and Geographic Information Systems(GIS) experts, drawn from TERI, UN-HABITAT,industry and respective municipal corporations.

Process

There is an absolute lack of basic data setsnecessary for establishing baseline of theoperations covering technical, financial andinstitutional aspects. In cases where information isavailable, it is poorly recorded, unavailable readilyand/or of a subjective quality. As a result, it waschallenging to undertake a basic assessment of areasonable quality. A Questionnaire-basedapproach has therefore been followed forcollection of secondary data from each of thezones in the respective cities. Besides, flow-monitoring using portable flow meters have alsobeen carried out at some strategic locations. Thewater balance is, therefore, based on the bestinformation available, which tends to be a mixtureof assumptions that have been vetted by therespective officials. Similarly, financial informationhas been collected from available records withrespective municipal corporations. For assessmentof institutional issues, a SWOT analysis has beenundertaken.

The analysis of these assessments has beenpresented during the stakeholder consultations ineach city and capacity building programmes.

Based on inputs and comments received from thestakeholders, the assessments have been refinedfurther. Uncertainty in the results of water balancehas also been assessed, presented and discussed.

WDM strategies have been formulated based onthis analysis and have been broadly categorisedunder three heads: Technical, Financial andInstitutional. A systems approach has beenadopted while formulating the WDM strategiesand a phased implementation plan has beensuggested. It is further recommended that aPlan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) approach should befollowed during implementation for betterutilisation of the scarce resources. Feedback hasbeen obtained on the proposed strategies andpilot projects during different interactive sessionswith the stakeholders.

The capacity building programmes have beenmeticulously designed aiming to:

� Give the stakeholders a clear perspective of thestatus and issues facing urban water supply intheir respective cities;

� Highlight the need for having systematicmanagement information systems throughhands on exercises on water balancing;

� Discuss the proposed WDM strategies, theirprioritisation and implementation plan;

� Picture good water management practicesthrough site visits and experience-sharing; and

� Motivate the technical personnel and improvethe ownership of the document on WDMstrategy and so on.

Low motivation of the staff coupled with limited visionof the top level decision makers and high politicalinterference have resulted in limited ownership of theproblem and solution implementing process. Theservice provider and consumer interface also getsaffected resulting from poor satisfaction levels. Thereis, therefore, a need to further stimulate allstakeholders and improve their participation in thedecision-making and implementation process.

Results Achieved

Assessment of the existing water supply operationshas been carried using the best availableinformation and is available as a good baselinefor all future assessments and benchmarking. Adetailed WDM strategy and implementation plandocument has been prepared for each of the citiesand proposes the following strategies:


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� Technical� Metering� Water audit and balancing� Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and

Management Information Systems (MIS)� Establishment of District Metered Areas

(DMA)� Leak detection and control� Energy auditing� Pressure management� Assets management program� Water conservation at consumer end

� Financial� Accounting System Reforms� Rationalisation of tariff structure� Program-linked allocation of funds

� Institutional� Organisational restructuring� Operationalising performance measurement

and MIS� Formulation of a vision, policy and

legislative framework for provision of watersupply services

� Enhancing staff capability and motivation

� Increasing involvement of all stakeholder,especially politicians

� IEC campaigns� Legislation for control on groundwater use� Policy guidelines for service delivery and

public-private partnerships� Reforms in billing system

In addition, the capacity on the concept of WDMand implementation of strategies has been built atdifferent levels within the implementation agency.An attempt to motivate the participants has alsobeen made in these programmes and thefeedback obtained on the proposed strategies hassucceeded to build an ownership of the document.

It is anticipated that the respective municipalcorporations will use this strategy document in theregular planning process to identify projects forimplementation and their upscaling. The ADB isalso using the recommendations made to selectprojects for funding. The digitised GIS mapsprepared using the available base maps can beused for better management of daily operations.

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Sustainability

The concept of WDM itself is in line with principlesof sustainability and targets at a long-termsustainability of the available water resources andinfrastructure through the implementation ofpolicies and measures that control or influence thewater demand.

A systems approach has been followed toformulate the WDM strategies and dulyrecognises the need to make the strategies andimplementation plan acceptable to relevantstakeholders, so as to sustain the reformsprocess in the medium and long term. To ensureeconomic sustainability, it is further proposedthat the implementation is undertaken in aphased manner using the Plan-Do-Check-Act(PDCA) approach. For increased acceptabilityand smoother execution, it is recommended thatthese strategies are implemented on a pilot scaleand then replicated on a larger scale afterincorporating lessons and best practices learnt inthe process.

The proposed financial strategies also aim atpromoting efficient utilisation of available waterresources while also avoiding any tariff shocks andcontinuation of lifeline slab for the poorest of poorconsumers.

Similarly, the institutional reforms aim to buildupon the strengths of existing system and target toimprove the interface between consumer andservice provider so as to ensure greater publicparticipation and cooperation. Proposed strategieslike formulation of a vision and policy Statement,policy guidelines for service delivery and so on arelikely to further the above cause and improve thequality of life. Organisational restructuring,capacity building and Information, Education andCommunication (IEC) campaigns have also beenrecommended to better prepare towards thereforms process.

It is well realised that implementation of thesestrategies shall face different obstacles, which havebeen identified and an approach to address thesame, involving relevant stakeholders, has alsobeen recommended.

Lessons Learned

An important finding from the study is that thecurrent situation of water supply results more frommismanagement rather than any scarcity of theresource. This includes:

� Inadequate knowledge and capacity;� Inadequate monitoring infrastructure and

tracking systems;� Poor motivation and will;� Lack of ownership and accountability; and� Limited vision.

This State of affairs can be summed up as a caseof lack of governance. There is, therefore, a needto bring in parallel institutional reforms and buildcapacities at all levels in the Municipalcorporations. A management information systemthat tracks day-to-day operations is a must tobegin with, not only to bring in transparency in thesystem and accountability but also to trackperformance on a regular basis. These aspectshave been stressed upon during the capacitybuilding programs and have been well received.

Transferability

TERI has worked along with the other localinstitutions from Madhya Pradesh � SGSITS andEPCO towards institutionalisation of training andcapacity building process for WDM in all fourcities and Water Resource Planning andConservation (WRP), South Africa, on replicationof the concept. Specific activities included:

� Preparation of a WDM manual relevant to localconditions in local dialect;

� Preparation of a WDM strategy document thathas best incorporated comments of relevantstakeholders;

� Organising stakeholder consultations and trainingprograms for staff from each of the cities; and

� Institutionalisation of training and developmentof course curriculum for mainstreaming WDM.

The training programs were delivered adopting atraining methodology, which included a combinationof lectures, site visits, interactive group discussionsand hands-on exercises. Each training programhas been followed by a refresher course.


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SURAT, INDIA

Urban Governance in Environment and Public Health

The city of Surat in the State of Gujarat was one of the filthiest cities in India prior to 1995. On outbreak ofthe plague in 1994 and the poor working conditions of the local Government paralysed the city�s basicservices, increased the morbidity rate, and put heavy capital expenditure on the local government, the SuratMunicipal Corporation (SMC). The Municipal Commissioner of the city introduced exemplary reforms in1995 and turned the city into the second cleanest city in the country. Basic services increased to over 95 percent of the residents, and capital expenditure increased by about 450 per cent.

This local action was looked upon as a Model Approach in addressing the problems of Environment andPublic Health in the city of Surat by adopting the principles of Good Urban Governance.

The Problem

Prior to May 1995, the city of Surat was one of thefilthiest cities in India and also faced with financial,administrative, socio-political and legal problems.In September of 1994, the city was traumatised bya plague outbreak. This outbreak of Plaguecoupled with poor working conditions and non-attendance to the grievances, further demoralisedthe staff of the Surat Municipal Corporation. Basicmunicipal services such as street cleaning,collection of solid waste, water supply andsewerage services, drains, street lights, parks andgardens, roads and schools were only covered forabout 45% of the city residents. Morbidity rate dueto water-borne and water-related public healthdiseases was high. To make matters worse, boththe elected representatives (councillors) and themedia had no interest in the functioning of SuratMunicipal Corporation. Capital expenditure onlong term assets stood at Rs. 300 million withexpenditure on salaries and allowances accountingfor about 47 per cent per Revenue Budget.

Process

In May 1995, a new Municipal Commissioner wasposted to the city as the Chief Executive Officer(CEO). He undertook a one-week extensive tour ofthe city and held consultative meetings with alllevels of municipal employees. He decentralised allhis administrative and financial powers to 10Commissioners (six zonal chiefs together with fourfunctional heads of water supply, sewerage; townplanning and finance divisions). A consultativedecision-making process among all the 11Commissioners was introduced. The resultingdecentralisation and empowerment of work units

broke the departmental barriers and lifted themorale of the staff. A micro-planning exercisebased on extensive field input was carried out tolay down equitable norms for effective and efficientprovision of services to the citizens with best use ofthe available resources.

The council entered into partnerships with theprivate sector, who provided street litterbins inexchange of advertising rights. Instant penalties onlittering were introduced and this increased theamount of revenue collected. Community-basedOrganisations (CBOs), mainly women groups inthe slum areas, were used to raise awareness onthe need to widen the roads so as to makeprovision of other services easier. The mediarealised the positive role it played in spreadingpublic awareness and has taken up the role ofsocial auditing of the Municipal Corporation�soperations.

The citizens were involved in the decision-makingprocess through a grievance redressal system andfeedback mechanism. A transparent system forroutine works such as maintenance was workedout for contractors. During the whole process, themedia was used to highlight the situation and tocreate public awareness.

Reforms Practiced

The exemplary reforms brought out by theMunicipal Commissioner are summarised into:

� Decentralising all his administrative andfinancial powers;

� Adopting consultative decision-making processwith the implementation officials;

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� Laying down equitable norms for effective andefficient provision of services to the citizens withbest use of the available resources;

� Entering partnerships with the private sector;� Introducing instant penalties on littering;� Using CBOs, mainly women groups in the slum

areas to raise awareness;� Involving citizens in the decision making process

through a grievance redressal system andfeedback mechanism;

� Developing a sense of citizenship and pride;� Inculcating public awareness and civic

participation among the citizens;� Maintaining transparency at all levels of

operation; and� Increased support of Media.

Results Achieved and Sustainability

Within a period of 18 months, Surat had turnedfrom the filthiest city to the second cleanest city ofIndia. The internal revenue collection increaseddue to efficient tax recovery, transparency in taxassessments and plugging of loopholes in taxadministration.

A sense of pride among the sanitation workers wasrestored through provision of proper equipmentand their grievances taken into consideration.Provision of basic services increased to over 95% ofthe residents, while capital expenditure alsoincreased by about 450%.

A sense of citizenship and pride was developed asthe citizens were aware of their civic rights toquality services. Inculcating public awareness andcivic participation among the citizens has broughttransparency among the council officers andworkers. Morale of the staff even from the lowestlevel has been sustained by an innovative systemof public rewards.


The Municipal Commissioner�s initiative waslooked upon as a Model Approach in addressingthe problems of Environment and Public Health inthe city of Surat by adopting the principles of GoodUrban Governance, opened new opportunities forlocal economic development and can be replicatedin other cities and towns.


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GUJARAT, PAKISTAN

Sustainable Waste Management Initiatives

The main goal of the Gujarat sanitation programme is to manage waste through developing anindigenous low-cost waste management approach. The programme, initiated by Waste Busters, aprivate organisation, is to develop workable processes and strategies to improve the managementof waste and promote recycling practices in a way that can benefit the urban poor and therebyimprove the hygiene and living conditions of the communities involved. Consequently, the city ofGujarat is ranked as one of the cleanest cities in Pakistan with proper waste collection and disposalmechanisms. The unique features of the programme are financial and environmental sustainabilitywith social equity.

Background

The city of Gujarat, in Pakistan, has an area ofabout six square kilometres with a population of543,000. Data from the Tehsil MunicipalAdministration shows that the amount of solidwaste disposed at the dump site has increasedfrom 100 tons in 1990 to 250 tons in 2003. Thishas become a menace to the environment andurban management efforts. The waste disposalproblem stems from many sources. Some of themare apathy and lack of public awareness,indiscriminate dumping, foul odours, deterioratingenvironmental quality, lack of enforcement andinefficient collection services. The sanitary andwaste problems were more significant in the highdensity and low income urban areas (low-costapartments or squatter settlements).


The Gujarat Sanitation initiative was aimed atproviding sanitation services to the poor and thesocially excluded groups, which was facilitated bythe policy arrangements that included:

� Targeting the poor and providing them withlow-cost and affordable waste managementand disposal services;

� Commercialisation of waste disposal servicesthrough the introduction of user charges anduse of the revenue generated for the purposesof meeting project expenses; and

� Capacity building of the municipality administration.

The project was initiated and largely implementedby the private sector, Waste Busters, through apartnership approach.

The specific objectives of the project were to:

� Create employment for unemployed young people;� Generate income from waste;� Clean up the entire city; and� Establish a self-sustainable sanitation

mechanism.


The resources for the initial start-up cost weregenerated by the private sector partner, whichcontributed 60 per cent of the total cost. The Tehsilmunicipal administration provided infrastructuresupport such as vehicles and machinery requiredfor the transportation of waste. A grant of $50,000for best practices was received by Waste Bustersfrom the United Nations Development Programme(UNDP) under its Urban Governance Initiative. Thisamount was also spent on capacity-building of theTehsil municipal administration and the initial costof the composting plant in Gujarat. The incomegenerated from the sale of recyclable items andcompost was also a source of funding. This haslargely ensured the sustainability of the project.

Process

The programme was implemented through apartnership approach. The partnershipsinvolved were:

� Tehsil Municipal Administration, Gujarat;� Waste Busters, a private waste management

contractor;� Shahdaula Welfare Trust, a non-governmental

organisation based in Gujarat; and� The Communities.

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The programme was commenced in 2002 andimplemented by Tehsil Municipal Administration,with the goal of improving urban solid wastemanagement (SWM) through communitymobilisation. Later on, other community activitieswere initiated after the communities weremobilised and the effectiveness of this approachdemonstrated. In September 2002, the SWMprogramme was handed over to severalcommunity-based organisations with good trackrecords with transparent management of similarprogrammes. It was financed by service chargescollected from the community and otherprogrammes running simultaneously andindependently of the main SWM programme.

The programme priorities were established inkeeping with the needs of all the stakeholders,particularly the citizens of Gujarat, who voicedtheir opinions in community meetings. The projectcoordinators, Waste Busters, organised a round-table for the stakeholders in waste management inMarch 2002 and recommendations for action weremade. The poor being benefited from the public-private partnership arrangements had a focus onpoverty reduction for the disadvantaged groupsliving in urban areas. The concept entailedmobilising the community into adopting properwaste disposal practices (use of garbage bags fordisposal of household waste, end of indiscriminatedumping of garbage in open areas, and individualhouseholds� payments for the services).

The non-governmental organisation, ShahdaulaWelfare Trust, was mobilised to convince andmotivate the people and their communities bysending social activists from door to door in thetarget areas and conveying the message to eachhousehold. The city was divided into units, eachunit comprising 2,000 households. For each unit,10 unemployed young people from that area werehired as social motivators.

The social motivators were given 200 householdseach and their job was to conduct communitymeetings where the project concept was discussedwith the residents and their acceptance was takendown in writing through membership forms.

The residents were asked to pay 100 Pakistanrupees (PRs) per month to the local community-based organisation for waste collection services.The 100 PRs were then applied to the cost of 30garbage bags supplied to each household, thetransportation by pick-up and the salaries of thesocial motivators and labourers. This created a

self-sustainable mechanism and employment forthe social motivators. Street scavengers were hiredas labourers and went from door to door collectingthe garbage bags and sorting the waste intoorganic and non-organic categories. Thescavengers not only received a salary from thewaste collection fees but also earned additionalincome by selling recyclable waste to hawkers.

The process of door-to-door collection resulted inan 80 per cent reduction in the indiscriminatedumping of garbage and provided a clean andhealthy living environment to the community. Thewaste collected in garbage bags was thentransported to the waste recycling/landfill sitewhere all the waste was segregated into organicand non-organic wastes. The organic waste wasprocessed into compost and sold as organic soilconditioner while the inorganic waste was furthersorted into paper, plastics, metals, Tetra Pakcartons, polythene, and so on. These items werethen sold to the appropriate recycling industries.Income generated from sales was applied towardsoperating expenses and maintenance of the plantand machinery, and also contributed forgenerating profits to the private partner, WasteBusters.

Results Achieved

The city of Gujarat was ranked as one of thecleanest cities in Pakistan, with a proper wastecollection and disposal mechanism. The projectresulted in the creation of over 500 jobs for theunemployed in the city. It promoted clean streets.The drains were not choked with plastic bags orother materials, which used to cause majorsewerage problems. In addition, the city had awaste recycling plant which recycles organic wasteinto compost and provides much-needed organicmatter at a very low cost to farmers.

The factors that led to the success of the projectincluded:

� The involvement of the community right from theinception of the project through to the wholeproject cycle. Most significantly, theestablishment of the project priorities took intoconsideration the views and needs of the targetpopulation and all stakeholders in generalthrough a consultative process;

� Application of the principle of completeparticipation of all stakeholders in the whole ofthe project in which each stakeholder played anunique role in the project;


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� Well-coordinated and complementarypartnership with clear and well-defined roles foreach stakeholder;

� Integrated approach to service provision byproviding income-generating opportunities andemploying a poverty alleviation approach; and

� Introduction of social, economic and financialincentives particularly contributed to theself-sustaining aspect of the project.

Sustainability

The programme is self-sustainable as the incomegenerated from service charges pays the salaries ofthe social motivators and other expenses. Incomefrom sales of recycled waste was an attractive profitincentive for investment. In addition, theprogramme enjoyed the community support. Theprogramme was environmentally sustainable andthe construction of a waste recycling plant was aclear indication of an efficient, transparent andaccountable management system.

One of the unique features of this project is thefinancing partnerships adopted by the project,which was an essential tool for ensuring thefinancial sustainability. The self-sustainingapproaches through revenue generated fromservice user charges were fundamental inenhancing the sustainability of the project beyondexternal funding strategies.

Lessons Learned

� Participation of the beneficiary groups in thewhole project process, including planning,decision-making and implementation: thisapproach enhanced a sense of ownership ofthe initiative among the beneficiary groups;

� A partnership approach, backed by enablinginstitutional frameworks, which aided in theimplementation and general management ofthe programme; for example, Waste Bustersorganised a stakeholders� workshop whichmade recommendations for action, while thepublic-private partnership arrangementstargeted the poor and created employmentopportunities, particularly for young people;

� Social equity and affirmative action: theintegration of scavengers and other poor anddisadvantaged groups into the project processenabled them to earn a salary essential forliving in dignity; the programme targeted low-income groups and provided low-cost andaffordable sanitary services;

� The central role of the local authorities anddecentralisation was illustrated by the roleplayed by the Tehsil municipality in the wholeproject process and the decentralisation ofsanitation services to the local levels;

� Environmental sustainability was exemplified bysound environmental management approachesadopted in a bid to achieve a clean andsanitary environment for the residents ofGujarat;

� Transparent and effective governance waslargely demonstrated by the financialmanagement systems of the project.

Transferability

The programme was designed in modules for easeof replication. In fact, the Gujarat project was areplication of the Lahore sanitation programmeand the concept was initiated in eight major citiesof Pakistan. The project gained nationalrecognition as a model of a self-sustainableprogramme.

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TAJIKISTAN

Institutional Framework for Improved Management

Drinking water supply systems in the rural areas of Tajikistan are managed by multiple agencies withoverlapping functions, causing confusion among the service providers, regulators, and consumers. ThisLocal Action is a Pilot and Demonstration Activity (PDA) that helps to create a new institutional framework formanaging drinking water supply systems in Jomi District, Tajikistan

Introduction

There is much room for improvement in themanagement of Drinking Water Supply Systems(DWSS) in Tajikistan�s rural areas. Severalmanagement schemes were experimented by localGovernments � districts may have one district-wide agency, or several parallel agencies for thesame purpose acting at the jamoat level (LocalAdministrative Unit below the District Government)or multiple agencies that co-exist but with no clearhierarchical structure. In most cases, these agencies�performance was hindered by lack of financialresources and the discontinuity and unreliability ofrevenues from water consumers. Most consumerswho were willing to pay regularly for good andreliable water supply services had no trust in themanagement capacity of government agencies.

Creating an Institutional Framework

A pilot and demonstration activity (PDA) was initiatedwith an objective to create a new institutionalframework for the establishment of water consumerprotection committees (WCPC) in rural areas ofTajikistan for managing drinking water supply.

Process

Under this initiative, a new DWSS managementscheme was created which takes into account theseparation of the �service provider� and �qualitycontroller� roles, and the active participation of thewater users. The new management frameworkpaved the way for the establishment of anindependent village-level WCPCs in three villagesof Jomi district, where a DWSS managing agencywas created by the local Government in 2005.

Resources

The estimated cost of the project is US$45,000 toundertake rehabilitation works in the targetvillages, improvement in water supply servicesthrough enhanced tariff structure to cover O&Mcosts and eventually to move towards fullcost recovery.

Expected Results:

� Formation of WCPC in 3 villages of JomiDistrict;

� Working meetings between WCPC and theDWSS management agency;

� Agreed Plan of Action for improvement of watersupply services;

� Tariff structure to cover full O&M costs andefforts towards full cost recovery;

� Improved performance of DWSS managingagencies in terms of cost recovery, wateravailability and water quality;

� Progressive enhancement of the scope ofservices provided;

� Increased Financial Stability;� Transparency in the decision-making process;� Enhanced confidence of the communities;� Rehabilitation works in target villages within a

time frame for:

� resuming 5 hours daily water supply service;� increased water pressure;� increased value of water sales from 0 to 16

cubic metres per hour;� increased number of water connections

(additional taps installed).

8


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TIMOR-LESTE

Partnerships for Reconstruction of the War-torn Nation

Timor-Leste needed support for the reconstruction of its war-torn land. The country�s water challenges werethe greatest in Southeast Asia with mere 73 per cent of its population having access to water supply servicesand with poorer sanitation coverage. This Local Action illustrates how the partnerships between various watersector stakeholders have rebuilt the country and provided water to the people.

9

Background

In August 1999, the people of Timor-Leste voted fortheir independence. A month later, massdestruction displaced three quarters of the country�spopulation, destroying most homes andinfrastructure. Looting and burning were rampant.Water supply and sanitation facilities wereespecially impaired. While damage to the mainphysical assets was limited, office buildings,records, vehicles, and tools were totally destroyed.The losses in urban areas were much higher thanin rural areas where there was little water supplyinfrastructure. But even in rural Timor-Leste, therewere several incidents involving poisoned wells,stolen hand pumps, dislodged pipes, anddamaged spring intakes. In towns with public watersupply and sanitation systems, vehicles, pumps andmotors were looted. Water treatment plants weredamaged. Pipelines, tools, and spare parts werestolen. Storage tanks were torn down, and ashomes, stores, offices, and other buildings wereburnt, water connections, meters, latrines,and septic tanks were either damaged orcompletely destroyed.

Before the crisis, the water supply system served only40% of the population in district capitals and 29% insub-district towns. The average access to piped watersupply was 13%. In Dili, about 8,600 householdconnections and 270 public water stands existed.People were unwilling to pay for low-level watersupply service and made extensive use of privateshallow wells in other urban areas. Only 48% ofTimor-Leste�s total population of 0.8 million hadaccess to potable water. When the hostilitiessubsided, the availability of functional water andsanitation facilities at the village household level wasfurther reduced to about 10% and 5%, respectively.

Resources

To help rebuild the country, a Trust Fund for EastTimor (TFET) was established with contributionsfrom various funding agencies. Asian DevelopmentBank (ADB) and the World Bank were appointed asjoint administrators of the fund. A grant of $4.5million from TFET for the rehabilitation of Timor-Leste�s water supply and sanitation sector wasadministered by ADB. This was later supplementedwith an additional $4.5 million in the secondphase of the project.

Process

The Water Supply and Sanitation Rehabilitationproject sought to provide the people of Timor-Lestewith sustainable water supply and sanitationservices using appropriate technology and solidmanagement systems. They were assisted inrestoring damaged water supply and sanitation(WS&S) infrastructure and building institutionalcapacity to manage, operate, and maintainthe systems.

The project had three components:

� The Water Supply and Sanitation SectorManagement and Investment Programmeprovided consulting services to assist projectmanagement units (PMUs) in programmeimplementation.

� The Capacity Building and InstitutionalDevelopment Programme identified andimplemented activities that supported physicalWS&S construction from conception topost-completion. Stores, generator sheds,workshops, and other WS&S maintenanceinfrastructure were procured or rehabilitated.

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� The Water Supply and SanitationImplementation Programme had threesubcomponents.

� The Quick Response Facility repaired andrehabilitated water supply systems across13 districts of Timor-Leste that neededimmediate action.

� The Dili Water Supply Repair andRehabilitation subcomponent providedmaterials, equipment, and civil works tosupport the Dili water supply system and theproject funded by the Bank of Japan.Complementary works included the repairand rehabilitation of public taps and otherwater points in Timor-Leste�s capital. Thissubcomponent also administered small localcontracts and construction contracts for deepwell drilling.

� The District Water Supply Repair andRehabilitation subcomponent aimed toaddress the needs of smaller urban andrural communities by procuring andinstalling pipes, fittings, pumps, motors, andgenerators; supplying construction materialsand equipment; designing services for smalland medium scale water supplies;rehabilitating water bores and raw waterintakes; and providing support for waterquality testing and groundwater pump testing.

Results Achieved

With the Water Supply and Sanitation RehabilitationProject and other donor assistance, emergency systemrepairs made significant progress in restoring theseWS&S services. The public water supply systems ineach of the district capitals were restored.

One of the many project achievements was thesuccessful Quick Response Facility, which built fourdeep wells in Dili and Suai. It also undertookmajor repairs on the Viqueque water supplytransmission main over the Cuha River and

assisted with procurement process for urgent minorworks during the government transition stage andfor major works of other funding agencies.

Around 32,000 people in 12 districts of Timor-Leste were benefited from improved WS&S facilitiesthrough the District Water Supply Repair andRehabilitation Programme. Bindau Santa Ana andBecora alone had 9,000 beneficiaries. Theseresults were achieved with the help of local andinternational non-governmental organisations(NGOs), as well as the beneficiaries themselveswho lent their time and effort towards theconstruction and ongoing operation andmaintenance of the facilities. In addition, 4,000water meters were procured to reintroduce watersupply user charges in the area and about 2,000meters were installed.

In all, around 96,000 people directly benefitedfrom improved WS&S facilities through the firstphase of the project, which was approved in July2000 and completed in December 2001.Improved operation of facilities and enhancedhuman capital from the capacity-buildingprogrammes were an additional achievement.Furthermore, about 26,100 local people gainedan equivalent number of employment days eitherdirectly or through contracted activities.

Sustainability

In general, the project has met its objectives. Watersupply was improved to the levels that existedunder the earlier Indonesian administration.Despite the marked improvement, these levelswere still considered inadequate for achieving thecountry�s reasonable public health goals.Sanitation facilities, including wastewater, solidwaste, and drainage systems, were yet restore tothe earlier levels, but again, these, too, require theattainment of standards significantly higher thanthose achieved under the Indonesianadministration.

Users Viewpoint

�In many cases, having access to safe water has allowed people to resume some profitableactivities. Natalia Gutierres and her husband, Augustus Suarez Medeira, were traders before theconflict. They collected corn from their neighbours and sold it in Dili, but the turmoil disruptedfarming and trade. The family, like the di Silvas, also moved to Ermera. There, Ms. Gutierres openeda restaurant. �We had to find a different way to survive,� she says. �We made more money before.But the restaurant is doing better now, and we make about $300 a month in profits.� The restaurantis simple, furnished only with long wooden tables and benches, but the food is tasty and clean.Though she only has one tap for her home and the restaurant, the running water helps hermaintain good hygiene. Without it she may not have been able to run the eatery�.


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The sustainability of the project�s WS&S outcomesdepend on the capacity of the Timor-Leste�sGovernment and WS&S to maintain theinfrastructure and systems provided by the project.The evolving political and institutional environmentmay have impact on sustainability.

Lessons Learned

There is still a significant need for external supportto the sector. While most water supply services inurban and rural areas have generally beenrestored to the basic service levels provided duringthe previous administration, this service still doesnot meet generally accepted standards. Furtherimprovements are needed to achieve public health,human dignity, and environmental protectiongoals.

There is an ongoing need for capacity building atall levels. Support for this effort should be providedat an appropriate pace and time to ensure that thelocal staff and community gain the requiredunderstanding and ownership. Some capacity-building activities may need to be repeated toorient new staff and further reinforce the learningof existing staff.

Cooperation with NGOs allows effective earlyaccess to local experience and knowledge of socialand physical conditions. NGO involvement hasbeen crucial for successful implementation becausethey have the human resources to undertake thework in all rural areas.

Reducing leakage in existing water systemsincreases their efficiency and effectiveness,resulting in improved service and reduced costs.The reintroduction of metering and user chargesbecomes a mechanism not only for generatingrevenue, but also for promoting efficient water use

and reducing waste. Water user charges must bequickly introduced.

References

Asian Development Bank. 2000. Summary SectorReviews in East Timor. Presented at the Donor�sCouncil Meeting, Brussels, Belgium 4-6 December.Manila.

Midterm Progress Report on East Timor. Presentedat the Donors� Council Meeting, Oslo, Norway,11-13 December 2001, Manila.

Second Progress Report on East Timor. Presented atthe Donors� Council Meeting, Canberra, Australia13-15 June, 2001, Manila.

Draft Project Completion Report on the Trust Fundfor East Timor Water Supply and SanitationRehabilitation Project Phases I and II, 2002,Manila.

Fifth Progress Report on Timor-Leste. Presented atthe Timor-Leste and Development PartnersMeeting, Dili, Timor-Leste, 9-10 December, 2002,Manila.

Fourth Progress Report on East Timor. Presented atthe Donors� Council Meeting Dili, East Timor14-16 May, 2002, Manila.

Progress Report on the Trust fund for East Timor.Presented at the East Timor Rehabilitation andDevelopment Donors� Council Meeting, Lisbon,Portugal 21-23 June, 2002, Manila.

Dhar, Pamposh. 2002. Water Restores Life. ADBReview 34(5). ]Available:http://www.adb.org/Documents/Periodicals/ADBReview/2002/vol345/water_restores_life.asp.

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SECTION II

Integrated Policy,Planning and Management

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In a rapidly growing urban conglomeration, it isessential that the stakeholders involved inproviding safe water and sanitation to initiateappropriate measures in policy, planning,administration and accountability. An inclusive andcoherent policy and planning would be required. Itis important to adopt a differential approach withflexibility and plan the water and sanitationprojects in an integrated manner to benefit allsections of the society, including the poor in the�unrecognised slums�. For people evicted from theirdwellings, rehabilitation policies must include safewater and sanitation facilities. Institutionaltransformation with clear roles and responsibilitiesfor accountability are needed to achieve the MDGtargets. Leadership plays a vital role in bringingradical transformation and culture of change.Transparency and participatory approaches ensureproject success and its replicability. Initiatives suchas water conservation/saving lower water supplyinvestments and decrease wastewater discharge.An integrated policy, planning and managementapproach results in effective implementation ofwater and sanitation projects, benefiting the urbanpoor in particular.

This Section includes 14 such local actions fromAfghanistan, Cambodia, China, India, Iran,Japan, Kiribati, Korea, Kuwait, Kyrgyz Republic,Nepal and Uzbekistan.

Afghanistan: the Urban Rehabilitation andEmployment Programme, under Ogata Initiative bythe Government of Japan, facilitated water supplyto over 2 lakh of poor residents comprisingreturnees, internally displaced persons, widows,demobilised solders and vulnerable groups inrebuilding their living environment.

Cambodia: the dynamic leadership of anindividual rehabilitated the ruined public utility intoan exemplary institution in providing 24x7 safedrinking water to a million people of Phnom Penh.

China: the sustainable water managementinitiative in Jinan City is unique for the promotionof city�s safe water supply. The city has beenconsidered as the National Water Conserving City.Similarly, Nanjing is slated as a Water Saving City.

Integrated Policy, Planning and ManagementJapan: Fukuoka was the first city to venture onWater Conservation Consciousness in partnershipwith the citizens and the private sector.

India: an integrated, demand-driven and need-based approach was adopted to address the issuesof providing adequate water supply and sanitationto the Himalayan region. In the State of TamilNadu, democratising water governance led to achange in bringing adequate water supply to 752villages through the implementation of the �TotalCommunity Water Management� project.

Iran: the Government of this Islamic Republicadopted aquifer management for harvestingfloodwaters to control desertification, supply ofirrigation water and provide employmentopportunities.

Kiribati, the republic: an isolated country in theCentral Pacific, is adopting an integrated planningand management approach to provide safedrinking water and sanitation for the thirsty Atoll.

Korea: adopted an integrated approach totransform the city of Hanam into a sustainable andenvironmentally self-sufficient city with a wellstructured urban development and growthmanagement.

Kuwait: experienced an effective and profitablewaste management system in an economic way forproviding a healthy environment in Ahmadi Town.

Kyrgyz, the republic in Central Asia: has resortedto cooperation and resource-sharing for water.

Nepal: the sanitation initiative for the peri-urbancommunities of Siddhipur is an integrated pro-poor planning and management effort ineradicating open defecation and bringing outappropriate solid waste disposal practices in thecommunity.

Uzbekistan: over 700,000 people, predominantlypoor benefited from the efforts to mitigate theongoing effects of drought by providing safe andeasily accessible water supply, minimising waterwastage, improved sanitation facilities and healthconditions with better hygiene.

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AFGHANISTAN

Urban Rehabilitation and Employment Programme

Afghanistan Urban Rehabilitation and Employment Programme was implemented by UN-HABITAT incollaboration with the beneficiaries and local authorities under the overall ownership of the TransitionalIslamic State of Afghanistan. The project was implemented in the three cities of Kandahar, Jalalabad andMazar-e-Sharif. These projects are part of the Ogata Initiative Phase II, an initiative of the Government ofJapan, which was launched in 2002 to support the comprehensive regional development in Afghanistan.

UN-HABITAT has been working with urban communities in Afghanistan for more than a decade. TheCommunity Forum is a local self-governing organisation that provides a platform for the members of acommunity to consult on local problems and devise ways and means to address them in an agreed priority.Community Forums are engaged in the design and implementation of wide ranging initiatives such ashousing reconstruction, water supply and drainage, road construction/repair, schools, and medical centres.

The project had two distinct components, shelter and water supply. The shelter component was implementedin Kandahar and Jalalabad whereas the water supply component was limited to Mazar-e-Sharif only. A totalof 3,500 shelters were built in these two cities, and a number of strategic repairs in the existing water supplysystem were carried out in Mazar-e- Sharif benefiting 30,500 families (213,500 people).

Ogata Initiative

The Government of Japan launched the RegionalComprehensive Development AssistanceProgramme (Ogata Initiative) in August 2002 tosupport comprehensive regional development inAfghanistan. This initiative is designed to realizemodality of comprehensive development forreconstruction, and to achieve a seamlesstransition from humanitarian assistance to recoveryand reconstruction assistance as early as possible.

The overall objective of this initiative is to designand implement tangible projects emphasisingregional recovery and community empowermentthrough the United Nations and other agencies,under the ownership of the Transitional IslamicState of Afghanistan (TISA), with the additional aimof achieving capacity building of the TISA andenhancing cooperation between the TISA andregional authorities. The Ogata initiative�s projectshelp communities with building materials andsmall labour cash wages, making shelterconstruction more affordable.

The Ogata Initiative were being implemented inPhases. The strategy of Phase II of the OgataInitiative (�Ogata II�) is to expand comprehensiveregional development targeting local communitiesin addition to refugees and Internally DisplacedPersons (IDPs). This includes programmes such asincome generation, medical care, water supply,

sanitation and capacity building for education,labour-intensive projects (rehabilitation of basicinfrastructure), etc. The Afghanistan UrbanRehabilitation and Employment Programme is apart of the Ogata II package but it does not bearany direct relations with the rest of the package.

Shelter situation: Kandahar & Jalalabad

During the conflict period, cities and towns inAfghanistan were places of refuge for internallydisplaced families � despite the fact that theurban housing stock had been extremelydamaged. With the advent of an internationallyrecognised government in late 2001, there hadbeen a sudden influx of refugees returning home(the �returnees�). A large number of returnees hadsettled in major cities, either as temporaryresidents en route to their final destination or aspermanent residents. Since much of the ruralinfrastructure had been destroyed, it is probablethat many temporary residents will choose to stayin those cities.

Consequently, many of the returnees were eitherforced to live with relatives � often in overcrowdedcondition in improvised settlements. For instance,in Kandahar, an estimated 90,000 families areliving in 41,529 houses, or one house for every2.2 households. Hence, there was an urgent needto initiate a programme of assistance to thereturnees so that their housing needs are met.

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Section IIIntegrated Policy, Planning and Management

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In Jalalabad, the major problem was the scale ofthe influx of the returnees. In addition, theperiphery of the city of Jalalabad has been,throughout the years of conflict, a frontline offighting and, therefore, had sustained heavydamages. This had resulted in the destruction ofhousing, infrastructure and public buildings,especially in the areas of Surkroad, Hada andSumarkhel. Accordingly, the Project concentratedits support to an area defined by these roads.

Water Supply System: Mazar-e-Sharif

Mazar-e-Sharif is the regional town of northernAfghanistan. Over the past two decades, the citycame under repeated siege from opposing forces.While the physical destruction was not as severe asin Kabul, the city lost the capacity to manage andmaintain its critical infrastructure including watersupply. Prior to the Project, the water supplysystems were barely functioning:

� The intake was partly damaged;� The main tube wells and the associated pumps

were not functioning;� Trunk lines had a number of leaks; and� There was a widespread contamination of

drinking water from free flowing sewage.

Scope of the Project

The Project was implemented in three principalcities of Afghanistan, viz. Kandahar, Jalalabad,and Mazar-e-Sharif. The Project has two distinctcomponents � Shelter and Water Supply. Theshelter component was implemented in Kandaharand Jalalabad, whereas water supply componentwas limited to Mazar-e-Sharif only.

Project beneficiaries

Kandahar: 2,000 families (shelter)Jalalabad: 1,500 families (shelter)Mazar-e-Sharif: 30,500 families (water supply)

Goals and Objectives

The objective of the Project was to assist the poorresidents in the cities of Kandahar, Jalalabad andMazar-e-Sharif, who consist of returnees,International Displaced Persons (IDPs), widows,demobilised soldiers and vulnerable groups, inrebuilding their living environment. Thecomprehensive programme of support assists thepoor in rebuilding their lives by addressing their

urgent needs of income, water, sanitation system,and shelter, in the process enhancing their sense ofsecurity while creating healthy environments forthem to live in. The overall goals of the Projectwere:

� To assist the returnees and vulnerable families inthe construction of the shelters;

� To generate employment opportunities andincome for the poor in the target cities;

� To restore and expand the water supply systemin the target cities with the aim of providingstable potable water to the cities� populationincluding the returnees;

� To ensure leading participation of the targetpopulation in the design and implementation ofthe activities of the Project as a way ofempowering them to undertake improvementmeasures out of their own initiative.

Process

Shelter Component: Kandahar & Jalalabad

The shelter component of the Project was designedto assist the returnees and the vulnerable groupswho cannot by themselves build their shelter.Within the returnees, the Project gives priority tothe most vulnerable households, such as thoseheaded by widows, with no bread earners in thefamily, and the very poor.

Beneficiaries were identified with the cooperationof the local authorities and in consultation withcommunity members. Once identified, they formtheir own group so that they can take care of localprocurement, production of building materials likebricks in a collective manner, and labourmobilisation (including self- and mutual-help).Building materials, such as timber beams,windows, doors, are financed by the Project andprocured by the groups. Distribution of buildingmaterials took place under the supervision of theward committees (called the �Shuras�) where theProject sites were located but each family wasrequired to keep a Family Material Card wheredetails of materials and cash grant disbursed arerecorded and verified. This process enabledfamilies to make critical decisions � such as howlarge the shelter should be, what kind of materialsshould be used, and what design would be moreappropriate based on their needs and capacity.

The Project was based on the premise that peoplehave the capacity to assist in their own recoveryprovided they have security and active support

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from authorities. Each element of the Project wasdesigned in consultation with the beneficiaries sothat they can define their needs and identifysolutions. In case of shelter construction, no layoutplan of a shelter was suggested to allow designingtheir shelters based on their needs and their abilityto invest. The Project helped to remove theobstacles that hinder people from exercising theirjudgment. By assisting them with building materialsand small cash, shelter reconstruction was mademore affordable. Beneficiaries took part directly inthe construction and its management as the Projectgenerates employment within the community.

Improvement of Water Supply System:Mazar-e-Sharif

Under the Project, a number of large-scale andminor repairs, installation of a number of handpumps in those parts of the city that were notserved by the network, shall be undertaken. Thiscomponent of the Project was implemented incollaboration with the support of the municipalityand in partnership with the Central Authority forWater Supply and Sewerage (CAWSS).

Implementation Strategy

The implementation strategy was based on thepremise that people should be at the centre ofdevelopment. This will not only make theimplementation go smoothly but also contribute totheir self-reliance. Under this strategy, participationassumes a central role in which people contributeto the Project by participating in the decision-making process rather than the other way round.The scale of the needs far exceeds available Projectresources. It is essential that people become partof the decision-making.

Shelter Construction

� Beneficiary families and the communities wasthe centre of the process with local Governmentand UN-HABITAT playing the role of supportingthem within a given framework;

� Families received recognition and had theopportunity to take decisions regarding thebuilding of the shelter: the family was not amere recipient of a package delivered;

� Families were given the freedom to decide onthe technology, size and shape materials andhow to build the shelter;

� Families were able to optimise the grantpackage to get more �housing space�. Familieswere able to prioritise quality vs. space,

technology vs. space, etc. Families chose thesize of rooms according to their needs andtraditions, as a standard plan was not imposedon them;

� With the Family Material Card, families werealways aware of the amount of materialsordered, the cost and the balance. A guidelineon earthquake damage mitigating buildingmethod was introduced and Technical Officeradvised the families accordingly. Families wereable to build on the existing foundation of theirold house without having to invest in new ones;and

� Mutual help system was promoted in the form ofgroups of families helping each other.Procurement was devolved to the communitylevel and system put in place to ensuretransparency.


The Government of Japan provided a total budgetof US$ 2,603,095, of which a total of US$947,767 was allocated for 2,000 shelter units inKandahar and US$ 712,601 for 1,500 shelterunits in Jalalabad. Additional US$ 942,727 wasallocated for Mazar-e-Sharif water supply repairand improvement.

Results Achieved

A total of 3,500 shelters were built in these twocities, and a number of strategic repairs in existingwater supply system were carried out in Mazar-e-Sharif benefiting 30,500 families (213,500people). The original Project was planned for aduration of six months. A letter of exchangebetween the Government of Japan and UN-HABITAT took place on 29 October, 2002. Thedetails include:

Shelter Construction

KandaharPlanned 2,000 shelters � Completed 2,000 shelters

JalalabadPlanned 1,500 shelters � Completed 1,500 shelters

Water Supply Rehabilitation: Mazar-e-Sharif

� Restoration of Nahr-e-Top scheme;� Restoration of Takhta-pul Water Supply Scheme

� Activity changed to Neighbourhoods scheme;� 24 Neighbourhoods scheme restored; and


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� Inception and complete overhaul and repair of300 handpumps in different districts of theMazar-e-Sharif City and 46 additional handpumps installed.

Sustainability and ProgrammeExtension

The Project was based on the belief that people arethe primary resource in the rebuilding process andthey have to play a central role. People asorganised communities had to take decisions ontheir own development and take actionaccordingly. Mobilisation was the key approach tomake people aware of their responsibilities and todecide what needs to be done to overcome thepresent situation. This was the process ofempowerment that enables people to takedevelopment into their own hand enabling them torebuild their lives with dignity.

UN-HABITAT had the opportunity to observedifferent models of assistance in Afghanistan. Amodel commonly practiced in Afghanistan inshelter sector was one that prescribes the details ofhow a shelter should look like, how large it shouldbe, what materials should be used, how large awindow should be and at what pace the sheltershould be built. In real life, homebuilders-ownersmake these decisions in the broader context ofwhat is commonly known as �priority regime�. Inother words, shelter needs although an importantelement of the total needs of the poor, should notcome at the cost of other needs such as food,health, education, etc. When shelter standards areprescribed they tend to be mismatched with thepriority regime, thereby forcing people to curtailother needs.

If people are trusted to come up with their ownstandards within the bound of technical soundness,they would be able to meet their shelter needsmore efficiently and at a lower cost. These were thereasons why the Project did not provide standarddesigns and plans but instead focused on helpingpeople to define their needs by themselves andsomehow fitting Project requirements to theirneeds.

Extension of Ogata Initiative Phase III

The output of this Project had supported the peopleof the three cities in Afghanistan; however, there willbe more returnees and IDPs coming back to thecities. Therefore, similar type of continuous supportwill be required as shelter and water is essential forall people to establish their basic living environment.In the course of implementation, it became evidentthat toilets were necessary in order to avoid furthercontamination of ground water. UN-HABITATsuggests that the toilet construction for shelters builtby Ogata II, and additional shelters should beincluded for the component of Ogata III.

Lessons Learned

All the returning families were very eager to rebuildtheir houses and this facilitated the mobilisation ofpeople. Most families have the skills and capacity tobuild their own housing, however they may also needto hire skilled labour or to provide food for helpers.This is particularly true in the case of female-headedhouseholds. Therefore, it is optimal to supply part ofthe shelter package not only in cash, which was US$2 per day as a payment, for instance, but would alsocover food as it was observed that some families findit difficult to obtain food during the constructionperiod. Furthermore, mutual help is a traditionalpractice and it was useful to organise it in the form of�Mutual Help Groups�. These groups can turn intosavings and credit groups. The Project originallyintended to do this, but due to the time frame forimplementation, they could not be formalised. Interms of materials, the biggest demand from thegrant was for roofing beams. The beneficiaries wereable to procure other materials like planks, nails andplastic on their own.

Through the activities of the Project, families learnthow to help each other and work with otherfamilies in order to produce construction materialsand construct shelters efficiently. Families learnedhow to discuss with wakils and shuras.Communities learnt how to work with MunicipalGovernments and United Nations. Municipalgovernments learnt how to guide and mobilisepeople to achieve the same objectives.

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Urban Rehabilitation and Employment Programme: Ogata Initiative Phase III

The Urban Rehabilitation and Employment Programme in Afghanistan under Ogata Initiative Phase IIIwas implemented by UN-HABITAT in collaboration with local Afghan Communities and the MunicipalAuthorities. The Project was implemented in three cities in Afghanistan, namely, Kandahar, Jalalabadand Mazar-e-Sharif. The project was founded under Japan�s Regional Comprehensive DevelopmentAssistance to Afghanistan: Ogata Initiative Phase III, an initiative of the Government of Japan, whichwas launched in 2003 to support comprehensive regional development in Afghanistan. In manyrespects including objectives, approaches, principles, activities, target cities, beneficiary selectionprocess, etc, the Phase III programme builds on what was initiated under Ogata Initiative Phase IIprogramme.

Project Achievements:

City Shelter Toilet Road, drainage Water Supply Beneficiaries(Units) (Units) Gravelling (Families)

Kandahar 1,175 2,437 13.4 km water supply network extended 16,89615 tube wells with hand pumps completed

Jalalabad 1,250 2,234 9 km road 28.651 km of water supply network 53,484gravelled extended2 km drainage 23 tube wells with hand pumpsbuilt completed1 causeway 33 stand posts constructed(30mx6.50mx35m) 1 water reservoir rehabilitated

2 pump houses rehabilitated4 submersible pump repaired660 m electricity for network providedLeakage detection and repairs in 50 placesSpare parts for water supply provided

Mazar-e- 1,000 827 1,827Sharif:

Total 3,425 5,498 72,207


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PHNOM PENH, CAMBODIA

Rehabilitation of Public Utility forSustainable Water Supply

Cambodia�s Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority (PPWSA) was unlike a typical water utility in Asia and thiswas not because it had service efficiency, greater water productivity or increased consumer base. Other waterutilities in the region also had some of these traits at one time or another. PPWSA was different because itachieved all these by radically transforming a decrepit and war-torn water supply system with missing waterand water customers, into a model public sector water utility that provided drinking water round the clock toall of the one million inhabitants of Phnom Penh with an efficient and effective pro-poor governance. Theradical transformation was due to the dynamic leadership of a young engineer who initiated the culture ofchange within the organization by education and motivation, followed by a flurry of reforms. With the assistanceof ADB and through internal reforms, PPWSA transformed itself into an efficient, self-financed, autonomousorganisation in the city and an outstanding public utility in the region.

Background

Cambodia�s 20-year civil war and the KhmerRouge rule destroyed much of Phnom Penh�sbuildings and infrastructure. The water supplysystem was totally deteriorated with the century-old pipes and poor distribution network servingpiped water to a quarter of the population, waterlosses, water theft, illegal connections, increasedunaccounted-for water and inaccurate billings, etc.

Phnom Penh�s water supply system capacity shrankfrom 55,000 m3/day in the 1960s to 65,000 m3/day by 1993. With century-old pipes and a poordistribution network, only a quarter of thepopulation received piped water. The Phnom PenhWater Supply Authority (PPWSA), a Government-owned water supply utility, was having trouble inmeeting the challenges. The employees weredemoralised, underpaid and underqualified. Only13% of connections had water meters, leading toinaccurate billing. Only 28% of water productionwas actually sold, with the collection rate not evenreaching 50%. Illegal connections were prolific andunaccounted for water was at a high (72%),followed by water thefts.

Objectives

To bring reliable and safe drinking water to all theone million inhabitants of Phnom Penh for24-hours a day.

Resources

ADB assistance and the support of the Governmentof Cambodia.

PPWSA Initiative � a culture of change

The year 1993 marked the beginning of therestoration of Phnom Penh�s water infrastructure.With the assistance of external funding agencies,particularly the Asian Development Bank (ADB) andthrough internal reforms and dynamic leadership,PPWSA had brought out a culture of change withinthe organization by education and motivation.

Process

Mr. Ek Sonn Chan, a young engineer who tookPPWSA�s helm, initiated the �culture of change�within the organisation, starting with the educationand motivation of PPWSA�s staff. This was followedby a flurry of reforms, including

� streamlining the organisation�s workforce� giving more responsibility to highermanagement, promoting promising staff, givinghigher salary and incentives to staff, fosteringthe spirit of teamwork, etc.

� improving collection levels � installing metersfor all connections, computerising the billingsystem, updating its consumer base, confrontinghigh-ranking non-payers and cutting off theirwater supply if they refuse to pay, etc.

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� rehabilitating the whole distributionnetwork and treatment plants � hiringlocals instead of international consultants forthe job, manually looking for the pipes as allblueprints were destroyed during the civil warand mobilising the communities to reportleaks, etc.

� minimising illegal connections andunaccounted-for water � setting upinspection teams to stop illegal connections,penalising those with illegal connections, givingincentives to the public to report illegalconnections, etc.

� increasing water tariffs to covermaintenance and operating costs �proposing a 3-step increase in tariffs over7 years, although the 3rd step did not pushthrough anymore because revenues alreadycovered the costs by then.

Results Achieved

Hundred percent water services to the inner cityPhnom Penh was achieved and expanded tosurrounding districts, with priority given to urbanpoor communities. PPWSA served 15,000 familiesin 123 urban poor communities, giving the poorextra privileges such as subsidised tariffs,connection fees, installments for connection fees,etc. Non-revenue water decreased from 72% to

8%, while bill collection was at 99.9%. Its 147,000connections, up from 26,881 in 1993, broughtreliable and safe drinking water to all of PhnomPenh�s one million inhabitants 24-hours a day.Through the internal reforms, PPWSA transformeditself into an efficient, self-financed, autonomousorganisation in the city and an outstanding publicutility in the region.

Sustainability and Transferability

The Phnom Penh Water Supply and DrainageProject provided the opportunity for PPWSA topartner with ADB and demonstrate its capacity forcatalysing water sector reforms. The projectadvocated the transfer of more managerialautonomy to PPWSA to enable it to use its ownfunds on maintenance and rehabilitationprogrammes. As a result, PPWSA becamefinancially and operationally autonomous,achieved full cost recovery, and transformed intoan outstanding public utility in the region.

PPWSA had established that through atransparent environment where water utilitieshave sufficient autonomy, where tariffs can covercosts, where services are equitable to all andwhere there is the active involvement of staff andcivil society, clean water targets can be met. Mr.Ek Sonn Chan says, �It doesn�t matter whether


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water distribution is done by the private sector ora public agency, as long as these institutions aretransparent, independent from politicalpressures, and accountable.�

In January 2004, PPWSA was awarded ADB�sWater Prize � an award conferred to exemplaryproject agencies that have established soundpractice in implementing ADB�s �Water for All�policy � for dramatically overhauling PhnomPenh�s water supply system and demonstratingleadership and innovation in project financing andgovernance. Mr. Ek Sonn Chan received the 2006Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Servicefor his �exemplary rehabilitation of a ruined publicutility, bringing safe drinking water to a millionpeople in Cambodia�s capital city.�

Lessons Learned

Water doesn�t have to be Free. The Local Action ofPhnom Penh demonstrated that access to water doesnot mean that it has to be free. The urban poor wereconsiderably better-off paying for safe, piped waterthan buying water of questionable quality fromprivate vendors. For instance, Phnom Penh�sunconnected residents used to pay 1,000 riels a dayfor water bought from private water vendors; Afterthe transformation, they only spent about 5,000 rielsper month for PPWSA-supplied water.

Cost Recovery is Vital. By developing a tariffstructure where the utility fully recovers its cost ofwater production and transmission, the utilitybecame financially viable and able to invest in thewater infrastructure. The PPWSA reached full costrecovery in 2004 and is making modest profits.

Operator must be Autonomous. Although thePPWSA is Government-owned, it had enough

autonomy to develop its own payment structureand culture with an enthusiastic and motivatedstaff responsive to consumer demand and efficientoperations where revenues pay for infrastructuredevelopment.

Government Support is Crucial. The tariffrestructuring, which paved the way for PPWSA�sgreater revenues, would not be possible withoutthe support of the Government of Cambodia andits development agencies. PPWSA would also nothave the freedom to innovate if the Governmenthad not declared the utility as an autonomousbody in 1986.

Civil Society must be involved. The remarkableincrease in bill collection and reduction in illegalconnections also highlighted the importance ofinvolving users and civil society in a service thatthey want and are willing to pay for. The key wasto develop a utility-customer relationship, based onlong-term community building rather than short-term contractual relationships. Effective awarenesscampaigns also enabled PPWSA to increase tariffswith broad public support.

Investing in Staff Yields Radical Results. PPWSAtakes pride in its team of people who arehardworking, responsible and self-motivated.PPWSA professionalised its workforce, building itstechnical capacity (each staff receives an averageof 12 days of training each year) and instilling inits employees a work ethic of discipline,competence and teamwork.

Water Champion at the Helm Drives Reforms.When Mr. Ek Sonn Chan introduced the �culture ofchange� to PPWSA, he started the Utility on theroad to recovery. With each reform that PPWSAhad taken, he had been its driving force, leadinghis staff and the community by example.

Indicators 1993 2006Staff per 1,000/Connections 22 4Production Capacity 65,000 m3/day 235,000 m3/dayNon-revenue Water 72% 8%Coverage Area 25% 90%Total Connections 26,881 147,000Metered Coverage 13% 100%Supply Duration 10 hours/day 24 hours/dayCollection Ratio 48% 99.9%Total Revenue 0.7 billion riels 34 billion rielsFinancial Situation Heavy Subsidy Full Cost Recovery

PPWSA: Before and After

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JINAN, CHINA

A National Water Conserving City

The �Sustainable Fresh Water Management� initiative in Jinan City, China was given the award of China�sBest Practice in improving the living environment by UN-HABITAT in 2002. This was a unique accolade forthe promotion of the city�s safe water supply and preservation of water resources. This Local Action was alsoawarded the title of �National Water-Conserving City� to create water-conserving cities.

Background

Jinan City is located in the semi-arid plains ofChina. For over two decades, the people andindustries of Jinan exploited the natural andabundant groundwater supply to improve theirliving conditions and to fuel the economicgrowth. Jinan�s economic growth thrived on itscultural-environmental heritage as the �City ofSprings� by attracting many tourists, as well asdomestic and foreign investments. Theoverexploitation of the natural and abundantgroundwater resources by people and theindustries for improving the living conditions andthe economic development resulted in thedecline of the groundwater levels, lack offreshwater resources and reached a crisis point,by mid-1990s. Domestic and industrial watersupplies became unpredictable. The water tablefell dramatically, causing the natural springs to dryup intermittently. This resulted in a slowdown intourism development and added costs forindustrial production and businesses. These factorsthreatened the well-being of the citizens of Jinanand jeopardised prospects for long-term economicdevelopment.


The project and the various policy initiatives wereaimed at ensuring environmental sustainability aswell as sustained supply of fresh water to theresidents of Jinan.

The objectives of the initiative were to:

� Ensure the treatment, recycling and reuse ofwastewater;

� Manage water demand through theconservation and recycling of water resources;

� Manage water supply through the diversificationof sources of water and watershed conservation;

� Enhance urban greening; and� Improve infrastructure for reducing leakages.

In 1997, a decision to remedy this State of affairswas made in order to provide the citizens of Jinanwith safe drinking water and restore the perennialflow of its springs. This was initiated with a view topreserve the unique cultural and urbanenvironmental heritage as a �City of Springs� whichpromotes tourism as well as improve the livingconditions of the citizens and the economicdevelopment.

A three-pronged strategy was adopted in aparticipatory approach:

� Demand management through theconservation and recycling of water resources;

� Supply management through the diversificationof sources of water; and

� Watershed conservation and urban greening,using new and appropriate technologies.


The Project involved various stakeholders aspartners including the International Bank forReconstruction and Development (IBRD), theAustralia Export Finance and InsuranceCorporation, the Chinese Government and thegeneral public in particular, and were consulted ateach phase of the initiative.

The total investment required for realizing theobjectives led Jinan city to embark on a multi-faceted financial package. A loan from the WorldBank was used to build the Queshan reservoir,which has a capacity of 46 million cubic metres,and the Banqiao pumping station. InternationalBank for Reconstruction and Developmentcontribution amounted to 17.24 per cent of thetotal costs during the first year. In the second year,

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the figure fell to 10.86 per cent and rose again inthe third year to 12.26 per cent, while there wasno contribution in the fourth year. The secondpartner, the Export-Import Bank of China,contributed 2.84 per cent for the first year and nofunding in the subsequent years. The third partner,the China Government Public Debt Section,contributed 15.69 per cent in the first year, 7.71per cent during the second year, 30.92 per cent inthe third year and 26 per cent in the final year.

A package involving a domestic loan and a loanfrom the Government of Australia was used tofinance the building of the Yuqing Reservoir, whichhas a capacity of 48.5 million cubic metres and theYuqing Water Plant, which processes 400,000 cubicmetres per day. Increases in water pricing and usercharges were used to service these loans, while themunicipality�s budget provided matching funds forwater catchment improvements, urban greeningand various other components of the initiative.

Process

The implementation process entailed mobilisationof all stakeholders and of the general public fromthe outset. Beneficiary groups were involved in allphases and stages of the project, includingplanning, the decision making process, andimplementation; Periodical meetings, workshopsand seminars were organised at each step of thedesign, implementation, monitoring andevaluation processes. Multi-stakeholdercommittees reviewed the progress made andplayed an active role in project supervision, qualityand cost control. The Jinan Municipal Governmentestablished a solid waste management team andthe Yellow River adduction project headquarters,with the Mayor as Commander-in-Chief. AllMunicipal Departments, including theDevelopment Planning Bureau, the PlanningBureau, the Environmental Protection Bureau andthe Water Conservancy Bureau were mobilisedwithin this framework.

The Policies were formulated to govern andmanage the supply, demand and conservation ofwater. These included :

� Pricing of domestic and industrial water whichencouraged conservation in the uses of waterand in consumption;

� Incentives for the acquisition and use of water-saving technology; and

� Strict regulation of groundwater use and thereplenishment of the water table.

Results Achieved

Jinan City�s water supply was augmented to 1.5million cubic metres per day, of which 0.9 millioncubic metres were derived from surface water. Thesprings of Jinan City were once again flowing on aregular basis. The environment was improved andthe unique cultural and urban environmentalheritage of the city preserved.

The initiative led to reforms in the management ofutilities in the city. The new technologies, newworking methods and human resources capacitybuilding turned the Government which was earlierconsidered as inefficient and ineffective, into amodern, accountable and transparent operation.The adoption of new policies and legislation led tomore efficient and transparent utilitiesmanagement and to pricing policies, whichcontributed to the long-term financial sustainabilityof Jinan�s public administration.

The partnerships with well-established institutionsensured effective management of water resources.The Policy initiatives ensured environmentalsustainability as well as sustained supply offreshwater to the residents of Jinan. Theestablishment of institutional frameworks reinforcedby the mobilisation of adequate resources in atransparent manner aided in the management ofwater resources and financial viability. The financingpartnership adopted by the initiative assured itsfinancial sustainability and, hence, its success.

The factors that led to the success of the project include:

� Effective legal, institutional and policy frameworksaimed at regulating the use of water, waterpricing, and protection of water catchment areas;

� Public participation in all phases and aspects ofthe policy and decision-making process;

� The participatory process led to the adoption ofa vision for a more sustainable future withsocial and economic advantages benefiting all;

� Extensive and well-coordinated partnershipsystems; and

� Meaningful involvement of the local authoritiesin the whole project process from the inception.

Sustainability

The factors that contributed to the sustainability ofthe initiative include:

� Increase in water pricing and user charges thatare, in turn, used to service the loans, while the

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Municipality�s budget provided matching fundsfor water catchment improvements, urbangreening and various other components of theinitiative;

� The initiative�s endeavour to change the patternof water resource management in Jinan � onthe water supply side, the diversification ofwater sources allows the City of Jinan to meetpresent and future demands for water withoutjeopardising groundwater sources, while thesupply of safe water and the revival of Jinan�sscenic and cultural heritage are renewing thecity�s economic development potential andcompetitiveness, especially in the tourism sector,thus contributing to long-term economicsustainability;

� The development of laws and policies regardingthe regulation of the use of resources throughdiscussions involving all stakeholders, providinga level playing field for regulating the use ofresources and the application of user chargesand water tariffs, and providing an enablingframework for the adoption of newtechnologies and production methods as wellas new management systems.

Transferability

The innovative aspects of the initiative included theadoption of new technologies using geo-textiles to

reduce water leakage in reservoirs. The processand principles of tackling the issue of safe andreliable freshwater by using a concerted andparticipatory approach to supply and demandmanagement and watershed conservation aretransferable to many cities in China, where similarproblems occur.

In the formulation of the initiative, Jinan took noteof other successful practices such as thoseimplemented by the cities of Weihai and Qingdao,both of which are recognised in the UN-HABITATBest Practices Database. In 2002, the initiative wasgiven the award of �China�s Best Practice inImproving the Living Environment�. This was aunique accolade for the campaign for the city�ssafe water supply and preservation of its springs. Itwas also awarded the title of �NationalWater-Conserving City� in the campaign to createwater-conserving cities.

These achievements drew the attention of manycities, including Kunming, Xiamen, Yantai andWeihai, which have sent delegations to learnfrom Jinan�s experience. Jinan was invited by theChina Water Supply Association and theShandong Provincial Construction Department toshare the lessons learned from its experienceand to transfer the use of water leakageprevention technology.


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Box 2.1: Water Conservation Conscious City, Fukuoka, Japan

Like the best practices, effective water demand management in Fukuoka was born from a crisis.Fukuoka was the first city in Japan to venture on a programme of creating Water ConservationConsciousness in partnership with the citizens and the private sector to meet the alarming waterthreat. The explicit and innovative measures taken to balance the supply and demand for waterwere an exemplary experience worthy of record.

Fukuoka is a fast developing city in Japan. Not blessed with abundant water resources and subjectto serious periodic droughts, Fukuoka faced enormous challenge in securing a reliable and stablewater supply for over 1.3 million citizens in the face of ever growing demand. There was a greatdrought in 1978, forcing the city government to curb water supply for 278 days in a year, with someparts of the city having no water supply at all � a harsh reality water situation faced in the city.

To respond to this alarming situation, the Fukuoka city, in partnership with the citizens and privatesector, launched various initiatives promoting a �Water Conservation Conscious City� in 1979.Under this scheme, several innovations and measures were implemented. The need to raise waterconservation consciousness among the city residents was emphasised. Water-saving apparatus wereintroduced and approximately 96% of users had water flow reducing devices installed in theirfaucets. Water savings were realised with an average family saving up to 1,000 litres per month.Water conservation consciousness amongst residents was promoted through �Save WaterCampaign� held annually. Guidelines on saving water were distributed to homes and educationalmaterials to primary schools. More than 85% of citizens were involved in some kind of efforts toconserve water.

Minimising leakage is one way of using water effectively. The Fukuoka City Water Bureau had beenaddressing water leakage by replacing old pipes with new ones. Through such effort, Fukuoka hadthe lowest water leakage rate of Japan and it was under 2.7% in 2001. The city was also activelypromoting reuse of treated wastewater. Using the Wide-Area Circulation System and IndividualCirculation System for large-buildings, used and treated water was utilised for flushing toilets andwatering plants. The amount of water conserved by this approach was about 7,000 cubic metres aday. The City supplemented its fresh water supplies by converting seawater into freshwater, using theReverse Permeability system, to produce 50,000 cubic metres of freshwater daily.

Other measures included an integrated water distribution monitoring system to ensure efficiency.The City had also embarked on protecting water sources through tree planting campaign. A�Fukuoka City Forest and Water Resource Foundation� was established in 1997, financed by one yenper cubic metre surcharge shared equally by residents, business people and the city authority.

The per capita water consumption in Fukuoka City was less than what it was before in 1978, despitea 30 per cent increase in population. Fukuoka City consumes approximately 20% less water thanother comparably sized cities.

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NANJING, CHINA

A Water-saving City

With the pressure of worsening water quality and deteriorated water environment, Nanjing became a typicalcity lacking quality water, despite having water resources. It became necessary to choose to become a �Water-saving oriented City�. Water saving not only improves the efficiency in using water resources and relieve thepressure of water supply, but it also lowers the water supply investment and decreases the wastewater discharge.The cost of water-saving is much lower compared to the cost of long-term water diversion and pollutioncontrol. Therefore, water-saving enjoys both economical and ecological benefits.

Background

Located in �abundant water� District at lowerreaches of Yangtze River and surrounded bymountains, the city of Nanjing in China has anadvantage of water resources. With rapideconomic growth, social development, increase inpopulation, industrialisation and urbanisation,water consumption has risen, resulting in a widergap between water supply and demand. In April of2006, Nanjing Municipality launched acomprehensive programme and established aLeading Group, which was responsible fororganising, guiding, coordinating, supervising andexamining the city-wide implementation process.The Leading Group was headed by the DeputyMayor-in-Charge. The city Deputy Secretary-General and the Director General of MunicipalUtility Bureau were appointed as the Deputy Head,and the members included the leaders of 19Bureaus and 11 Districts. The Leading Group officeis located in Municipal Utility Bureau, whosedivision of Water Supply and Saving Managementtakes care of the detailed work.


It is estimated that by 2010, the investments1 bythe water supply facility providers will be of theorder of US$ 1/m3 and US$ 1.3/m3 forwastewater treatment; while it needs only US$ 0.4/m3 for water conservation. The cost of watersaving is much lower, compared to long-termwater diversion and pollution control. Accordingly,it is aimed at establishing a �Water Saving City� atprovincial level in 2007, and at national level by2008. With the application of the principles of

�China Habitat Award� and �UN-HABITAT Scroll ofHonor�, Nanjing is expected to develop as aharmonious modern city, full of economicdynamics, cultural characteristics, quality livingenvironment with social stability. Consequently, thecity value will be elevated and the urbancompetitive capacity will be enhanced.


The Government investment for the Programme isRMB 1 million (US$ 130,000). More than RMB 3million (US$ 390,000) are used for theupgradation of water-saving utensils to theresidents annually. The bulk users, consuming over1 million tons, are asked to be water-savingenterprises (Entities), and regular usage rate by theindustries has to be more than 75%. Water-savingtechnology is to be developed and popularised byjoint efforts of Universities and the ScientificResearch Institutions. Nearly 100 Experts andProfessionals are involved from 19 Bureaus and11 districts in Nanjing.

Focus

The Water for Asian Cities Programme wasinitiated by UN-HABITAT in Nanjing. Thecomponent of water conservation and demandmanagement are being implemented and will helpNanjing to realise the objectives of building awater-saving city, which include:

� Developing the strategy of water conservationand demand management for Nanjing, anddevelop water-saving technology andequipment;

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1. Source: Report on the Sustainable Development Strategy of Water Resources


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� Conduct a study on policies of water protectionand demand management; and

� Promoting conservation and demandmanagement for Nanjing.

Process

A. Referring to the national as well as theprovincial indicator system combining theNanjing status quo of water-savingmanagement, analysis has to be done todistinguish the advantages and deficiencies sothat the focus on project indicators can beidentified and improved. The implementationplan is to be developed and the projectindicators need to be broken up to specificmember Entities.

B. Different types of activities are encouragedthrough �Publicising Week for Water-saving�,which aimed at establishing the atmosphere ofbuilding a water-saving city throughoutNanjing. Newspapers, magazines, televisions,broadcasts, websites and briefings can publiciseintensively the purpose and significance ofwater-saving and enrich the varied approaches.

A series of activities, called �Five Once�, werecarried out in 2006 on the theme, �Promotewater recycling and build a water-saving city�during the �Publicising Week for Water-saving�,which included publicising:

� In a square once - an interactive Q & A(question and answer) was performed whichwas hosted jointly by Shanxi Road Square andthe Life Channel of Nanjing TV;

� In a special space in Nanjing News Daily once;� Once by dialogue between citizens and leaders

of the Leading Group through live broadcast;� Once in communities. Over 100 throwaways

and surveys were dispersed and more than 30households in communities were offeredreplacement of toilet fittings without anycharge; and

� Once on-campus. Twenty exhibition boards andseveral banners were used for publicising inNanjing University and Nanjing NormalUniversity. Over 500 flyers and 400 surveyswere dispersed.

C. The activities of �building water-savingenterprises (Entities) and Communities� are

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actively promoted. Every year, the work iscarried out in three stages, which include:

� Training classes for water-savingmanagement;

� Conducting water balance test; and� Carrying out activities for building water-

saving enterprises (Entities).

Fifty-four Water-saving Enterprises (Entities) and28 Jiangsu Provincial Water-saving Communitieshave been awarded.

D. Water-saving regulations are to be improved toensure the lawful management and the virtuousdevelopment of the water-saving work. TheRegulations on Water Supply and ConservationManagement in Nanjing have been listed in thelegislation plan in 2007 which can hopefully beissued in the second half of 2007.

E. Water conservation and demand managementstrategy and water-saving plan are to bedeveloped to provide guidance and evidencefor the work at different stages. �The Mid termto Long term Plan on City Water Saving inNanjing� (2010 - 2020) (including the Plan forirregular Water Resource Use) has been workedout, which diagnoses the current situation andputs forward the objectives and theimplementing measures. The Plan has passedthe expert examination and the approval of theMunicipality.

F. The rationing of water use is to be amended tomeet the requirement of gradual transition fromplanned management to ration management.

G. The water-saving document related to �threesimultaneities� is to be perfected to regulate themanagement. Integrating the practicalconditions of Nanjing, �Notice on Printing andDistributing Rules of water-saving �threesimultaneities in Nanjing� was issued by theMunicipal Public Bureau, ConstructionCommission and Environmental ProtectionBureau of Nanjing, which prescribes specificallythe evidence, objectives, management agenciesand requirements for �three simultaneities�.

H. The investigation and study on reclaimedwastewater reuse and rainwater harvesting is tobe conducted.

I. Water-saving management is to be enhanced andbasic data and statistics are to be improved.

Results Achieved

� For Water consumption per RMB 10,000 (US$1,300), Gross Local Products Value was31.71m3 and Industrial Value-added was39.65 m3.

� The water volume index of 6 industrial districtshas reached national standard.

� The rate of repeatedly used water by industriesreached 77.40%.

� The water use proportion by water-savingenterprises (Entities) was 43%.

� The leakage rate of urban water pipelines was10.39%.

� Household water consumption in cities was102.76 litres per person per day.

� Water-saving utensils coverage reached 100%.� Reclaimed wastewater reuse in the city was

24.01%.� Urban wastewater treatment rate reached

91.39%.� Collective treatment rate was 66.82% and

97.92% of industrial wastewater emissionreached standards.

Progressive input of special water-saving fundaccounted for over 0.1% of financial expenses andthe Programme benefited approximately 4 millionpopulation.

Sustainability

Implementing the strategy of overall water-saving embodies the practice of adhering to theview of Scientific Development, it is an importantact for effective utilisation of water in ensuringthe quality of life for the people.

Through the process of � water saving� withoutdecreasing the quality of life and the eco-socialdevelopment capacity, comprehensive measuresare adopted to reduce the loss, wastage andpollution during water use, improve the waterefficiency and use of water resources scientificallyas well as reasonably.

Under the concept of �Water-saving city�, in thewhole process, the citizens have the awareness onthe benefits of water-saving by establishingintegrated water-saving management systems,adopting legal, economic, administrative,technological and publicising measures to optimisethe operational mechanism, which can save andprotect water resources at every link ofdevelopment so that the limited water resourcescan exert maximised eco-social benefits.


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Lessons learned

Efforts should be increased to speed up theupgradation of the water-saving utensils in the oldresidential areas. The Entities using administrativewater including government departments, publicinstitutions, schools and hospitals should attachgreater importance to the upgradation of water-saving utensils and facilities. The newly-built,rebuilt and expanded buildings must utilise thewater-saving utensils. The water utensils washedout by the State must be stopped. Themanagement of public water use should behighlighted. Urban reclaimed water-use projectsshould be developed. The irregular waterresources such as reclaimed water should be usedextensively in the sectors including construction,municipal environment, sanitation, landscape,greening, and vehicle cleaning. The momentum ofupgrading water supply pipelines should beincreased by setting up panic repairing centres,enhancing the statistics collection for fire-fighting,water consumption for landscaping, and loweringthe leakage rate in pipelines.

Transferability

Nanjing Meishan Metallurgy Company decreased waterconsumption from 9 tons to 6 tons per ton steel byinvesting RMB 120 million (US$ 15,600) to the newlyreclaimed wastewater reuse facilities, which reachedadvanced standards in China.

Nanjing Army Command College took the lead inestablishing a wastewater treatment plant with capacityof 4,000 tons treatment per day among various armycolleges in Nanjing. As a result, 50 thousand tons ofwater can be saved every month by reusing thereclaimed wastewater for toilet flushing, flower wateringand landscape water use. The single middle-waterconsumption for toilet flushing is 800 tons, which cansave RMB 1,000 (US$ 130) per day.

The Jiangning campus of Hehai University establishedthe system of rainwater collection, storage andutilisation for beautifying the environment by developingflowers, grass and trees. Since the system was started in2001, at least 100 thousand cubic metres and RMB200,000 (US$ 26,000) have been saved annually.

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UTTARAKHAND, INDIA

Himalayan Water and Sanitation Programme

The Himalayan Water and Sanitation Programme, known as �Himmothan Pariyojana� in Hindi, the Indiannational language, was launched in 2001-02 in the hill State of Uttarakhand, to address the issues affectingthe Himalayan region and its people through watershed management, water and sanitation interventions andlivelihood enhancement. The approach is demand driven and need based. It involves community participationand integrates water supply, health, sanitation, source conservation and agricultural support.

Introduction

The challenges facing the central Himalayan regionwere severe environmental degradation, migration,meagre land holdings and heavy workload forwomen. The status of drinking water supply was verypoor with 48% of habitations either partially coveredor not covered. Usage of toilets was about 26%resulting in water-borne diseases.

In the 1990s, the Government initiated community-led water scheme called Swajal through Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs). With thesuccessful experience gained through this scheme,Himalayan Institute Hospital Trust (HIHT) sought tocontinue this initiative incorporating further activity tostrengthen areas like Natural Resource Managementand livelihood option. Accordingly, HIHT approachedSir Ratan Tata Trust to carry out this HimmothanPariyojana which was a huge success in its first phaseand the second phase is going on.


The project �Himmothan Pariyojana� focuses onwater supply, sanitation services, livelihoodenhancement, protection of catchment area,enhanced access to information and knowledge,women empowerment, sustainable local governanceand achievement of �Open Defecation Free� status.The objective is to deliver sustainable health andhygiene benefits through improvement in WaterSupply and Environmental Sanitation Services.


The financial resources for the project�s first phasewere granted by a private funder. The investment forthe 12 villages in first Phase was to the tune of Rs.31.452 million. In the second phase, the same

funding agency brought in additional grants fromanother agency to carry out the project in 20 villages.Community contributed 10% of the cost either in cashor kind.

Process

The Project was carried out in 42 months over fourphases, viz, Preplanning (six months), Planning(twelve months), Implementation (twelve months) andOperation & Maintenance (twelve months). Planswere made and implemented in the areas of:

� Water Supply Scheme;� Sanitation (Latrines, Organic Compost Pits,

Grass Patch and Poly Houses);� Catchment Area Protection (CAP);� Hygiene and Sanitation Awareness;� Livelihood Enhancement and Women

Empowerment Interventions;� Information and Knowledge-sharing;� Cash and Labour Contribution;� Community Monitoring & Evaluation; and� Operation and Maintenance.

All technical criteria of State and Central water andsanitation (WATSAN) agencies have been followedfor implementation of the schemes. A mix team ofsoftware and hardware human resources has beenused including social scientists and technical staff.

Problems Encountered

� The pre-feasibility task is very critical and needssufficient time, as resources get wasted in case ofwrong selection;

� Demand-driven mobilisation consumes lot ofenergy, patience and time;

� Timely Collection of community contributions wasa challenge;

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� Demand generation of individual sanitary items,procurement of materials and motivating thecommunity to construct as per design and technicalnorms was a challenge;

� Community conflicts set hurdles in theimplementation of project activities, which weretackled by the User Committee/Gram Pradhan(Village Head), etc;

� Instilling ownership in the community with regardto Operation and Maintenance (O&M) was also achallenge as they have to take care of issues liketariff fixation, village maintenance workerselection and training, documentation, etc.


The first phase of Himmothan project for 12 villageswas completed in 2006 and the second phase isunder way in 20 villages. The communityparticipatory WATSAN projects were viewed with thefollowing five aspects of sustainability. All these fiveaspects were pursued quantitatively as well asqualitatively.

Technical benefits:

� Time saved per family is 2.94 hours/day;Technical benefits:

� Water availability increased from 12.75 Lpcd to69.3 Lpcd;

� Coverage of household sanitary latrinesincreased from 5.5 to 59%;

� 532 compost pits, 428 garbage pits, 284 soakpits, 210 grass patch and 26 poly houses weremade accessible to the communities;

� All the 829 households (population 4,921) haveaccess to disinfected, clear water within 50 mhorizontal and 15 m vertical distance from theirresidences;

� Regular disinfection, by adding bleachingpowder solution in the chlorinator and residualchlorine, was being tested by the community;and

� All the water supply schemes are functional andthe communities are satisfied with the technicalefficiency of the schemes.

Financial:

The communities contributed 10% of the DirectTechnical Report (DTR) cost in either cash or labouras their share of the Capital cost. Total communitycontribution in hardware items including individualitems have come to 24%. The communities, in villagelevel meeting, carried out tariff fixation and downtimeexercise to fix tariff, which in most of the villages hascome to more than that estimated in the DTR.Communities insure the schemes on a yearly basisand have deposited enough money to renew theinsurance for nearly next ten years.

Institutional:The village committees meet regularly (with almost75% attendance), collect money and deposit in thebank (381 members have a saving of Rs. 4, 62,836and are conducting inter loaning to the tune of Rs. 7,84,000). Out of these, 24 members have alreadybeen linked to the bank and all of them have startedincome-generating (IG) activities. A total incentive ofRs. 3, 50, 000 have been provided to 26 Self-helpGroups (SHGs).

A Himmothan Federation has been formed by all thetwelve village committees (which meets quarterly) toact as an umbrella organization to help them carryout the Operation & Maintenance activities after theexit of HIHT.

Environmental:The physical environment of the villages hadimproved drastically with the construction and properusage of 532 compost pits, taking care of the bio-degradable waste and 428 garbage pits to dump thenon-biodegradable waste. 284 soak pits wereconstructed for waste water disposal. 488 latrineswere being used as against 12 latrines before theproject. Out of the 12 communities, 5 of them havealready become �Open Defecation Free�. Only 2sources tapped out of 30, had decreased to levelbetween Safe Yield and Design discharge. This caseshould be taken in the light that all the CatchmentArea Protection (CAP) works will only come into effectslowly within the next 3-4 years as the sapling

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planted (23,400) will mature to become plants andrecharge the depleted aquifers. This is a gradualprocess producing discernible results over a longtime unlike any other activity included in the project.

Social:

All the communities had taken ownership of thescheme. They realise the implications of water qualityon their health and regularly carry out preventivemaintenance, regular disinfection, and residualchlorine testing and adopting proper watermanagement practices. Their awareness level hadincreased regarding all aspects of the project inparticular, and life in general. Women had enhancedtheir position in the social hierarchy by participatingin Income generation activities, earning money,demanding to participate even more in the day-to-day decision making within the family as well asamong the community.


It has been a great experience to work with so manystakeholders and implementing the project withdemand-driven and community participatoryapproaches. This has proved beyond an iota ofdoubt that this HIMMOTHAN initiative is highlysuccessful in attaining the goals, benefits visualised atthe start of the project and has tremendous scope forreplication and all the stakeholders are ready forscaling up.

Few learning events and achievements aresummarised below:

� Sense of ownership has been evolved in theCommunity which ensures proper O&M andsustainability of the schemes.

� Awareness on health & hygiene aspect has beenincreased in all spheres of life whether personal,domestic or environmental.

� Village level Institutions are sustainable.Institutional structure of the project provides moreattention to user community and ultimately projectbenefits are being better realised by theCommunity. It has found that this system providesbetter workmanship and quality of constructiondue to work management by Community.

� Community is ready to pay if they are involved indecision making which also helped in local hurdleresolving.

� Women involvement in decision-making processimproves the quality of decision.

� Private Trust � NGO � Community partnershipworks.

� Demand-driven approach is the sustainableapproach rather than top-down approach.

� Ensuring maximisation of health benefits on asustainable basis, integrated approach towardsWater Supply, Sanitation, Health & Hygieneawareness, Catchment Area Protection andAgricultural Support activities.

� Partnership with the Government is essential andthere is need for a learning alliance (allstakeholders come to a common platform andshare their skills and experiences).

� Trust can help in innovations, action research andknowledge development on which Governmentcan scale-up. The objective is to complementGovernment systems rather than to duplicateefforts.


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TAMIL NADU, INDIA

Democratisation of Water Governance

In response to the acute water crisis in Tamil Nadu (a State in South India), the Tamil Nadu Water Supply andDrainage Board (TWAD Board) embarked upon a change process in the year 2003, based on seriousintrospection of the nature of its governance, its roles and relations with the community along with thewillingness of individual engineers in the organisation to critically re-examine their perspectives, attitudesand values.

A �Democratisation-led� change process was initiated to bring about attitudinal transformation amongindividuals and in the organization, how it relates to the citizen and stakeholders. The first transformationwas in the form of the �Maraimalai Nagar Declaration�. The principles set therein led to the optimum usageof resources and responsive governance leading to improved and better service delivery. The consequentinternal dialogue within the organisation around the declaration led to the formulation of a bottom up visionof �Secure Water for all, forever� and to implement it �Change Management Group� (CMG) comprisingvolunteer engineers, who were formed at the State and District levels. This vision was implemented acrossthe State in 752 villages and hamlets as a project called Total Community Water Management (TCWM),voluntarily, undertaken by the engineers with the concept of conservation and community management toReach the Unreached. The success of this change process now finds echoes in the formation of the NationalChange Management Forum, the first Water Operators Partnership in India.

Background

Overexploitation and droughts have reduced theannual per capita availability of fresh water in TamilNadu to 840m3. Out of the 385 Blocks in the State,only 288 were declared overexploited. Thetechnocratic approach of seeking higher technologiesand investment failed to tackle the challenge ofproviding sustainable water systems. This situationwarranted deep introspection. The grim situation ledthe State Public water utility TWAD Board and itsEngineers to review their existing perspectives, rolesand approaches in a self-critical and open processand the following priorities emerged:

i) Attitudinal Change and Institutional transformation,ii) Conservation of resource and revival of

traditional water bodies, andiii) Sustainable and Equitable water supply in

partnership with the community


The major objectives of the initiative are:(i) Community Water Governance,(ii) Reach the Unreached, and(iii)Transform the Organisation into a public

responsive one.

Strategically, the change process was structuredaround interventions at three levels:

1) Workshop: Space for exploration:- Whereengineers could honestly and critically examine,explore and debate on issues.

2) Village/Community: Site for experimenting withlearning:- Where engineers forge newrelationships based on democratic functioningand dignity.

3) Workplace: Sphere for internalising learning intoformal systems:- The work area where changedvalues, norms and visions of functioning can bemainstreamed.

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The native wisdom and social capital of thecommunity were important resources for themission played a large part in the success of themission. The financial support for organising theworkshops was provided by UNICEF with the StateGovernment providing the capital investment ofUS$ 5 million for schemes. The most importantdimension was the Human Resource of about 300TWAD Engineers (CMG) from all cadres who wereinvolved as the technical and social engineers.

Process

At the end of 2003, the TWAD Officials decidedthat the only way forward was not to regurgitateold solutions but to start afresh: by going back toask fundamental questions about the need andrelevance of the public utilities, the values andvision it should embody, distortions and omissionsin practice, and the shape of future direction ofefforts to achieve it�s true role and mandate.

Challenges: The critical challenge was to achievedevelopment with dignity through a transparentand accountable organization, which couldprovide sustainable and equitable service.

Change processes: Intervention design

This challenge could be met only by bringing aboutsignificant change through intervention in threebroad areas:

i) Attitudinal Transformation amongstindividuals, Organisation & Stakeholders,

ii) Perspective Changes to differentiate betweenefficiency and effectiveness, provision andpartnership

iii) Institutional Transformation to create anorganization culture of democracy and sensitivity.

Results Achieved

The Democratisation of Water Management Projectwas taken up in over 143 Village local-selfgovernments comprising around 752 villagesinvolving about a million people. This voluntaryproject was able to transform the utilities andcreate new Paradigm of governance.

Institutional Transformation:-Maraimalai Nagar Declaration: In August 2004,the first major breakthrough was the evolution andadoption of the Maraimalainagar Declaration,exhorting all to adopt traditional wisdom and cost-effective solutions across the organization.

Formation of Change Management Group(CMG) as a Voluntary forum: The CMG wasinitiated by its 43 core members voluntarily, asthe conscience keepers of the change process,coming from a cross-section of the engineeringcommunity which then got to evolving acollaborative vision.

Evolving a new Vision: The seven-point vision�Secure water for all, forever� clearly wentbeyond the realms of what a water engineer wouldgenerally be engaged in. For the first time, theEngineers saw their role as guardians of not justwater resources, but of nature itself.

A New Paradigm of Water Governance:- Theendeavour of the Project was to establish a newparadigm in how institutions and governancesystems should go about tackling the water crisisand the task of achieving the MDGs. The 3-yearjourney as evaluated by UNICEF has recordedmany shifts from the traditional ossifiedtechnocratic approaches.

Shift I: Transforming the Core Principle ofFunctioning:- The adoption of the �MaraimalaiNagar Declaration� led engineers to move awayfrom the unquenched thirst for investment. Instead,they relied on rehabilitation of existing water assetsin 47% of villages, revival of traditional sourcesand aimed to increase coverage by 10% within thesame budget. This innovative step forward resultedin savings up to 33% of the annual budgetallocation.

Shift 2: Finding more cost-effectivesolutions:- One of the significant impacts is thereduction in the capital cost per household by60% (from US$100 to US$40) in the projectvillages. The cost per household is less thanUS$25 in 41% of schemes.


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Shift 3: Community Partnerships:- Around 500Village Water and Sanitation Committees (VWSC)were formed involving citizens from all strata ofsociety. The VWSC made water plans and tookdecisions on the management of water resources.As a measure of its involvement, over 56,000

households have contributed $0.4 million toimplement water supply or recharge schemes in143 local self-governments (Village Panchayats).There was better targeting with about 65% of theschemes implemented in villages with more than50% of the population below the poverty line.

Sustainability

Sustainability of the approach was based on thetripod of Resource Conservation, FinancialPrudence and Social Justice. Under ResourceConservation, micro level Water balance wascarried out in all the 143 village panchayats andshared with the community. The new understandingenthused the community to participate in thephysical implementation of the Total CommunityWater Management (TCWM) voluntaryprogramme wherein 45 ground water rechargeschemes and mass afforestation by planting20,000 trees were taken up. In all the projectvillages, special Grama Sabhas were convened forcommunity action to take up cleaning and revivalof traditional water bodies and tanks with safewastewater disposal and solid waste segregation.The enlightened desire of preserving naturebecame the new mantra (strategy).

On the Financial sustainability front, there wasfocus on adoption of appropriate technology,pumping regulation and wastage reduction and hada major impact in reducing expenditure andpreserving the source. In monetary terms, the 0&Mexpenditure in Project Villages fell by 46% (toUS$270 per month) and the Revenue improved by54% (to US$105).

On the Social Justice (Reaching theUnreached) -plank, a UNICEF Evaluation Study�Impact of Change Management in TWAD�found a 200% improvement in the satisfactionlevel of the community in comparison to theControl group of villages.

The most important finding of the ImpactAssessment study relates to �Reaching theUnreached�. 76 percent of women respondentsreported that the water engineers visited thevillage regularly, met and interacted with them.84 percent reported that the engineer behavedas a community member; and 61 percentreported that all this led to joint identification

and actual implementation of solutions. About78 percent of the Dalits (Disadvantaged) in theproject villages reported that the water engineerwas regularly visiting the Dalit habitations; 80per cent said that the engineer provided themthe space and encouraged them to talk andparticipate in village meetings; and 57 per centreported that action was initiated on solutionsjointly identified by them for problems ofwater supply.

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Lessons Learned

At the end of three years several issues are clear.Future interventions seeking to address the watercrisis cannot and should not follow the time worn,stereotyped way of seeking and pumping in new

investments of money and technology whilecontinuing to ignore the more pressing issue ofreforming water governance. Greatertransparency, openness and democraticfunctioning has the potential of providing a voiceto the voiceless and involving them in thedevelopment gains. The work in Tamil Nadu showsthat investing in governance reform is soproductive. Then again, when solutions are soughtto be found from within � be it within the cultureand practice of the water utility, or from within thetraditional and cultural practices of communities,new bonds of relating are forged.

Expanding Horizons

Water Operators Partnership

The full importance of the TWAD Democratisationexperiment can be gauged by the transferability ofthe concept. In fact, that TWAD-CMG engineersworked on invitation with two other Indian StateGovernment level water utilities, viz. theMaharashtra Jeevan Prathikaran and theJharkhand State Water Department to initiatesimilar change interventions in their States. InAugust 2006, the Government of India andUNICEF adopted the TWAD experience at theNational level This resulted in the formation of aNational Level Change Management Forum topioneer such water reforms in other State utilities.

The Democratisation of Water Management concepthas found resonance in other sectors as in the WorldBank-assisted Tamil Nadu Water ResourcesManagement Project. It has been adopted as part ofthe project design and as a first step, a workshopwas conducted by the TWAD CMG for the minorirrigation Departments in 2007.

There have also been interests from water utilitiesof other countries in South America and Egyptseeking to collaborate with the ChangeManagement Group of the TWAD Board.

It is only through such attempts at transformationthrough Democratisation one can ensure that�there is water for the future generations�.


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IRAN

Aquifer Management: A Green Path toSustainable Development of Marginal Dry Lands

The Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran adopted Aquifer Management as a programme for harvestingthe flood waters to control desertification, supply of irrigation water and provide employment opportunities.

Introduction

Iran, with a population of 68.9 million and per capitaincome of US$ 1,720, covers an area of 636,296 sq.miles. Oil exports account for around 80% of foreignexchange earnings as well as non-oil exports such ascarpets. The Gareh Bygone Plain, a 6,000-hectaresandy desert in southern Iran, annually receives 150mm of rain as opposed to 2,860 mm of panevaporation. Freshwater scarcity, poor rangeland, anddust storms had caused migration of some nomads-turned-farmers from the Gareh Bygone Plain. Womenand children had to walk up to 6 km a day to fetchwater resulting in back pain, miscarriages for thewomen and lower school attendance for the children.

The politically expedient and economically disastroussedentarisation of nomads in the Gareh Bygone Plainhad wreaked havoc on the environment. Applicationof inappropriate technologies, mainly moldboardplows and pumps, in an area facing recurrentdroughts, had desertified a scrubland, and maderefugees out of the once prosperous nomads.


The initiative addresses the vicious cycle of poverty�ignorance � desertification, and drought/floodaffecting the nomads in the Gareh Bygone Plains bybreaking the interfacing. The main objective of theinitiative was desertification control through floodwaterspreading for the artificial recharge of groundwater.Other objectives include planting of shade trees andfodder bushes as live windbreaks; deposition of thesuspended load onto the moving sand; and provisionof fuelwood which would discourage people fromcutting trees and removing bushes on the watersheds,thus helping soil and water conservation. All of theseactivities, along with hiring of labourers andwatchmen, would reverse the tide of migration.

Process

The programmes of reforestation, community educationand mobilisation were introduced. A collaboration ofthe central government, local authority, parastatals,non-governmental organisations, community-basedorganisations and academic institutions providedknowledge, resources and technology.

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Results Achieved

The artificial recharge of groundwater (ARG)rehabilitated 1365-ha of the plain and increased theirrigated farm field area 8-fold to 1193-ha during the1983-1987 period. The recharged water provided250 occupations for the owner-operators and 95positions for the hired labourers. Moreover, extraemployment has been provided due to the annualproduction of 10 tons of honey.

The average annual forage yield increased 5-fold to445 kg/ha. Deposition of fine-grained sediments inthe systems converted a loamy sand into sandy loam-loam, suitable for growing small grains. Theestablishment of 89-ha of river red gum forest anderection of 30-km of windbreaks of eucalyptus andacacias, stabilised the moving sands and amelioratedthe climate. The stem and fuel wood yield of river redgum at the age of 18 was 4,701 and 813 kg/ha/yr,respectively. The above ground carbon sequestrationof the same trees was 2221 kg/ha/yr and, therefore,the trees annually filter 220 tons of carbon out of theatmosphere. The flooding caused damages andfatalities were eliminated. Disregarding theintangible benefits, and assuming the beneficial lifeof the systems to be 20 years, the cost-benefit ratiofor this project has been 1:22. Capacity building wasachieved through holding seminars and field trips forstudents, professors, teachers, technicians, policymakers, and publishing in scientific journals.

Sustainability

Floodwater spreading transformed the desert intoverdant scenery. Some of the tangible benefits wereinstrumental in reversing the migration towards theGareh Bygone Plain. Results showed that 8 millioncubic metres of floodwater provided amplefreshwater, fuel wood, and employmentopportunities, and reduced work burden on womenand children. The success led to a governmentpolicy adopting aquifer management as aprogramme and allocated annual budget. Itdemonstrated the potential of annually harvesting50 cubic kms of floodwaters could controldesertification on 14 million hectares, supplyirrigation water for 6 million hectares and providejobs for 4 million people.

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KIRIBATI

Integrated Sanitation, Public Health andEnvironment Improvement

The Integrated Sanitation, Public Health and Environment Improvement Project was initiated for the thirsty Atollof Kiribati to strengthen the health and well being of the people. The Project provided a sustained programme ofimprovements in water supply, sanitation services, solid waste disposal, and environmental conservation.

Background

The Republic of Kiribati is one of the most isolatedcountries in the Central Pacific. Located mostlyalong the dry belt of the equatorial climate zone,the island chain has exceedingly limited sources offreshwater, which are extremely vulnerable tocontamination and are served by highly deficientinfrastructure. The country is no more than a seriesof low-lying coral islands and atolls, which form anarrow strip of habitable land consisting of mostlyinfertile coral sand soils.

The habitable land is seldom more than a fewmetres above the high water mark and is boundon the outside by fringing reefs and on the insideby lagoons. Consequently, Kiribati is vulnerable tosevere weather, and even high waves can causedamage, as many of the atolls do not exceed 4-5metres above sea level.

As demand for adequate water supply andsanitation services has increased along with thepopulation, the capacity of the existing systems wasunduly stretched, causing significant degradationof the environment. Water supply for atolls consistof fragile freshwater �lenses�, pockets offreshwater that float on the underlying seawaterthat permeates through the coral structure. Atollsalso typically suffer from prolonged dry periods,especially during the El Nino and La Nina climaticevents. The rate of water extraction from the lensesand the rate of natural replenishment from rainfallwere, therefore, finely balanced.

The lenses provide the main source of freshwater,and collected rainwater provides the rest. Whenpopulation pressures mount, as in South Tarawa,the stability and sustainability of the lens was

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threatened and water became a scarce resource.In areas of high population density, the lenses werealso susceptible to pollution from sewage andother contaminants. The management of Kiribati�sfreshwater resources was poor, both on the supplyand demand side. What was delivered toconsumers was substandard in both quantity andquality. Water-borne and water-related diseaseswere a major public health hazard, with diarrhoealdiseases ranked as the third highest cause ofillness.

A centralised water system pumps water from theremaining uncontaminated lenses at the northernend of South Tarawa. Increasing populationpressure created a serious threat to even theseremaining water supply sources, and consequentlyto the basic health of the population and its socialstability. The government-run piped water supplysystem only served about 70% of South Tarawa�stotal population in 1997/98. No system of regularmaintenance existed, allowing unmeasuredamounts of water to be lost through leaky pipes inthe transmission system. The sewerage system onlyserved about 38% of the 3,520 households.Sewerage drainage ditches were shallow, generallyin disrepair, and ineffective in preventing dischargefrom returning to the coast. Sewer pipes were 90%blocked by sand and sediment because of neglectand poor maintenance.

The Project

An integrated Sanitation, Public Health, andEnvironment Improvement Project was initiated forthirsty Atoll with the technical assistance (TA)grants, designed by the Asian Development Bank(ADB) to improve the water and sanitation sector,with focus on health and environmental issues.


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Objectives

The objective of the Project was to improve thehealth and well-being of the people of Kiribati byproviding a sustained programme ofimprovements in water supply, sanitation services,solid waste disposal and environmentalconservation.

Scope

Approved in December 1998, the project wasimplemented through 2003. It was concentrated inthe most populated areas of Kiribati, primarilySouth Tarawa and selected areas of North Tarawafor improving the quality and availability of safedrinking water; rehabilitating and expanding thesewerage and sanitation systems; implementationof institutional reforms throughout the PublicUtilities Board (PUB), and promote hygiene andsanitation through better solid waste management.

Resources

ADB provided a loan of US$10.2 million for theproject for:

� Upgrading the water supply system;� Solid waste management landfills and

environmental conservation;� Institutional development, consulting services,

and project implementation support;� Upgrading sanitation and sewerage systems;� Housing loans and the supply of plant and

equipment for solid waste management refills;and

� A water pilot study.

Process

The Ministry of Finance and Economic Planningwas the executing agency for the Project. Acommittee was established on the islands ofBonriki and Buota to create a cooperativepartnership arrangement between the Governmentand community groups to address land issuesinvolved in the maintenance of reserve areasaround each of the islands� water lenses.Population density was so high (2,300/km2) inSouth Tarawa that the urban development hadbegun to encroach upon protected water reserves,where the water lenses were replenished. Some ofthe lenses that previously supplied public needs inSouth Tarawa were so polluted that they were nolonger safe.

To protect the lenses, the management of theWater Reserves Committee established 50-metre�setback zones� around each of the water reserves,marked by the construction of a boundary road.These zones were designated as protected, andinformal dwellers living inside the 50-metre areawere asked to relocate voluntarily. While most ofthem did so, a few were unable to find alternativevacant land. In addition, new migrants arrivingfrom the outer islands were also putting pressureon available open land areas within the protectedzones.

TA grants were provided for training and educatingthe community to improve its long-term ownershipand participation in the sector. Non-governmentalorganisations (NGOs) and community-basedorganisations (CBOs) such as women�s and churchgroups and cooperatives were included insanitation and conservation activities to promotehygiene and public sanitation. Communitydevelopment and training programmes includetopics such as the water cycle, water andwastewater management, gardening withwastewater products, do-it-yourself well and latrineconstruction. These workshops were held forcommunity groups, schools, women�s groups, andlocal governments.

The staff of government agencies and NGOs,teachers, and community leaders were trained inbetter water handling, sanitation, and wastemanagement practices. Community members werebenefited from educational and promotionalmaterials such as posters, flip charts, manuals,calendars, stamps, videos, and theatre plays.

This assistance was designed to maximise thebenefits of the project by ensuring that:

� Water users understand the water cycle and itsimportance;

� Providing environmentally sound assistance toanyone wishing to make improvements in wells,rainwater tanks, water purification systems,waste management systems, or latrines; and

� Creating the necessary institutionalarrangements to sustain these communitydevelopment and participation initiatives.

Another TA grant was given to the PUB to improvetheir efficiency through institutional restructuring. Aprogramme for restructuring the PUB was carriedout and advisory support was provided to improvethe administration, management, operation,

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finance, accounting, and maintenance work of thePUB. A human resource development programmewas prepared and implemented for PUBmanagement and staff, including training in theuse of a computerised accounting and financialmanagement system. Reviews and restructuringwere carried out on organisational, training, andsalary matters. Consequently, the collection ofoutstanding debts was improved � in some casesresulting from cutting off power to non-payingconsumers � and the number of permanent staffappointments to the board were increased, whiletemporary board positions declined.

Cultural issues were among the more challengingobstacles to project implementation, mainlybecause of the extremely cautious nature of Kiribatisociety, which promotes equality, expects people tobe modest and humble, and frowns on self-promotion. This created some difficulty for therestructuring of the PUB and the resettlement ofsquatter communities living within the waterreserve areas. Government employees in charge ofresettlement and restructuring issues feared ofbeing viewed as standing out by acting tooaggressively or placing themselves above others.

Reform of the PUB was slow, partly because of pastinefficiencies. The poor quality of the watersupplied earlier led many people to refuse to payfor service, even to the extent of damaging ordestroying their water metres. Such actions did notresult in interruption of water supply to thosehouseholds, because of the same culture ofcaution and equality that led to the PUB�sreputation for not following up accounts in arrears.In addition, the confirmation of staffing positionswas slow because of the reluctance to makeanyone redundant or move staff amongdepartments. New tariffs on water and seweragewere approved, but slow in implementation.

Results Achieved

Although community awareness aboutenvironmental issues was thought to haveincreased as a result of the programme, it tooklonger than expected for people to incorporate thelessons into their way of life. By mid-2003, theBonriki water reserve cleared all settlers, except afew households awaiting vacant land nearby, andin the Buota reserve area many people vacated the50-meter setback zone. However, the stream ofmigrants from outer islands moving to Tarawacontinued to pressure the available land at thecleared reserves. The government committee thatwas established to manage the water reserves was

reasonably effective in resettling the squatters, butprogress remained slow, as there was littleavailable land elsewhere.

While there were some delays in the initialrecruitment and approval of consultants, the physicalconstruction side of the project (the rehabilitation andexpansion of water supply, sewerage, sanitationsystems, the construction of rainwater tanks andlatrines) was progressed as planned.

The public awareness increased and there was apositive community response to the project. Thepilot water project that involved three villages wasvery well received when it provided the people witha constant 24-hour water supply. The project as awhole achieved the positive outcome.

Lessons Learned

The project experience provided the followinglessons learned:

Loan conditions and understandings need to becompatible with the local culture and its values.Cultural sensitivities were not always fully understood.Allowing more time for personal discussions,negotiations, restructuring at the beginning of theproject may have minimised delays.

Demographic patterns must be carefully observed.Tarawa�s high migrant population made it difficultto keep water reserves clear of informal dwellersalthough a relocation site was identified, as newmigrants from outer islands continue to arrive dailyand tend to occupy vacant areas. This migrantpopulation was to be taken into account and aprogramme of formal resettlement needed to beinvestigated.

References

Asian Development Bank 1998. Report andRecommendation of the President to the Board ofDirectors on a Proposed Loan and TechnicalAssistance Grants to Kiribati for the Sanitation,Public Health and Environment ImprovementProject. Manila.

Back-to-office Report of Review Mission for Loan1648-KIR(SF): Sanitation, Public Health andEnvironment Project, Manila, 2002.

Kiribiti: Monetisation in an Atoll Society, Manila, 2002.

National Water Resources Assessment andManagement, Manila, 2002.


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AHMADI, KUWAIT

Environmental Waste Management System

Background

Kuwait, with a population of 2.5 million and a percapita income of US$ 18,000, producesapproximately 2,200 tons of waste per day � anaverage of 1.3 kg. per person. This was initiallydealt with by burying the waste into an abandonedquarry, causing land and air pollution. The amountof waste produced was on rise as a result ofpopulation growth in Ahmadi Town (about 25,000population) located near the Kuwait Oil Company.

Waste Management Initiative

In response to this prevailing situation, in 1995 theOil Company entered into a contract at the cost ofUS$ 5 million for a period of 4 years to collect andtransport approximately 35�40 tons of daily wastefrom various locations including plantations,restaurants, residential areas, offices and roads.

Objectives

The main objective of the initiative was to have aneffective and profitable waste management operationby raising awareness on environment issues and theimpact of domestic waste on the environment, andestablishing a system to increase the amount of rawmaterial produced from recycling.

Resources and Process

The main source of funding came from Kuwait OilCompany and human resources were mobilised atthe household level. One of the challenges of theinitiative was collecting and sorting all kinds ofwaste dumped together as the concept of waste

separation was unknown. Through aggressivecampaigns, advertisements, training, anddevelopment of alternative collection methods,residents were made to understand the importanceof waste management.

Results Achieved

Since the start of the initiative, the amount of wastereduced by 80% in Ahmadi Township. Introducingthe concept of waste recycling and separation ofwaste in the garbage collection, the contract saveda total of US$ 1 million. Pollution was reduced as aresult of recycling a total of 19,048 tons of waste.Recycling also provided raw materials such aspaper, plastic, metal, carton and glass for localand foreign industries. The compost from recyclingorganic waste was used to enhance and upgradethe soil quality in Kuwait in support of thecompany�s policy to plant 1 million trees in the oilfield to reduce air pollution.


The initiative had taken into consideration thesocial, economic, environmental and culturalconditions and developed methods accepted by theSociety. It educated the company staff, their familiesand society in general on the dangers of domesticwaste pollution and the need to reduce waste.Various schools participated in recycling and clean-up projects. Their efforts were recognised andreceived awards from the Kuwaiti Government. Theconcept of recycling the waste for the healthyenvironment for the present as well as the futuregeneration was emphasised and had been the keyinstrument in the success of the initiative.

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The Local Action presents an effective and profitable waste management system in an economic way forproviding a healthy environment in Ahmadi Town, situated near Kuwait Oil Company.

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KYRGYZ REPUBLIC

Water - A Cooperation Tool for Resource-sharing

The Kyrgyz Republic has abundant water resources, which it shares free of charge with Uzbekistan, Kazakhstanand Tajikistan for the irrigation of agricultural land. Uzbekistan is one of the world�s largest natural gas producersand a major oil source for many countries. The Kyrgyz Republic does not have oil and gas reserves. It is one ofUzbekistan�s biggest customers, with an annual average gas consumption of 850 million cubic metres. TheKyrgyz Republic pays cash for 50 per cent of the gas it imports. The rest is paid �in kind� with the Republic�sabundant commodity, Water.

The Government of Uzbekistan announced plans to increase gas prices. This had a direct impact on the KyrgyzRepublic�s energy sector. The impending price hike prompted Kyrgyz Parliamentarians to debate the issue ofwater taxation for their neighbour.

To tax or not to tax � this is the question that Kyrgyz Republic parliamentarians are mulling over about Uzbekistan�suse of their country�s water resources. Kyrgyz officials are divided about the plans to turn water into an income-generating resource. Kyrgyz farmers who pay for water consumption are of the view of that they should not haveto pay since the Uzbek neighbours do not pay for the water they take from them. Water has been a tool ofcooperation for resource sharing between the Kyrgyz Republic and Uzbekistan. The Governments and thecommunities can therefore join hands in addressing the water challenges.

Background

The young Kyrgyz Republic in Central Asia has avibrant water resource that provides safe drinkingwater to 98% of its urban population and 66% ofrural areas. Two major Central Asian rivers, Amu-Daryaand Syr-Darya, flow from Kyrgyz Republic to Uzbekistan.

Uzbekistan sources more than 70 percent of its watersupply from the rivers of its Central Asian neighbourfor its power-generating stations and agriculture fields.Experts and scientists believe that the available waterwill not be sufficient for the hydroelectric powerstations and for the agricultural needs of Uzbekistan.There is a need to collect more water in the reservoirs.

Water-sharing arrangements

Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, and Uzbekistan haveseveral agreements to regulate water use. In broadterms, the Kyrgyz Republic assures water supply andelectric power to Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan in thesummer for irrigation purposes, while Kazakhstan andUzbekistan provide fuel to the Kyrgyz Republic togenerate hydroelectricity during the winter months. Butthe implementation of these agreements has notalways been in order.

Implications of water-sharing

The Kyrgyz Republic makes payment to Uzbekistan forimporting natural gas partly in kind with its abundantcommodity, namely, Water. When the Government ofUzbekistan announced plans to increase gas pricesfrom US$ 55 to US$ 100 per 1,000 cubic meters, thewater and energy issue began brewing in CentralAsia. The rise in fuel prices has direct impact on Kyrgyzenergy sector and has felt the blow as the priceincrease to take effect from 2007. The price hikeprompted Kyrgyz parliamentarians to debate on theissue of water taxation for their neighbour.

The head of the Kyrgyz Republic�s Power, Mining, andNatural Resources Department is open to the idea oftaxing Uzbekistan�s water supply. The Institute of WaterProblems and Water-Power Engineering of the KyrgyzNational Academy of Sciences determined the costgenerated by the use of water in the country. Resultsshow that water consumption amounted to about US$83.7 million in 2001, and is estimated to increasedramatically.

Water as a cooperation tool

Government, private lawyers and even scientists are notkeen on the idea of selling water as water is nature�s giftand cannot be a subject of bargaining. But, allparliamentarians of Kyrgyz agree to the fact that thecountry has to find funds to pay for the imported naturalgas. The Deputy of Parliament suggests that �we shouldmake payment not for water, but for the delivery ofwater�. Kyrgyz farmers urge the Government todemand for payment of water from Uzbekistan formeeting the repairs and maintenance of waterinfrastructure, building water treatment facilities andwater pipes in the villages. Professionals andintellectuals are keen to resolve the water-and-gas issue.

Initiatives under way

In December 2005, ADB started facilitating the projectfor regional water policy discussions. The new draftagreement on Syr Darya and Amudarya Basins, and ondatabase and information exchange were developedand circulated to Central Asian countries for review bynational working groups. A number of meetings ofwater and energy experts were held (in October2006 in Bishkek; December 2006 in Tashkent; March2007 in Ashgabat, and April 2007 in Tashkent), toagree on formulation of water/energy exchange underthe draft agreement. As a result, revisions were made inthe draft agreement and are being reviewed by theconcerned Governments.

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SIDDHIPUR, NEPAL

Integrated Pro-poor WATSAN Systems

The Water for Asian Cities Programme of UN-HABITAT in Nepal in partnership with Environment and PublicHealth Organization (ENPHO) is providing technical and financial assistance to the Siddhipur Water andSanitation Users Committee (WSUC) in implementing a community-based integrated water and sanitationprogramme, which aims to demonstrate pro-poor and sustainable water and sanitation systems by adoptinga fast-track approach.

Background

Siddhipur is a traditional Newar settlement locatedapproximately 6 km south-east of Kathmandu. Ithas a population of 6,046 with 1,308 households.Water, sanitation and hygiene were one of the mostserious problems of this community.

The drinking water in the village was brought-indirectly from the Godawari River and distributedfree of cost through 52 public stand posts withoutany form of treatment. This water is not fit fordrinking purpose because of faecal and chemicalcontamination. This 30 year old system did nothave any water tariff and management system.Most of the water taps and the distribution networkwere in dire need of rehabilitation and repair.

The sanitation condition in Siddhipur was also in avery poor state of affairs. More than 60 % of thehouseholds did not have access to sanitationfacilities, thus open defecation was rampant in thevillage. Women of the village were most affected.They were compelled to openly defecate in areasfar away from the house. Women, children andadult women face severe difficulties, especiallyduring the night, due to lack of access to sanitation.Likewise, due to haphazard disposal practices ofsolid waste like plastics and straw waste fromtraditional straw weaving business community,hygiene situation was in a bad state.

Objectives and Strategies.

The main goal of the programme was todemonstrate a fast track approach to implement acommunity-based integrated programme on waterand sanitation in Siddhipur through a pro-poorand gender-sensitive approach. The strategies andinitiatives were drawn out by ENPHO under the

technical and financial support of UN-HABITAT inpartnership with the community.

During the initial phase of the programme, a socio-technical survey including poverty mapping of thehouseholds of Siddhipur was carried out by ENPHOin association with the local community. Thefindings of these results were shared in thecommunity and the feedback was collected andincorporated in the project. To empower women inthe programme, ENPHO made it mandatory toinclude more than 33% women members in Waterand Sanitation Users Committee (WSUC) team.


Out of the total budget (US$ 485,000) UN-HABITAT, WaterAid Nepal (WAN) and ENPHOmobilised 60% of the financial resources while theremaining 40% of the resources was contributed bythe local community themselves. UN-HABITATcontributed US$ 250,000 while ENPHO pooled inadditional US$ 37,000 through support receivedfrom WAN. Apart from the unskilled workcontribution of the local community, they were alsoable to pool in and mobilise local governmentfunds for different construction activities. Forexample, the water supply intake system wasconstructed by the community (US$ 6,000) bymobilising the Village Development Committee(VDC) funds. Likewise, the Overhead Tank for thewater supply system was constructed throughsupport (US$ 30,000) received from the DistrictDevelopment Committee (DDC) by the community.

As part of programme implementation, ENPHO,UN-HABITAT and WAN provided technical as wellas financial support while the entire programmewas implemented through a community-basedapproach using Siddhipur WSUC as the focal pointof the community.

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Process

To carry out the different interventions in thecommunity, the programme facilitated andestablished a local Water and Sanitation UsersCommittee (WSUC) comprising people from differentsectors. The WSUC was established throughconsensus of the community through several roundsof community meetings and interactions between thevillagers. The WSUC consists of leaders of differentpolitical groups, representatives of traditionalinstitutions such as Guthis, women representatives,local leaders and representatives of the villagedevelopment committee (VDC). Out of the 11-member WSUC, more than 33% (3 persons) of themembers are represented by women with one in thekey post as a Vice Chairperson.

After the establishment of the WSUC, differentsmall sub-committees were created to handlespecific components of the programme. These sub-committees were headed by member of the mainWSUC where specific roles and responsibilitieswere assigned. The responsibilities for sanitationimprovement activities were especially assigned towomen as they were directly associated withcleanliness and hygiene at the household level.Under the umbrella of the women representativesfrom the WSUC, a 15-women group also known asSanitation and Hygiene Education (SHE) Team wasestablished during the programme mainly toimplement sanitation and solid waste managementactivities in Siddhipur and were provided training oftrainers (TOT) on sanitation, hygiene and solidwaste management (SWM) issues. Similarly toimplement the Community-led Total Sanitation(CLTS) campaign, 14 sub-committees led by a SHEteam member was established in different clustersof Siddhipur. Each of these CLTS sub-committees isrepresented by equal number of male and femalemembers from the clusters.

Both the water supply and sanitation componentwere given equal footing during intervention. Thetraditional institutions or Guthis were mobilised bythe WSUC to gather community support for thewater supply construction activities.

The decision-making process for differentinterventions conducted was mainly done by thecommunity. ENPHO�s role was to facilitate andmake the decision-making process easy by carryingout analysis of the problem. The main decision-making body from the community is the WSUC. Inaddition, the different sub-committees also assistthe WSUC in the decision-making process.

The following tools were used for decision-makingand planning:

� Weekly meetings and planning: These meetingswere conducted between WSUC and ENPHOfor monitoring, planning and implementation ofactivities. Short-term and long-term action planswere prepared in a participatory manner andimplemented.

� Focus group discussions (FGDs): These types ofdiscussions were done while decisions had to bemade involving specific groups of people. Forexample, to shut down the open defecationareas used by women in Siddhipur, FGDs werecarried out with only women members who wereusing these toilets.

� Social Audits: This tool was used mainly toupdate the community on the programmeactivities as well as to receive their feedbacks onprogramme activities.

Results Achieved

One of the major problems faced duringprogramme implementation was to bring a rapidchange in the poor sanitation practices in thecommunity. The main challenge was to stop opendefecation and haphazard solid disposal practicesin the community. However, through the activeinvolvement and mobilisation of various communitygroups, the problem was solved to a larger extent.By targeting the women members, the status ofsolid waste management was improved at thehousehold level. The integrated programme onwater and sanitation has given a new facelift to thevillage. There has been enormous success inSiddhipur in terms of implementing the integratedwater and sanitation programme.

The villagers of Siddhipur now have the privilege ofdrinking WHO standard drinking water at theirdoor step which, otherwise, was not possible. Thewater quality and quantity has improved after


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construction of the new water supply intake,treatment and distribution system. All theconstruction activities were conducted under theleadership of the community. Similarly, communitycontribution for the water supply wasoverwhelming. More than 50% of the overall cost inthe water supply was contributed by the communityboth through cash and kind. The community wassuccessful in mobilising more than 2.4 millionrupees of the local development funds from theVDC and the District Development Committee(DDC) for the programme.

The sanitation situation of Siddhipur has alsoimproved remarkably in a short period of timethrough various initiatives including CLTSimplemented in 14 different clusters covering morethan 80% of the total population of Siddhipurthrough partial subsidies provided by theprogramme as well as through self-initiatives takenup by individual households. The members of thesub-committees established in each clusters havebeen mobilising locals of their clusters to clean upthe lanes and alleys of the village every Saturday ofthe week. Storm water drains were improved andlanes were paved. Promotion of Ecosan toilets,demonstration of community level septic tanks andimproved pit latrines have helped in increasingsanitation coverage in the community. Women nowfeel dignified to use private toilets at home. Despitethe enormous success achieved in sanitationimprovement, some of the open defecating areasspecially designated for women, have not yet beenremoved from the village. Therefore, in order tocompletely remove these open defecation areas,the programme is still using the CLTS tool to createpeer pressure among the households in Siddhipurand motivating them to construct individual toiletsin homes.

Similarly, more than 800 households have beendirectly benefited through training programmes onhousehold solid waste composting techniques.These households then adopted compostingpractices at the household level which wasconstantly monitored by the SHE team.

In addition, the water and sanitation educationactivities adopted in Schools through establishment of5 Nature Clubs. More than 250 school childrenfrom these Nature Clubs were instrumental increating awareness at the community level byconducting street dramas, rallies and exhibitions.Also, more than 4,000 men and women have beendirectly benefited through various capacity buildingand awareness programmes implemented in thecommunity.

The people of Siddhipur are now in the process ofdeclaring Siddhipur as an open defecation-freeand 100% sanitation coverage community. This willbe one of the landmark achievements of theprogramme.

Sustainability

Financial: The use and leveraging of resources,including cost recovery, indicating how loans, ifany, are being paid back and their terms andconditions;

Social and Economic: Gender equity, equality andsocial inclusion, economic and social mobility;

Cultural: Respect for and consideration of attitudes,behaviour patterns and heritage;

Environmental: Reducing dependence on non-renewable resources (air, water, land, energy, etc.),and hanging on production, consumption patternsand technology.

In all the water and sanitation interventions, theprogramme sought co-funding from the communitymainly to make it sustainable and develop a senseof ownership among the households andcommunities. For example, in the water supplycomponent, more than 50% of the total budget wascontributed by the community through contributionof land, kind and cash.

In addition, a pro-poor water tariff system has alsobeen developed and adopted by the community forfuture sustainability of the water supply system. Theprogramme has provided two types of drinkingwater connection provision i.e. Private andCommunity Taps. Households who opt for privatetaps have to pay a minimum of Rs. 75 per monthwhile households connected to community taps paya minimum of Rs. 50 per month. The communitytaps are specially targeted for those householdswho cannot afford a private tap and it is shared by5-10 households. The water tariff increasesprogressively with additional consumption of water,mainly to check the misuse or over consumption ofwater. Since the overall water supply system hasbeen designed for a 20-year period andconsidered water demand for double the currentpopulation, it is estimated that there will be surpluswater during the initial years. Therefore, thecommunity has decided and is planning to sell thesurplus water by establishing its own low- costwater bottling scheme to generate revenue for thefuture sustainability of the system.

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Likewise, in the sanitation interventions in case ofhousehold composting options, 40% of the total costwas borne by individual households. Similarly, thesuperstructure of the Ecosan toilets was constructedby individual households. In case of improved pitlatrines, the programme provided material worthNRs. 2,200 and the remaining cost of toiletconstruction was borne by the individual household.

The programme tried to include all segments of thesociety including men, women and children. Thetraditional institutions such as Guthis were mobilisedto provide contribution in kind in the water supplycomponent. Similarly, most of the sanitationinterventions were carried out through activeinvolvement of women members. For example: aswomen are directly involved in daily householdcleanliness activities, they were targeted and trainedon solid waste composting as well as other sanitationimprovement activities. Similarly, considering the factthat most of the people in Siddhipur are farmers andaccept the use of human urine as fertilisers socially aswell as culturally, Ecosan Toilets were promoted inSiddhipur realising the nutrient value of human urineand faeces and its application in agriculture on onehand, while on the other hand, use of Ecosan toiletssaves water, recycles nutrient, avoids cross-contamination of groundwater and is aenvironmental-friendly and sustainable option.

Lessons Learned

� Community MobilisationCommunity mobilisation is an integral part ofprogramme implementation process. It helps toprepare the community and to seek theirsupport in different programme interventionprocesses. Mobilising the community adopting afast track approach to meet the programmeobjectives was quite challenging and difficult toachieve simultaneously. Therefore, it is felt thatprior to programme implementation,considerable time should be allocated forcommunity mobilisation process.

� CLTS Campaign and SanitationThe CLTS tool is a useful tool mainly to createawareness among the community members onproper sanitation practices and helps to createpressure for self-toilet construction and as wellas to remove open defecation practices. InSiddhipur, the CLTS tool was only used duringthe later stages of the programme. Thus, it islearnt that in other programme areas, CLTSshould be adopted as early as possible.

� Capacity Building of CommunityCapacity building of the community memberson different water and sanitation activities andgiving them the opportunity to be involveddirectly is very fruitful for the programme.Through their involvement, work load of theimplementing agency can be shared by thecommunity and further involving them onspecific activities helps to empower them.

� Involvement of CommunityCommunity involvement is required from theinitial stage of programme planning till theimplementation stage to develop the feeling ofownership in them. In addition, the communityshould be involved to use the poverty mappingtool more effectively. Men should also beinvolved while implementing the sanitationimprovement programmes.

Transferability

� Poverty Mapping: Adopting the PovertyMapping tool to identify the poor segments ofthe society and developing interventionprogramme accordingly is a useful approach.This tool can be applied elsewhere as well.

� Mobilising local funds: Motivating thecommunity members to pool local-level fundswill provide additional funds for theprogramme. Collaborating with the localgovernment and implementing the programmewill foster government partnership and alsodevelop government ownership in theprogramme. Such an initiative can be adoptedin other areas as well.

� Sanitation options: Different sanitation optionsadopted in Siddhipur such as community septictanks, household options for solid wastecomposting, Ecosan toilets have beensuccessfully demonstrated and used inSiddhipur which can be adopted elsewhere aswell.

� Using CLTS campaign and Women for improvingsanitation: The CLTS approach adopted inSiddhipur and involving women in sanitationimprovement activities was very successfulwhich can be replicated elsewhere as well.

This community has become a learning centre fornational and international communities whereprofessionals and general people alike visit towitness the water and sanitation options adoptedhere.


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Box 2.2: Integrated Approach for Eco-city, Hanam, Korea

�Green City Hanam�� was an initiative to transform the city of Hanam from a rural andunplanned city into a sustainable and environmentally sound self-sufficient city with a well-structured urban development and growth management.

Background

Since 1971, 98.4% of Hanam�s total area was designated as green belt zone and local residentswere complaining about the legal restrictions in most areas.

Strategies

In addition to guidelines for sustainable city development, four strategies were formulated based on:

� Green belt deregulation policy;� Landscape ecology;� Development axis for Hanam city Master Plan, 2016; and� Expanded town concept.

Process and Resources

Hanam generated a comprehensive and long-term framework to achieve this goal. The city soughtthe assistance of UN-HABITAT and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to define thebasic direction of an Eco-city and to introduce environmental technologies and international supportprogrammes. Four main considerations were used: (1) energy saving, (2) water circulation, (3) landuse and transportation, and (4) biodiversity and urban space structure.

Results Achieved

As a result of a partnership between UN-HABITAT/UNEP, United Nations Development Programme(UNDP), the Environment Promotion Foundation, SNU, Korean and foreign experts of various fields,citizens and NGOs, Hanam was able to realize most of its goals. Among them was the developmentof a local agenda 21 to realise an Eco-city plan and creation of a database, based on an ecologicalsurvey conducted by experts.

In leading the Eco-city plan to actual implementation, another unique feature was the use of pilotprojects. A trust was established for pilot projects to facilitate Eco-city development focusing on thedevelopment of Agenda 21 and investment. Having achieved more environmentally sound andglobally sustainable development, Hanam then embarked on the Hanam Sustainable CityProgramme (SCP). Forging of partnerships proved that planning can only be effective through alocal community base.


The �Hanam�s Biodiversity Strategy� was presented at the �Urban Environment Forum� in Cape Town,in September 2000, and the city of Hanam won the �2001 Asia Green City Award� in Singapore inSeptember 2001. This is an ongoing project and its impact on other cities in Korea is noticeable andthe Hanam initiative is being replicated as an Eco-city model all over Northeast Asia.

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UZBEKISTAN

Mitigating the Effects of Drought

Background

The province of Karakalpakstan, adjacent to theAral Sea, and the province of Khorezm, arelocated in the driest part of Uzbekistan with anannual rainfall ranging from 70 to 110millimeters. The water shortage in WesternUzbekistan has worsened over the last 3 decadeswith the drying up of the Aral Sea. The Aral Seabegan to recede in the early 1960s after theformer Soviet Union began a drive to expandagriculture, particularly the growing of cottoncrops, in the area. The dry climate made itnecessary to divert water from the contributoryrivers, Amudarya and Syrdarya. As a result, theirinflow into the Aral Sea decreased. The Aral Seahad shrunk to less than half its original size andonly 20% of its former volume. The desiccation ofthe Aral Sea resulted in the loss of its fishing,tourism, and shipping industries, and thedestruction of the eco-system of the sea and itsdeltas. The salty desert that has been formedproduces up to 100 million tons of windblown saltdust contaminating the surrounding regions ofUzbekistan and Kazakhstan, and further inhibitingagricultural production. Since the mid-1990s, adecline in snow and glacier melt from thesurrounding mountains, combined with a reductionin rainfall, has significantly reduced the waterresources in the two major watersheds. TheAmudarya River in particular has been the mainsource of fluvial and shallow aquifer abstractionfor human consumption and agricultural use inKarakalpakstan and Khorezm, and the reducedvolume of flow has resulted in the drought, theworst in 100 years.

Shortage of irrigation water from the AmudaryaRiver has led to the loss of most of the rice, cotton,and wheat crops. Irrigation canals, which used to

be a main source of raw water for household use,have dried up, depriving many rural households ofdirect access to safe drinking water, and means ofemployment, income, and food from agriculture.Families, particularly women and children, fetchwater from distant alternative sources. Drinkingwater, where available, is often contaminated or ofpoor quality. Consequently, for the population inthe drought-affected areas there is high risk ofwater-borne diseases and the carcinogenic andimmunological conditions brought about by thelong-term consumption of high levels of water-borne minerals.

Drought Relief Programme andResources

Recognising the urgency of the problem, theGovernment of Uzbekistan embarked on aprogramme for immediate relief (Aral SeaDrought Relief Programme) that is receivingextensive support from the internationalcommunity. In 2001, the Government requestedemergency assistance from the AsianDevelopment Bank (ADB) to mitigate the effectsof the drought. A loan for US$ 38 million wasapproved in May 2002 for Western UzbekistanRural Water Supply Project.

Objectives

The main objective of the Project was to improvethe living and health conditions of ruralcommunities in Karakalpakstan and Khorezm. Theaim was to expand the supply of potable water indistricts from a minimum of 12% to 85%, reducelosses from unaccounted-for water from over 50%to 30%, increase the supply efficiency of bulkwater and service delivery, and lower theproduction costs.

21

The Western Uzbekistan Rural Water Supply Project has tried to mitigate the ongoing effects of drought byproviding safe and easily accessible water supply, by minimising water wastage, by improving sanitationfacilities and health conditions and encouraging better hygiene. About 700,000 people, of whom 60 per centare poor, benefit from the project. The project also strengthens the institutional capacity to manage potablewater resources and ensure long-term sustainability of the Government�s water supply programme in the AralSea area.


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Process and Results Achieved

The project comprised of three components:

� Potable water supply,� Water conservation and health improvement, and� Capacity building.

The potable water supply component involved thedevelopment of new systems, rehabilitation andupgrading of existing facilities. Bulk water pumpingand transmission were strengthened, new deepboreholes and treatment plants provided, andwater distribution centres were rehabilitated orbuilt.

The water conservation and health improvementcomponent involved the introduction of waterconservation measures, improvements in thesanitation facilities of schools and clinics, andpromotion of health awareness related to waterand sanitation. The capacity building componentinvolves support for project management andinstitutional strengthening in water supplymanagement.

About 700,000, people of whom 60% were poor,were benefited from the Project.

Lessons Learned and Sustainability

Learning from the experience of other water supplyprojects in Uzbekistan and ADB water supplyprojects in other countries, the project hasincorporated the following features in its design:

� A flexible menu of sub-projects including bothstrategic and locally focused works that can becompleted within the required time and can beconstructed, operated, and maintained by localagencies;

� Participation of stakeholders, such as ruralassemblies, women�s committees or similarcommunity organisations, in sub-projectdevelopment, and possibly in operation andmaintenance;

� Information, education, and communicationcampaigns;

� Coordination of project activities with the centraland local governments and internationalfunding agencies under the Government�s AralSea Drought Relief Programme; and

� Training to strengthen institutional proceduresand to ensure efficient and speedyprocurement.

A participatory approach to the selection,planning, and implementation of sub-projects wasexpected to increase a sense of ownership amongbeneficiaries, which, in turn, will improve theoperation and maintenance (O&M) of equipment,as well as voluntary water conservation and healthmeasures.

Top-down approaches were embedded at alladministrative levels of Government. The projectwas structured to increase local responsibility forwater supply services by decentralisingimplementation and operation and maintenance,and actively involving both local governments andcommunity-based stakeholders.

To recover O&M costs, metered charging will beintroduced under the project. A tariff structure willbe prepared for the sub-project districts using astepped tariff by volume, and a lifeline tariff forminimum consumption to increase affordability bythe rural poor. However, since affordability oftariffs is a critical issue in the drought-strickenareas in Karakalpakstan and Khorezm, theGovernment will continue to subsidise rural watersupply until the rural water and sewerage agenciescan fully recover the cost of O&M from users.

References

ADB News Release No.066/02: Improving RuralWater Supply and Health in Drought-Hit WesternUzbekistan, 2002.

Aral Sea Drought Relief, 2002.

Report and Recommendation of the President tothe Board of Directors on a proposed loan toUzbekistan for the Western Uzbekistan Rural WaterSupply Project, Manila, 2002.

Interview with Amy Leung, Urban DevelopmentSpecialist, ADB Social Sector Division, East andCentral Asia Department, 2003.

Bayarsaihan, Tumurdavaa, 2003. Shared WaterResources: Whose Water? ADB Review 35(1),Manila.

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SECTION III

Appropriate Technologies

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The demographic trends and the rapid and chaoticgrowth of urban centres in many countries of theAsia-Pacific region, together with the growingdemands on existing water and sanitation services,make the search for innovative, affordable,indigenous and culturally acceptable �AppropriateTechnologies� very imperative. Such techniquesand technologies contribute greatly to the waterand sanitation sector and may primarily focus on:

� Point-of-use drinking water treatment systems athousehold level;

� Water purification systems;� Wastewater treatment systems;� Recycling and reuse of wastewater;� Desalination systems;� Systems to track leakages and unaccounted-for

water;� Rainwater harvesting and groundwater

recharging;� Onsite safe disposal systems for safe sanitation; and� Use of GIS for improved infrastructure services.

There is a wealth of experience in Asia for thesemeasures, where all stakeholders includinggovernments, private sector and civil societyorganisations have played a notable part. The 10Local Actions presented under this Section illustratethese measures through proven practices in India,Indonesia, Nepal, the Philippines, Singapore andQatar, as detailed below:

India: the case of Byrraju Foundation is a notableillustration of pro-poor water purification andbottling system to generate WHO standarddrinking water by purifying water at availablesources in a small treatment plant and deliver ataffordable costs.

Sulabh International Social Service Organisation, apioneering NGO in Sanitation in India, developedcost-effective sanitation technologies for householdand community use with onsite safe disposalsystem, which not only promotes safe sanitation

Appropriate Technologies

but also prevents environmental degradation. TheNGO also developed technologies for water-effluent treatment from biogas digester andwastewater management.

Indonesia and Nepal: initiated different cost-effective household drinking water treatmenttechnologies at the household level. Indonesiainitiated �Air Rahmat�, a solution that purifies waterfor drinking. Nepal promoted �Piyush � a 0.5 percent chlorine solution�, �Solar Water Disinfection(SODIS)� which are simple to use, reliable andeasily accessible. �Kanchan Arsenic Filter� is anotherinnovative household drinking water treatmentdevice for removing arsenic and microbiologicalcontamination, popularly used in Nepal.

Rainwater harvesting has become a viable optionin Nepal for collecting and storing rainwater toaugment water supplies as well as groundwaterrecharging. The wastewater treatment plant atSunga in Madhyapur Thimi Municipality in Nepalillustrated an approach towards achievingsustainable management of wastewater.

The Philippines: the decentralized waste watertreatment using local technology in the coastaltown of Liloan cleared water pollution due to poorsanitation and contributed to the town�s economy.

Singapore: achieved self-sufficiency in providingdaily potable water to millions of its citizens byadopting technologies for recycling of used water,desalination of seawater and keeping theunaccounted-for water low.

Qatar: is the first country to implement acomprehensive and integrated nationwideGeographic Information System (GIS) for improvedinfrastructure services and waste disposal systems.

The above interventions and approaches are ofsignificant importance as they can help in the rapidand focused spread of water and sanitationservices, particularly among poor communities.

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INDIA

Cost-effective and Appropriate Sanitation Systems

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Background

Two-thirds of the Indian population goes out fordefecation in the open areas and over 120 millionhomes do not have toilet facilities. Worldwide,around 100 million urban dwellers defecate inopen areas due to non-availability of toilets athomes, or at public places or because they are toodistant or too expensive to build. Open defecationis a source of infection for various diseases. Lackof access to safe sanitation not only contributes toa cycle of diseases but also has impact on health,

education, productivity, further leading to poverty.Most people, specially the poor, are not aware ofthe health and environmental benefits of improvedsanitation. Their priorities were different and thetoilet was not a felt need. General awareness andCommunity�s involvement in sanitation promotionwas inadequate. There has been anotherdimension to the problem of sanitation in countrieslike India, called Scavenging, wherein humanexcreta is cleaned and carried away manually.Scavenging was and has been associated withuntouchability in the Indian society and thescavengers face social discrimination.

Sulabh International Social Service Organisation is an NGO and a pioneer in promoting EnvironmentalSanitation since over three decades within India and abroad. Dr. Bindeshwar Pathak, a great Humanist,Social Reformer of contemporary India and Founder of this organisation, is of the opinion that the solution tothe problem of sanitation for the developing world lies in, �Technological Development with SocialTransformation� and the key instrument for this purpose is a toilet. The toilet should be affordable, appropriate,indigenous and culturally acceptable with mechanism of onsite safe disposable. It has combated the problemof manual scavenging in countries like India.

Sulabh�s pioneering work has shown that human waste can be disposed off affordably and in a sociallyacceptable way. The Sulabh solution is a low-cost, pour-flush water-seal toilet with leach pits for onsite safedisposal of human waste. The technology is affordable for poor people because the designs suit differentincome levels. The system is never out of commission, and can be built with locally available materials, iseasy to maintain and has the potential for upgradation. The technology has brought about major changes inthe attitudes and personal habits of the urban poor. Sulabh�s pay-and-use approach for public toilets reflectsgood commercialisation of services and the private-sector involvement in the initiative.

Another unique initiative of Sulabh is the Nai Disha (meaning New Direction) programme to change thecourse of life of the manual scavengers through education, skill upgradation and empowerment so that theyare gainfully employed in other trades and professions. Further, Sulabh�s approach to capacity building,training and awareness, particularly for women who are the worst sufferers due to the lack of toilets and thechildren and youth through school sanitation, facilitates not only in transforming the quality of their lives,but also strengthens the ingenuity and expertise towards achieving the goal of safe sanitation to all.

Sulabh has demonstrated how a partnership between a local Government, NGO and the community canmake a substantial impact on improving the environment quality, particularly in the areas inhabited by thepoorest segment of society, both in the urban and rural settlements. Indeed, this has been a partnershipbetween Central, State and local government, the private-sector, NGO, the Community-based Organisation(CBO) and ex-scavengers.

The factors that have led to the success of Sulabh initiative include:

� an innovative and task-oriented partnership� effective community participation in the design and implementation process� use of locally available and environmentally-friendly technology� bringing change and transformation in the quality of life of the underprivileged� an integrated approach to providing service with income-generating opportunities to the marginalised.

Section IIIAppropriate Technologies

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Goals and Objectives

Sulabh�s short-term goals include the provision ofaccessible, affordable and easily available latrinesand the means to maintain them. Its long-termgoal involves bringing about major change in theattitudes and personal habits of the urban poor.

The specific objectives of the Sulabh Initiative include:

� Providing basic amenities to a large portion ofthe population which are cut off from formalmunicipal services;

� Instilling social responsibility for city-wide goodenvironmental conditions through creation ofawareness;

� Providing the opportunity for low-cost, self-helpdevelopment for megacities where publicagencies are financially unable to providecritical services;

� Providing affordable services in the mosteffective way;

� Applying the fundamental principles ofpartnership and community participation;

� Partnerships: Demonstrating how a partnershipbetween a local government agency and anon-governmental organisation, backed bycommunity participation, can be very effective;

� Community involvement: Involving thecommunity, with a special emphasis on women� indeed, community participation has beencentral to Sulabh�s success with its educationprogrammes aimed at creating awareness as tohow sanitation affects the lives of slum dwellers,and by providing toilets to communities �Sulabh has motivated and reinforcedcommunity-level involvement in the initiative;

� Affirmative action in favour of womenscavengers: The initiative places specialemphasis on the transformation of thescavenging women to bring them to themainstream of the society through education,skill upgradation and empowerment and,thereby, enhancing the principle of socialequity;

� Environmental sustainability: Sulabh�s innovativeapproach provides sustainable environmentalsanitation, and advocates and enhances accessto low-cost sanitation services, particularly forthe poor.

Resources

Sulabh initiative receives financial support from itsself�financing strategies through the pay-as-you-usemodel of public toilets and consultancy services.

Process

Sulabh technology involved the development of atwin-pit pour-flush toilet which uses only two litres ofwater for flushing. The excreta fall into a leach pitand the two pits are used alternately. Gas and liquidis slowly dispersed into the soil through holes in thelining of the pit, and waste is rendered odourless andalmost dry after a two-year rest period, so that it maylater be used as manure and soil conditioner.

For in-house toilets, the implementation processentails door-to-door campaigns by Sulabhvolunteers who talk to people and persuade themto convert their bucket latrines into SulabhShauchalayas (twin-pit pour-flush latrines). Oncethe beneficiaries agree, Sulabh undertakes the fullresponsibility to construct the toilets to the entiresatisfaction of the householders involving themfully in the process. A guarantee card is issued toeach household so that any construction defect canbe rectified free of charge. Follow-up services are

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also provided to assist and guide the householdersin toilet use and maintenance. Sulabh has set up aspecial cell to monitor the quality and satisfactionof the users who get a Sulabh toilet systeminstalled in their houses.

Under the scheme of the Government of India andseveral state governments, there is a provision ofsubsidy and loan to the beneficiaries with balanceamount being paid by the beneficiaries. Many atimes it becomes too difficult for the Government torecover loans from beneficiaries. Sulabh helps thegovernment body in recovering such loans. It alsohelps beneficiaries to get subsidies/loans from theGovernment.

For the construction and maintenance of publictoilets, Sulabh�s strategy is to play the role of acatalyst between official agencies and the users ofSulabh complexes. The land and finances for theconstruction of public toilets are made available bylocal bodies. Sulabh undertakes the construction ofthese complexes and maintains them on a pay-and-use basis for 30 years.

Sulabh technology has further been extended tocreation of biogas from human excreta, and thegas can be used as a cooking medium andelectricity generation.

Results Achieved

Sanitation facilities have been provided in1.2 million individual households and nearly6,000 public toilets for communities and are usedby over 10 million people daily. An individual toiletcan be constructed at a cost as low as US$ 10 withthe cost varying as per the specifications andmaterials utilised. The dumping of fresh,pathogenic night soil has stopped and has led toimprovement in the physical environment. Thesetoilet complexes have restored human dignity byproviding facilities for defecation and bathing inprivacy and eradicating social discriminationagainst scavengers. Some of these complexes havebecome social centres because of the provision ofcommunication services (telephones), medicalcare, family welfare services, clean water (fordrinking) and cloakroom facilities.

Over 60,000 scavengers have been liberated fromthe demeaning and unhygienic task of manualscavenging and rehabilitated in other skills. Over6,000 wards and family members of these liberatedscavengers have been given vocational training.

Around 1,100 towns have been covered by Sulabhtoilet systems. There has been a dramatic positivechange in the physical environment of the townswhere Sulabh has worked.

General awareness, sanitation, health, educationand the community�s involvement in the socialinfrastructural programme have instilled self-reliance and confidence in the people. Sulabh�sLiteracy programme among women and childrenwith education on sanitation and personal hygienein slums and squatter settlements has resulted inthe improvement of the environment, ecology andhealth. These women have become the forerunnersof social change by creating awareness in thecommunity about the importance of sanitation andpersonal hygiene. This has brought about apositive impact on the health standards of allmembers of the households concerned, especiallyamong the underprivileged women and children.

Sulabh programme of Nai Disha (New Direction)has created new avenues for the scavengingfamilies to emerge into the mainstream of thesociety with income-generating opportunities forself-reliance. The cost-effective sanitationadvocated by Sulabh also formed part of theprestigious project for the prevention of pollution ofthe river Ganga and Yamuna, undertaken by theGovernment of India. The efforts of Sulabh are nowbeing treated as an integral part of the NationalRiver Conservation Project. Through partnershipwith Sulabh, the local government has played amajor role in the provision of affordable sanitationservices and technical support to the initiative.

Sustainability

Sulabh has developed its own methodology toensure sustainability in the provision of sanitationfacilities to the communities in urban areas. It isbased on the following premises:

� General awareness of self-reliance andconfidence without much dependence on theGovernment;

�Solution�: Sulabh Twin pitpour-flush toilet

Sulabh Public Toilet Complex atShirdi, Maharashtra


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� Structuring decentralized programmes andgradually handing them over to the target groups;

� Adoption of sustainable, replicable, acceptableand most appropriate cost-effectivetechnologies;

� Creation of awareness about sanitation;� Involvement of the community, especially of

women, at every stage of implementation; and� The training, rehabilitation and removal of

social discrimination against scavengersengaged in the manual handling of humanexcreta so that they do not becomeunemployed, once the bucket and dry priviesthey clean are converted to pour-flush toilets.

The technology developed by Sulabh is cost-effective, sustainable, replicable and mostappropriate. It can be built using indigenouslyavailable materials and is easy to maintain. It hasa high potential for being upgraded, i.e., it can beconnected to sewers easily when they areintroduced into a new area. It does not need theservices of scavengers.

The organisation works to turn the developmentprocess into a people�s movement with the peoplethemselves becoming agents of change. Sulabh�sinnovative approach provides sustainableenvironmental sanitation development to bringabout lasting change in the habits and attitudes ofthe community. This approach has assisted inbuilding the capacities of the communities with theobjective of helping them to learn and believe intheir own ability to help themselves, theircommunities and others.

Lessons Learned

An important lesson in Sulabh�s initiative is that inorder to improve the living environment andaccessibility to basic services for all, appropriatetechnology, social marketing and delivery systemshave important roles to play. However, this shouldbe backed by strong community participationstrategies along the lines developed by theorganisation to make delivery systems effective andsustainable. In this sense, Sulabh�s initiative is moreof a social innovation than a technological one.

Sulabh technology has enabled households whichpreviously possessed single-pit latrines or had nolatrine at all, to have access to a decent andaffordable sanitation option.

Transferability

International and bilateral agencies haveadvocated for the adoption of Sulabh technologyand its model in developing countries. SulabhInternational has been working closely with UN-HABITAT and has made significant contribution tobridge the sanitation gap. It has been working inSouth Asia and Africa and has sent its experts toseveral countries as part of UN-HABITAT Missions.

At the request of UN-HABITAT, Sulabh Internationalprepared a publication on �Social Marketing ofSanitation� which seeks to serve as a link betweenUN-HABITAT and the other agencies engaged inpromoting socially and environmentallysustainable cities and towns. Another publicationon �Sanitation and Energy� is under preparation.In collaboration with UN-HABITAT, Sulabh haspromoted capacity building to the professionals of14 African countries on �Sanitation Technologies�,who, in turn, implement these technologies in theirrespective countries.

Sulabh has spread the message and awareness onEnvironmental Sanitation in the Asian countries ofNepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Afghanistan, and Africa.At the request of the Government of Afghanistan,Sulabh has constructed public toilet complexes withdigester in the city of Kabul and trained locals intheir operation and maintenance. Sulabh alsoextended consultancy services for provision ofsocial and technical guidelines on health, hygieneand sanitation to the Republic of Mozambique.Developed counties like France also derive benefitsfrom the efforts of Sulabh Sanitation.

Within the country, the success of Sulabh efforts ledthe Government of India and State Governmentsto initiate and implement the low-cost sanitationprogramme all over India with the followingobjectives to:

� Convert the dry or bucket latrines in urbanareas to pour-flush sanitary latrines designed bySulabh;

� Provide such latrines where no latrines existed;� Make more pay-and-use public toilets

available; and� Eliminate manual scavenging and make these

scavengers free from the demeaning work andstrengthen their capacities for alternativegainful employment.

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ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA

Pro-poor Water Purification and Bottling

23

Introduction

The aim of BF is to create a world-class platform forsustainable transformation of villages. BF believesthat the transformation is sustainable if the processesare disaggregated, institutionalized and participatorywith community owning, managing and leading theinitiatives. BF is working in the areas of Healthcare,Education, Literacy, Water, Environment, Sanitation,Agricultural Advisory Services, Livelihoods andDisability Rehabilitation in 180 villages across EastGodavari, Guntur, Krishna, Ranga Reddy,Visakhapatnam and West Godavari Districts ofAndhra Pradesh, impacting a million lives.

Most of the villages in Godavari and Krishna delta,where BF has major presence, 63% of villages aredependent on irrigation canals and the remaining37% of villages use groundwater. Survey alongirrigation canals in this region revealed that watersources have been polluted due to variouscontaminants. Tests conducted on water, suppliedthrough Rural Water Supply (RWS) scheme, showedthat 138 out of 159 villages i.e., 79%, with surfacewater as the main source, did not conform to the safewater norms on account of Coliform, Turbidity,Chlorides, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), etc. If theneed for maintaining residual chlorine of 0.2 partsper million (ppm) (mg/l) is also considered, 143 ofthem, viz. 90%, failed. In upland areas, mostlydependent on groundwater, 17 out of 21 villageshave TDS in excess of permissible limit of 500 ppm.Ten of these villages also have fluorides beyond thenorm of 1 ppm. It is observed that out of 40 litres percapita daily (LPCD) water supplied by RWS, about 2litres is used for drinking purpose, which is about 5%of total quantity to be supplied in villages. It is mucheasier to treat 5% of water supplied to drinking waterstandards rather than the entire quantity. BFdeveloped a strategy to address the situation andestablished community-based water plants, jointly

supported by village local body, community and BF, formeeting the requirement of drinking water in villages.

Objectives and Scope

To mitigate people�s sufferings due to consumption ofunsafe water, BF has conceived the idea of providingsafe drinking water to 100% people in all theadopted villages at a cost that the poorest of the poorcan also afford. In providing solution, the key factorsconsidered are output quality meeting the prescribednorms of WHO, scalable technology, sustainableprocesses, and participation of community. Thesolution involves setting up of community-basedwater treatment system at the village level.Accordingly, the Foundation came up with the idea ofsetting up of a Plant, initially one for every 3 villages,using appropriate technology to be operated bytrained youth from the village.

Process

The treatment undergoes purification process, viz.coagulation for settling suspended matter, chlorinedosing for killing the bacteria, pressure sand filtration

The Byrraju Foundation (BF), a non-profit organization dedicated to rural transformation, has embarked uponproviding safe drinking water, conforming to WHO standards, in the villages of the State of Andhra Pradesh.BF came up with a viable option to separate �safe drinking water for everyone� from the rest of the watersupplied through Rural Water Supply (RWS) Scheme in the villages. They treat the water in a small plant witheffective technology, which produces 1000-2000 litres of pure drinking water in one hour. This programme issupported jointly by the community, the local body (the Gram Panchayat), and the Byrraju Foundation. Thiswater is free from harmful bacteria and other impurities and is delivered in 12-litre food-grade HDPE cans ata user charge of Indian rupees 1.50 (approximately US$ 0.04) with which the unit can function on a sustainablebasis and is affordable by a common man.


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for screening fine particles, activated carbonfiltration for removal of smell and odour, micronfiltration for removal of extra fine particles andultraviolet sterilization for inactivating the residualbacteria. In case the raw water has TDS beyond500 ppm, the outlet from micron filters is passedthrough Reverse Osmosis(RO) membrane at highpressure for removing dissolved solids, includingbacteria. This water is sent through an ozonator tomaintain oxygen level and improve shelf life. Theprocessed water, before filling in the cans, issubjected to another stage of ultraviolet radiationto arrest bacteria, if any, that may generate in thestorage tank. The system, effectively eliminatingimpurities and harmful bacteria, produces water at1,000-2,000 litres per hour.

Operation and Maintenance of plants

Based on the level of impurities in raw water, theprocess parameters are set for effective removal ofthe same. To overcome the power cuts, the Plant isoperated on single-phase, as it is available for 12-16 hours a day in villages, on flexible timings,using voltage stabilisers for maintaining the qualityof power. Hundred percent stand by for all thecritical components like Pumps, Motors, UV Lamps,Voltage Stabilisers, Multi-port Valves and adequatestocks of consumables are ensured. In somevillages, which distribute higher quantity of water, aDiesel Generator has been installed to meet therequirement of power. Annual maintenancecontract is entered into, initially for 5 years, withthe suppliers of the Plant to ensure trouble-freeoperation of plants. For every 5 plants, amaintenance team is deployed within close vicinityof a cluster of villages by the Supplier, so as toattend to preventive and breakdown maintenance.Layout and components have been standardisedso that the plants, operating in similar conditions,can effectively share inventories for properoperation.

In order to ensure 100% satisfactory performance ofthe Plants, quality of the product water is monitoredstrictly. While product water is tested for keyparameters like bacteria, TDS, pH, residual chlorine,etc., at the Plant on a daily basis, local ScienceColleges are involved in testing of samples forvarious biological, physical and chemical parameterson weekly/fortnightly basis.

Social Impact

To place health at the centre of the broaderdevelopment agenda is a conscious strategy adoptedby BF, as it has high receptiveness from beneficiaries.Credibility established through the success of healthactivities translated into goodwill for BF�s otherinitiatives, including water. When the water plantswere conceptualised, Gram Vikas Samithi (GVS), a 9-member body of volunteers representing all sectionsof community, including women, constituted tooversee implementation of various activities of BF, isinvolved in the decision-making process. GVS plays akey role in mobilising community support and takeup regulatory issues with the local authorities. Theproject, involving Gram Panchayat (village localbody), GVS and BF, has role clarity on the aspects asstated at Table-1:

Capacity building of community in identification andsolving of problem by participation in a systematicmanner to enhance their operational capabilities isan important step for achieving sustainability. Tofacilitate this, BF imparts skills to the GVS for properimplementation of schemes, self-reliance in settingup and running services through user charges and/ormobilisation of funds. For operation of water plant,unemployed youth are trained on various aspects.Though BF, through its field staff, oversees running ofplant till its stabilization and ironing out anydeficiencies in operational matters, it is ultimatelyhanded over to GVS or a self-help group (SHG). Sofar, 7 plants were handed over to GVS or Self-helpGroups (SHGs) under close supervision of GVS, andmore are in the pipeline.

PPWSA: Before and After

Gram Panchayat Gram Vikas Samithi Byrraju Foundation

*Allotment of land (free) *Collect contribution from community *Awareness creation, resource*Permission to draw raw water and supervise construction of building mobilisation, develop criteriafrom main source *Identification of youth from village and identification for eligibility*Obtain power connection at for operation of plant *Identify suppliers of equipment,concessional tariff *Oversee operation of plant and procurement and train operators

distribution of water *Process framework for sustenance*Offer creative solutions to of project; assess, document andincrease utilisation of water disseminate the impact

*Quality monitoring and assurance

Table-1: Role clarity

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Financial Sustainability

Water Plant is a financially sustainable model, withcommunity and BF investing in the plant costing Rs.7.50 lakh for conventional process and Rs. 8.75 lakhfor RO system (including Rs. 3.50 lakh for building inboth cases). The economics of plant operation, dueto better knowledge management and processimprovements, thus resulting in reduction of bothfixed and variable costs, is shown at Table-2:

The Plant�s break-even point for distribution is 4,000-4,500 litres a day. Even though Byrraju Foundation isable to raise the required resources, a few financialinstitutions came forward offering loan at an interestrate of 9% a year to meet the capital expenditure.Government of India, under Swajaldhara scheme,grants subsidy to the extent of 30% of capital costs forsetting up of community-based plant by a team ofindividuals or a self-help group in villages. Thefinancial aspects will undergo a minor change whichcan be offset with increased levels of distribution ofwater to ensure sustainability of the plant.

Results Achieved

The product �water� is delivered in a 12-litre HDPEfood-grade Can at Indian Rupees 1.50 (US$ 0.04) atplant. Additional amount of Rs. 0.50-2.00,depending on distance of travel, is charged for itsdelivery by a rickshaw/van at the doorstep within aswell as neighbouring villages. Access to cleandrinking water has transformed the village landscapein many ways. The impact is quite perceptible amongthe children, with reduction in absenteeism inattending school (due to sickness) and improvedlearning, as water from these plants is supplied freeof cost to the schools and health centre in the villagesadopted by BF. The initiative benefited the communityin the following aspects:

� Access to safe drinking water provided to nearly800,000 people in about 155 villages.

� Patient visits to BF�s Health Clinics in villages withaccess to BF water dropped by 15-30% andexpenditure on medicines declined by 10-22%,attributed mainly due to relief from water-bornediseases.

� Provided livelihood to nearly 270 village youth foroperation of plant and distribution of water (byrickshaw within village and by auto/van in nearbyvillages).

� The surplus generated from the plant is used forcommon good of the village.

Lessons Learned

Initially, the pilot plant at Gollalakoderu did notforesee high levels of suspended matter, whichincreased more so during the monsoon period � asmall scale coagulation unit to reduce turbiditythereby sand filter and micron filters. Ozonation wasalso introduced to maintain shelf life, quality ofproduct water and increase of oxygen level, whichusually drops down in raw water during colder days(peak winter period). Appropriate treatmentprocesses have been put in place to suit differentsituations and characteristics of raw water. Based onthe experiences gained, the Foundation is confidentof setting up small community-based waterpurification systems for a cluster of 2-3 villages,

No Item Non-RO RO

1 Production of water per day in litres (average-minimum) 5,500 5,500

2 Distribution of water per day in litres (average-minimum) 5,000 5,000

3 User Charges @ Rs. 0.125 a litre for 360 days in Rs. 225,000 225,000

4 Annual Recurring costs in Rs.� Manpower: 2 persons @ Rs. 2,500/month 60,000 60,000� Power, Consumables, Maintenance and other expenses 64,200 92,600� Depreciation @ 10% of the cost of equipment 30,000 40,000

TOTAL expenditure per year in Rs. 154,200 192,600

5 SURPLUS per year in Rs. 70,800 33,500

Table-2: Economics of operation


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having a total population of 8,000-10,000, as asustainable rural enterprise. The concept andtechnology have been established which helps thevillagers to operate the water Plant on their own.

Though it is the desire of the Foundation thatpoorest of the poor in the village is able to affordconsumption of the product water, the challenge isto reach them and ensure higher levels ofconsumption. Although BF is creating awarenessand educating the villagers by demonstrating thecontamination levels in present water systems, themindset of villagers is something which is verydifficult to change in a short span of time. Added toit is the cost element, as vast majority of villagerswant drinking water at no cost that too at or verynear to their doorstep. Despite realising theimportance of consuming safe drinking water, thecommon practice of drinking from availablesources for years hinders them from paying forother water, however safe it may be. But the realitythat the naturally available water resource ispolluted, does not strike them immediately andcontinuous and constant persuasion can onlymotivate them to switch over to drinking safe water.However, the realisation and need for safe optionsis increasingly felt and the trend is towardssearching for better sources, which is making theGovernment also to improve/install waterpurification systems.

Distribution of product water to individual isanother constraint. While those in close vicinity ofthe plant collect the water, people living little far orin neighbouring villages need to put in extra effortor spend for transport. The bad condition of roads,more so in monsoon time, distracts transporter tocarry the water to far off places and adjoiningvillages. To improve distribution system, mobileunits to process water at different locations,including hamlets, which are far from main watersource, is another option for greater levelsof reach.

Transferability

This project has great potential for replicationbecause:

(a) Design of the plant, the process and the choiceof equipment are sound;

(b) Recurring cost of plant is not a burden on thedonor/sponsor; and

(c) Participation of the community is possible.

Seeing the success of the pilot plant and based onthe response from other villages, 50 more plantshave been set as on September 2007.

The model, which can be run as an income-generating enterprise, is replicable across otherregions and BF guided/is guiding a few agencies inthe establishment of such plants as listed below:

a. Dow Chemical International Ltd, Dasiagudem(Nalgonda Dist, Andhra Pradesh (AP))

b. Gavarasana Foundation, Gollaprolu (EastGodavari Dist, AP)

c. Nayudamma Foundation, Chimidithapadu(Prakasam Dist, AP)

d. Centre for Water& Sanitation, Hyderabad: GajulaMalkapaur (Nalgonda Dist), Railapur and

Medchal (Ranga Reddy Dist, AP)e. UN-HABITAT, Nairobi: Signed a cooperation

agreement with BF to set up four plants, one each in Indore, Jabalpur (both in Madhya

Pradesh), Laos PDR and Uganda.f. CCF India, Raichur: 3 plants, one each at Kollegal

(Hassan Dist), Chittapur (Gulbarga Dist) andoutskirts of Bangalore (all in Karnataka)

g. Helpage India, Chennai: One plant inCuddalore (Tamil Nadu)

Byrraju Foundation has been rated as �Best WaterNGO-Water Quality� in India by Water Digest (Aglobal magazine for water solutions) and UNESCOfor the year 2006-07. Global DevelopmentNetwork, short listed the scheme (within top 6 outof 184 proposals received in various fields acrossthe world) for �Most Innovative DevelopmentProject� Award for the years 2006 and 2007.

References

1. WHO-UNICEF-WSSCC (2000), �Global WaterSupply and Sanitation Assessment- 2000Report�: World Health Organization and UnitedNations Children�s Fund(http://www.wssinfo.org/pdf/GWSSA2000summary.pdf)

2. WHO (2001), �World Water Day Report-2001�,World Health Organization(www.worldwaterday.org<http://www.worldwaterday.org>).

3. Environmental Protection and Training Institute(EPTRI)(2003), �Report on State of Environmentof Andhra Pradesh�, Hyderabad, India(www.envis-eptri.ap.nic.in).

4. Government of Andhra Pradesh (GoAP) (2003),�AP Water Vision, a shared water vision�, Volume1, Mission Support Unit, Water ConservationMission, Hyderabad, India.

5. Raju, VS, Varahala Raju K, Saradhi AV andPrasada Raju DR (2005), �Safe Drinking Water inRural Areas of Delta Regions � Challenges andSome Experiences �Proceedings of XII World WaterCongress, New Delhi, India, pp 137-148 (Vol I).

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INDONESIA

Simple Solution for Drinking Water Makes aBig Difference

The people in Jakarta, Indonesia no longer have to boil water for drinking. A new and easy-to-use watertreatment solution, �Air Rahmat� or �Gift Water,� gave the breakthrough in water purification technology. Thissystem decontaminates water for drinking, and reduces health risks. A common 19-litre bottled water costsone U.S. dollar while a 100-millilitre bottle of Air Rahmat, which is enough to treat approximately 660 litres ofwater � the average amount used in a household of four in one month � costs less than 50 cents.

The Problem

Over 100 million people in Indonesia lack accessto safe water and more than 70 percent of thecountry�s 220 million population relies on waterobtained from potentially contaminated sources.Unsafe drinking water is a major cause ofdiarrhoea, which is the second leading killer ofchildren under five years of age in the country andaccounts for about 20 percent of child deaths eachyear. According to the Ministry of Health, at least300 out of 1,000 Indonesians suffer from water-borne diseases every year, including cholera,dysentery, and typhoid fever. Around 30 percent ofthe water distributed by water companies in thecountry is contaminated with E.coli or faecalcoliform and other pathogens. The tap water storedin a container for one day will turn yellow. Manywater reservoirs are located close to septic tanksand, added to this, 30 percent of the country�swater pipes leak due to poor maintenance. Thecountry�s local water companies, which get watermainly from the country�s polluted rivers, canhardly handle the dirty raw water due to lack ofadvanced technical treatment.

Air Rahmat- the �Gift Water�

To reduce the high incidence of diarrhoea amongthe children, the United States Agency forInternational Development (USAID) introduced AirRahmat. Air Rahmat is produced through private-public partnership called Aman Tirta, whichbelieves that all Indonesians may have easy accessto safe drinking water. Members of Aman Tirtainclude the Johns Hopkins Centre forCommunication Programmes and CAREInternational, Indonesia. Literally, Air Rahmatmeans Gift Water, but the brand name refers to aliquid, 1.25 percent sodium hypochlorite solution,which is effective in deactivating micro-organismssuch as E.coli in water. Rahmat itself stands foreconomical, easy to use and healthy.

Process

The solution is originally developed as part of theSafe Water Systems programme of the U.S.A.based Center for Disease Control and Preventionand has the same type of treatment that large scalemunicipal water treatment systems use worldwide.

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Boiling Water Out - Air Rahmat In

�The ten year old Milvan has been waking up at 5 am to boil water for his consumptionthroughout the day in school as his parents cannot afford to buy bottled water. Milvan will nolonger have to wake up early in the morning just to boil water for drinking. �I will just use AirRahmat� says Milvan, referring to a new water treatment additive introduced by the Governmentof Indonesia to get safe and drinking water at low cost�.


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In Indonesia, Air Rahmat is made to be used at thehousehold level. The solution is easy to use. Justadd three millilitres of Air Rahmat for every 20 litresof water, shake or stir for 30 seconds, wait for atleast 30 minutes and the water is ready to drink.Endorsed by the Coordinating Ministry for People�sWelfare and the Ministry of Health, Air Rahmat willbe widely available in sidewalk eateries, kiosks,small stores, and traditional markets in the districtsof Banten and North Sumatra provinces, where theincidence of diarrhoea is high.

Results Achieved

When used correctly in conjunction with properstorage, the water treatment solution has beenshown to reduce the risk of diarrhoea up to 85percent. Air Rahmat is also able to protect water fortwo to three days from recontamination. Indonesianwomen report saving of more than 100,000 rupeesor 11 dollars a month by using Air Rahmat. Theyno longer have to buy kerosene for boiling water.The solution has also been introduced in tsunami-struck Aceh province. From the first day after thetsunami, Air Rahmat, has been registered as aconsumer product by the Ministry of Health and hasbeen distributed throughout Aceh. More than 1.5million bottles have been distributed in Aceh, wherelack of clean water is still a major problem.Reported use of chlorine solution in stored water inAceh Besar was associated with a 47 percentdecreased risk of having contaminated drinking

water. Air Rahmat is extensively available inJakarta and in the provinces of West, Central andEast Java.

Sustainability

According to the Ministry of Health and USAID, AirRahmat is safe to use. The product is used in morethan 25 countries. Worldwide, more than 2 millionhouseholds use products similar to Air Rahmat. �Byintroducing Air Rahmat�, says Soetodjo Yuwono,Secretary, Coordinating Ministry for People�sWelfare, �we are offering a simple and sustainablesolution to lack of access to safe water.�

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KATHMANDU VALLEY, NEPAL

Rainwater Harvesting - A Viable Option

Introduction

The country of Nepal is blessed with highest levelof water resources in Asia with five river basinscontributing 71 percent of the annual flow duringthe monsoon season and 40 percent in the dryseason (80 percent of the total rainfall). Ironically,the water scarcity is at an increasing trend withgrowing dependence on groundwater aquifers.

The overextraction of groundwater has led todepletion of water table beyond its rechargingcapacity in many areas, leading to water qualitydegradation, land subsidence, receding of riversand drying up of ponds. Further, rapidurbanisation and industrialization, especially in theurban areas, has converted the rivers into sewers,unfit for downstream consumers, resulting innumerous environmental and ecologicalcalamities. In most parts of the Terai region wherethe only source of water is groundwater, arsenicproblem has added to the grievances of the poor.The Kathmandu Valley is facing acute crisis ofwater � the traditional stone spouts, wells, pondsand springs have been neglected and groundwatermining has not been regulated.

Rainwater, the primary source of water, has beengreatly neglected. The average rainfall in Nepal isabout 1,500 mm. The total annual precipitation is869 million m3/yr, of which 476 million m3/yr islost to evapo-transpiration and 358 million m3/yris drained off by Bagmati River. The potential toharvest rainwater is very promising in Nepal. Evenif just one-fourth of Kathmandu Valley (50.76square km) starts harvesting rainwater, 44.5 MLDof water can be harvested which can quench the

thirst of 600,000 people. In a study conducted ona 90 square metre rooftop at a residence in Dallu,it was observed that the total rainfall received peryear was 66 days and rainwater harvested was154 cubic metre.

Looking at the potential and the water scarcity ofthe country and the Valley�s dependence ongroundwater in particular, the RWH has beenvisualised as the best option and an immediatealternative water resource.


The Rainwater Harvesting Promotion Programme(RWHPP) promoted by UN-HABITAT�s Water forAsian Cities Programme in collaboration withNGO Forum in five municipalities of KathmanduValley and Banepa Municipality, sought tofamiliarise people with RWH technology andpopularise it at the household, community andmunicipal levels by setting up examples of RWHsystems and disseminating information on itseffectiveness.

The long-term vision was to ensure successfuladoption of RWH as a supplementary source ofwater for sustainable water supply services inurban centres. The programme adopted thefollowing strategies:

� Policy advocacy to lobby for mandatoryrequirement of RWH system in building by-laws;

� Capacity building of plumbers, civil engineersand architects on RWH and also to trainprobable clients like housewives;

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UN-HABITAT�s Water for Asian Cities (WAC) Programme in partnership with the Ministry of Physical Planningand Works (MPPW), NGO Forum for Urban Water and Sanitation (NGO Forum/ NGOFUWS), and the WaterAid Nepal has initiated a programme to build capacity on Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) system and todisseminate, demonstrate and promote RWH technology in Nepal. A Rainwater Harvesting PromotionProgramme (RWHPP) was launched in five municipalities of Kathmandu Valley and Banepa Municipality inJanuary 2006. The aim was to familiarise people with this simple technology of tapping nature�s gift andpopularise its use at the household, community and municipal levels and thereby provide a supplementarywater source to the people. The effort has been to set up the RWH plants in several government institutions,private enterprises, and housing projects and to create a growing demand for the RWH plant at thehousehold level.


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� Establishment of help-desks, which functions asa matchmaker between clients willing to haveRWH facility and plumbers trained for thepurpose; and

� Establishment of demonstration sites.

Resources

NGO Forum received a total financial support ofUS $84,000, of which UN-HABITAT contributedUS$ 47,500 and WaterAid Nepal and NGOFUWScontributed US $36,500.

Process

RWHPP has conceived a multi-pronged approachwith maximum spread effect which include:

� Policy advocacy and implementation to createfavourable environment that mandates andpromotes rainwater harvesting in all new builtstructures;

� Tailor-made RWH training programmes for alltarget groups at various levels;

� Preparation and distribution of RWH standardmanual and guidebook;

� Installation of RWH components at popularhistorical/public structures to serve asdemonstration sites;

� Promotion of private sectors for easyaccessibility of RWH components and materialsat a competitive price;

� Production and distribution of promotional itemsfor mass communication and advocacy; and

� Counselling the prospective clients on RWH andhelp to generate employment opportunities.

Results Achieved

Within a year of its initiation, the RWHPP has madeits presence felt in the deliberations of policymaking and equally in the decision making ofcommoners. With the effort of the programme, aRWH Club has been set up where plumbersinteract and discuss issues of RWH.

Kathmandu Metropolitan City (KMC) has installeda RWH system in the Multi-purpose Martial ArtsCentre in the city. Nepal Water Supply Corporationinstalled a RWH system in one of its branches. Thecorporation has also started raising awarenessamong consumers about the system. Similarly, theWorld Wildlife Fund has installed a system in itsoffice building. Altogether, some 200 buildingshave installed the system till date.

Four demonstration sites were selected and therainwater harvesting system was designed andinstalled in Tri Chandra College, Kirtipur Housing,for squatter rehabilitation, Scheer memorialhospital, and Department of Urban Developmentand Building Construction. The historic pondRanipokhari, at the heart of the city, has beenrecharged through the rainwater harvested fromthe rooftop of Tri-Chandra campus buildings. AtTri-Chandra campus, Youth Red Cross circle isrunning a help-desk that provides counselling anddemonstration services on RWH.

Publication of mass awareness materials andpromotional materials including a manual on RWHin local language were published. Technicalsupport was given to the construction ofdemonstration sites, individual households andvarious institutions interested in installation of RWH.

Various technical trainings were organised for thepracticing technicians like plumbers and engineers.Training of Trainers programmes were conductedfor the community members, students andtechnical manpower who, in-turn, organise andconduct trainings on RWH. Those trainedtechnical manpower were absorbed in jobplacement for the design and installation ofRWH system. Many volunteers are mobilised forRWH promotional activities.

RWHPP has been using a variety of tools topromote and disseminate information about thissystem. A hoarding board was placed inKupondole locality in central Kathmandu for thepurpose. An audio-visual medium has beenemployed. Jalpari (Water Fairy in Nepali), atelefilm was extremely popular in Nepal and waseven nominated for the World Water Forum 2006Film Festival in Mexico. Jalpari was alsoshowcased in the World Urban Forum, Vancouver,and in the Himalaya Film Festival in theNetherlands.

The role of the media in promoting the technologyand disseminating information has beenencouraging. National newspapers in the countryhave highlighted the successful implementation of thetechnology in various buildings and have repeatedlypresented the RWH technology as the readilyavailable option to solve Kathmandu�s water woes.

The effort of RWHPP has seen in the formation of agovernment-level RWH Steering Committee. TheCommittee initiated work to prepare RWHguidelines for urban and rural areas. The newly

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drafted Urban Water Sanitation Policy has a RWHchapter in it. Following a workshop, the housingcolony sector has also committed to install plantsin new housing projects.

The Bank of Kathmandu, a leading private sectorbank, has agreed to provide priority and facilitiesto loan proposals for building houses that will haveRWH system.

Nepal Red Cross Society (NRCS) KathmanduDistrict and Lalitpur District, as well as Guthi YouthNetwork, after participating in a trainingprogramme on RWH system, signed an agreementfor dissemination of the technology and have beenpromoting the technology with their door-to-doorcampaigns. After an orientation workshop, RotaryClub of Lalitpur Municipality has also planned toinstall RWH systems in 1,000 houses in Lalitpur.

On the cultural front, the ancient Sithi Nakhafestival, which is celebrated at the beginning ofmonsoon every year with farmers feasting andcleaning up water sources, is being promoted as anational festival in order to spread the practice ofcleaning and preserving water sources. Also, theStone Spout Users� Association has initiated effortsto recharge groundwater. Experts also say that theValley�s geology is capable of shallow groundwaterrecharge through RWH and, thus, ponds that havedried up and long forgotten can be revived again.

Sustainability

If RWH is incorporated in a building design right atthe beginning of construction, there is very minimalcost involved for this component. Further, RWHreduces people�s reliance on groundwater and,hence, reduces risks associated with highgroundwater extraction and also ensures rechargeof groundwater.

Lessons Learned

These initiatives have generated several lessonsas to how RWH can be popularised andreplicated, and are outlined below:

� Aggressive media campaign and trainedhuman resource is required for promotion ofRWH.

� Educating consumers, housewives, teachers,children and other stakeholders is necessaryfor acceptance of the system.

� Necessary to establish database of RWHusers.

� Networking, Collaboration and partnershipsneed to be strengthened to promote RWH.

Similarly, it was learnt that rainwater utilisationshould be advocated at three levels:

Household Level

� Encourage citizens to harvest rainwater.

Municipal Level

� Install RWH systems in municipal and publicbuildings.

� Utilise rainwater in public parks and ponds.� Mandate and promote RWH in all newly built

structures through building by-laws.� Discourage discharge of rainwater through

storm-water drain where recharge is possible.� Preserve traditional water supply systems and

sources.

National Level

� Prepare land use map and conserve rechargezone.

� Introduce Differential Tariff System and promoteRWH.

� Construct Infiltration dam to increasegroundwater table.

� Provide subsidy or no-interest loans to installRWH systems.

Transferability

The experience in Nepal proved that thetechnology is quite transferable. It has becomeextremely popular in rural areas by virtue of itseasy transferability.


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SUNGA, NEPAL

Reed-bed Wastewater Treatment System:Sunga Wastewater Treatment Plant

The Sunga Wastewater Treatment Plant Project illustrated an approach towards achieving sustainablemanagement of wastewater and inspired the people to adopt such decentralized technology which could bemanaged by the community itself for the solving the ill-managed wastewater in the city. The Sunga reed-bed wastewater treatment system (RBTS) is an effective community-based wastewater management systemthat provides increased awareness by addressing the issue at the local level. The project has many advantages:

� easy operation and maintenance� adaptability in small areas compared to conventional system� working efficiency� water optimisation� recycle & reuse of treated wastewater� income and livelihood opportunities.

Introduction

Part of the Madhyapur Thimi Municipality wassewered in 1995 and the collected wastewater wasplanned to be treated in oxidation ponds. However,due to the failure of establishment of the treatmentfacility, wastewater is discharged into the HanumanteRiver which has become highly polluted. As the riveris used for irrigation, discharge of untreatedwastewater has created public health risks, especiallyfor the farmers using the polluted water for irrigationand to the consumers of the products. Rivers havevibrant eco-system and are the lifeline for humanity.The growing trends of urbanisation have significantinfluence on the levels of pollution in the rivers thatflow through and near the urban centres. If the opendraining of solid and untreated liquid wastescontinues to increase, the pollution will impact therivers� ability of self-treatment and make it unfit forany form of life and for use for any purpose.

Sunga, the project area for demonstrating the RBTSin a community-based approach, is a smallsettlement in the Municipality. As the local communityand the Municipality had shown interest inestablishing a demonstration system of managing thewastewater, Environment and Public HealthOrganisation (ENPHO), with the techno-financialsupport from Asian Development Bank (ADB),UN-HABITAT�s Water for Asian Cities (WAC)Programme and WaterAid Nepal (WAN), establishedthe system in Sunga. The Municipality provided therequired land for constructing the RBTS along withthe financial assistance for its Operation and

Maintenance (O&M). The local community people ofSunga actively participated in the successfulestablishment and operation of the system.


The main objective of this project was to promote asimple but effective community-based wastewatertreatment technology to improve the sanitationsituation of Sunga and, at the same time, todemonstrate the system for treating wastewater at thecommunity level.

In order to establish the demonstration system,community consultations were done to inform themabout the system and to get their consent. Numerouscommunity consultation meetings were conductedafter which a 17-member management committeewas formed for implementation of the project. Atripartite Memorandum of Understanding for theconstruction and operation of the RBTS was signedbetween the management committee, MadhyapurThimi Municipality and ENPHO. The managementcommittee was taken on a field visit for betterunderstanding of the structure, operation andmaintenance of the system.


WAC Programme and WAN provided financialsupport in addition to the fund provided from ADB.As per the tripartite agreement made betweenENPHO, the management committee and theMunicipality, the Municipality committed to provideRs. 50,000 annually for the O&M of the plantincluding remuneration (around Rs. 3,000/month)for the caretaker recruited by the committee.

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Process

The community provided labour for constructionwhile ENPHO provided technical support. Oncompletion, the management committee tookcomplete responsibility of O&M of the plant. Thecommunity showed great enthusiasm for the project,well demonstrated through their positive responsesand willingness to support the project in all theworkshops, interaction meetings. The participatorymanner in which this project was implemented hasled to considerable support from the community andtheir ownership and pride towards the project. Thishas been a significant reason behind the success ofthe treatment plant.

The treatment plant being operational, themanagement committee has not received anycomplaints from the local community. Views of theteachers and students of the local school situatedclose to the treatment plant also indicated that thetreatment system is well accepted. Although duringthe very initial stages of the operation, studentscomplained of foul odour from the plant, later suchsmell subsided gradually and no complaints werereceived from the students.

The treatment plant is now under the directsupervision of local community users and they areresponsible for its continued O&M. ENPHO providedtechnical training to the management committeemembers and caretaker of the plant. In addition, atechnical handbook on the O&M for the plant was alsoprovided for the committee�s operational guidance.

Results Achieved

� Area surrounding the RBTS has been transformedfrom a dumping site to a recreational place.

� RBTS has been established as a demonstrationsite to others who have been enthusiastic to buildsimilar kind of wastewater treatment plants.

� It has been demonstrated that community canown and run a wastewater treatment plant.

� Thimi Municipality has started to develop a planto replicate this system to other parts of themunicipality owing to success of this RBTS.

� The management committee developedpartnership for implementation and has fullygrown into a well known institution in KathmanduValley.

Sustainability

The RBTS is a sustainable technology since it requiresminimal O&M and the costs associated is also nothigh. The management committee is strong and fullycommitted towards managing the RBTS. Further, thecommunity has a feeling of ownership towards theRBTS. The management committee is planning tocollect connection fees from individual householdsfor connecting the sewer line to this treatment plant.

Discussion within the committee, communitybeneficiaries and with other stakeholders is underway for fixing an appropriate tariff. The collectedtariff from households will be deposited in the O&Mfund as a reserve fund. The influence of MadhyapurThimi Municipality is also vital in making local peoplepay the sewer system connection tariff.

There are multiple uses of the treated water. Thetreated water is helping to augment the flow withrelatively clean water in the nearby river where it isbeing discharged at present. The committee is usingsome portion of treated wastewater for gardeningand cleaning. Similarly, the neighbourhoods of theRBTS and the committee are holding discussions fordiverting the treated water to the farmland forirrigation as well as for other agricultural purposes.

Lessons Learned

� Need of in-depth and successive consultation withthe community for successful implementation ofany project.

� Assurance to the community to solve futureproblems.

� Inclusion of all stakeholders of the communitynecessary to make the project successful.

� Proper understanding on O&M by the communityis necessary for future success of technologies likeRBTS.

Transferability

Since the RBTS has been put into operation at Sunga,it has received attention from different national andinternational visitors, policy makers, researchers,professionals, students and journalists, who havevisited this site to observe and share experiences oncommunity-based RBTS for replication, research andlearning. The management committee and ENPHOhave received positive feedback from all the visitorswho have observed the Plant. Besides, these visitshave helped in raising awareness of this simpletechnology and the role of Communities in municipalwastewater management. This system has also beenable to establish itself as a demonstration site for theADB-funded Urban and Environmental ImprovementProject which is planning to establish similartreatment plants in eight Municipalities in Nepal.

Similarly, the surrounding communities have alsobeen given an opportunity to understand thefunctions and benefits of the treatment plant by beingable to visually observe its operation and treatmentefficiency. During the handing over ceremony, therewere requests from many other local communities tosupport the construction of additional treatmentplants of a similar kind in other parts of theMunicipality. These opinions and demands from thelocal community clearly indicated that the treatmentplant is well accepted and the people have takenit positively.


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NEPAL

Kanchan Arsenic Filter: Removable Technology forArsenic and Microbiological Contamination

Introduction

Access to safe drinking water is a basic humanright. In the rural Terai region of southern Nepal,where population density is highest, safe drinkingwater and health services are often unavailable. Itis estimated that 90% of the rural Terai populationreceive their drinking water supply from tube wellsand these water sources are mostly arsenic and/ormicrobiologically contaminated. Often children aremost vulnerable to these preventable water-bornediseases like diarrhoea, cholera, stunting andother ill effects. In addition, arsenic in thegroundwater can cause skin diseases and cancerwhich exacerbate the problem of unsafe water. It isestimated that over 0.7 million people drinkarsenic-contaminated water daily, apart fromregular problems of pathogens. Lack of adequateawareness on water quality, water-borne diseases,health, hygiene and sanitation is a big challenge.

Developing Solutions

In order to provide safe drinking water andimprovement in health for the people affected byarsenic and/or microbiologically contaminateddrinking water in the Terai region, Environment &Public Health Organisation (ENPHO),Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) andRural Water Supply and Sanitation SupportProgramme (RWSSSP), conducted collaborativeresearch to develop several arsenic mitigationoptions. During this period, various technologies,including Kanchan Arsenic Filters (KAF), weretested at the field level and modified to see itsmaximum potential. Based on several technicaland social research performed on these arsenicremoval technologies at the national andinternational level, KAF was identified and provento be the most reliable and acceptable technologyto remove arsenic together with iron, turbidity and

bacteria. The team intensively worked to developan effective implementation model based ondemand-driven approach, user participatory andpartnership among various stakeholders.

KanchanTM Arsenic Filter

KanchanTM Arsenic Filter is built on the platform ofa slow sand filter, modified to include arsenicremoval capability. KAF is constructed with simplematerials available in the local markets of Nepal.These materials include plastic containers, PVCpipes, iron nails, brick, sand, and gravel. Theconstruction of the filter can be done by locallytrained technicians using simple tools.

Cross-Section of the KanchanTM Arsenic Filter(KAF) Showing Major Components

In KAF, arsenic is removed by adsorption onto thesurface of rusted iron nails (i.e. ferric hydroxide).Pathogens such as bacteria are removed mostly byphysical straining provided by the fine sand layer,by attachment to previously removed particles, andby biological predation occurring in the top fewcentimetres of the sand. Over the course of the

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The Kanchan Arsenic Filter (KAF), a household water filter, is a modest attempt by a team of researchers fromEnvironment & Public Health Organisation (ENPHO), Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and RuralWater Supply and Sanitation Support Programme (RWSSSP) for effectively removing arsenic and pathogensand to provide a sustainable solution to the arsenic- and microbial-contamination of drinking water inNepal. The design of KAF is optimised based on the socio-economic conditions in the southern or Terairegion of Nepal where arsenic has been detected. Studies have revealed high user acceptance, financialsustainability, and excellent technical performance. Users and prominent NGOs in Nepal consider the KAFthe best among all the available household arsenic filters.

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project, four different versions of the KAF havebeen designed. The latest Gem505 KAF wasdesigned in March 2004 with a design flow rate of15 L/hr and at a cost of around US$ 20.


The main objective of KAF implementation projectis to promote KAF as a sustainable technology inthe arsenic-affected communities of Terai. Thespecific objectives were to:

� Transfer the technology at local level bybuilding capacity of local entrepreneurs andlocal stakeholders.

� Formulate effective implementation model forquick and sustainable promotion of KAF.

� Raise awareness among the villagers on arsenicand KAF.

� Conduct monitoring and evaluation of filterperformance and user acceptance to improvethe design.


The team secured funding to support theimplementation efforts from:

� World Bank Development Marketplace, 2003(US$115,000 grant),

� Global Water Trust, 2004 (US$ 8,700 ),� World Bank/Poverty Alleviation Fund (PAF)

Nepal Development Marketplace, 2005(US$ 20,000 grant),

� Simavi Foundation, 2005 (US$ 70,000 grant),� US Environment Protection Agency P3

Competition, 2005 (US$ 10,000 award) ,� UN-HABITAT, Water for Asian Cities Programme,

2006 (US$ 6,000 grant),

� St. Andrews Prize for the Environment, 2006(US$ 10,000 award),

� Department of Water Supply and Sewerage/UNICEF and Nepal Red Cross Society(Distribution of 4,000 KAF).

Users were located at the centre of theimplementation model. Four key factors directlyeffect the adoption and sustained use of the KAFamong the users. First, users gained awareness ofthe water contamination problems througheducation and training activities conducted byCommunity-based Organisations (CBOs), andlocal government authorities. The education andawareness activities included village-level smallgroup discussions, school education programmes,street dramas, woman-to-woman household-leveltrainings, as well as mass media campaigns suchas radio and distribution of IEC materials. Then theusers will make a decision whether to purchaseKAF or not.

Process

KAF Implementation Model


Staff

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Once the users are informed and motivated, thenthey can visit their local KAF entrepreneurs topurchase filters. Twenty entrepreneurs across thecountry have been trained yearly (2004, 2005,and 2006) by the team on filter construction,installation, promotion, sales, distribution, andgeneral business management. The team alsocoordinates with parts suppliers such as the Gemfactory and pipes & iron nails depots to optimisethe supply chain and pricing.

In the initial stages of the implementation activities(2003 and 2004), a 75% cash subsidy on the costof the filters was given by donors in order toquickly spread the filter among the communities.As awareness increased and demand grew (2005and 2006), this subsidy was reduced and changedto 50% materials subsidy. To reach those whocannot pay in cash at once, the team partneredwith village women savings groups to develop amicro-financing scheme. The team alsocoordinated with regional and local governments toprovide additional subsidy to the poorest people.

To ensure proper KAF O&M in the users� households,field staff and village women leaders regularly visitKAF households to discuss with the users, reinforcehealth messages and proper O&M procedures, andto record users� feedback. In addition to the aboveactivities, the team coordinates other supportivefunctions. The team actively collaborates with theNational Arsenic Steering Committee (NASC),Department of Water Supply and Sewerage, localuniversities, and other key stakeholders to plan andguide Nepal�s policy in Arsenic Mitigation Initiative.NASC has endorsed KAF as only household-levelarsenic mitigation options in Nepal. A KAF referencecentre is established at ENPHO to provide the generalpublic information related to the KAF technology andimplementation. Project information is alsodisseminated to the international developmentcommunity through conferences, website, seminars,and through the WHO Household Drinking WaterTreatment and Safe Storage Network.

Results Achieved

As of September 2006, over 4,700 KAFs are inoperation across Nepal, serving approximately30,000 to 35,000 people.

KAF showed a high arsenic, iron and bacterialremoval capacity.

Social evaluation of KAF showed high useracceptance, satisfaction and sustained use. Of the1,074 respondents who have first started using thefilter at least one year ago, 83% reported that theycontinue to use the filter everyday. Most of theusers liked the taste and appearance of filteredwater and considered KAF simple to use andmaintain.

Sustainability

This KAF project is sustainable in two ways:

� The technology (simple, low-cost, constructed bylocal materials), and

� Implementation model (demand-drivenapproach, based on social entrepreneurbusiness model and partnerships amongvarious stakeholders).

Sustainable Technology

� As opposed to many technologies designed infirst-world laboratories far removed from theusers, the KAF was designed onsite in arsenicand pathogen-affected villages. Technologicaldesign was placed within social, economical,and political constraints of Nepal.

� It is manufactured by local labour usingmaterials available in rural Nepal.

� The filter operation and maintenance is easy,suitable for the often uneducated rural villagers.

� The filtered water tastes and looks significantlybetter than untreated water (according to manyusers), so users will continue to use the filter.

Sustainable Implementation

� Local entrepreneurs were trained tomanufacture KAF and provide services(installation, maintenance, testing, etc) atbusiness locations that are easily accessible tomost arsenic-affected villages.

� Information about water contamination, treatmentoptions, KAF, and the cost were provided tovillagers/users through workshops so that theycan be individually informed to protect health.

� The capacity of existing local authorities likeVillage Development Committee (VDC) andhealth posts to support strengthening of safewater initiatives, rather than relying on the oftenineffective remote central authority and/or top-down distribution.

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� The implementation scheme focused on the useof existing and functioning distribution networksand infrastructure rather than creating newnetworks/infrastructure.

� For entrepreneurs to be financially sustainable,their monthly profit (calculated by multiplyingunit sales by margin per unit) must be greaterthan their monthly fixed cost. In this case, theirfixed cost is minimal because theseentrepreneurs are well-established local NGOsand community clubs that have their ownfinancial support for their premises and staff.Depending on the KAF demand, they can easilyhire temporary staff to increase their filtermanufacturing capacity on the need basis.

Lessons Learned during theimplementation of KAF

� Difficulty in quality control of the filter when people/organisations build the filter without informing toor receiving proper training from the team.

� Many of the KAF entrepreneurs like CBOstraditionally depend on donor funding to run anyactivities. These entrepreneurs do not comprehendthat KAF promotion and sales can be a financiallysound and sustainable business idea.

� There is no government approval mechanism inNepal to certify KAF. As a result, local users areoften confused and unconvinced, leading toslow technology dissemination.

� Need to demonstrate the long-term sustainabilityof this approach when external funding dries up,and to develop a long-term scheme so that thepoor can have easy access to the KAF.

� The KAF dissemination model to equip localentrepreneurs with skills, and the users withknowledge and tools to solve their ownproblems, may also be a solution for otherarsenic-affected countries.

Transferability

The success of the project is recognised by variousawards, including the 2005 Wall Street JournalTechnology Innovation Award � EnvironmentCategory, 2006 St. Andrews Prize for theEnvironment � 2nd Prize, and the 2006 WorldWater Forum Kyoto World Water Grand Prize �Top 10 finalists.

UN-HABITAT/UNICEF/WHO has, recently,collaborated with the Government of Nepal tocommence National-level arsenic mitigationprogramme. During this programme, about15,000 KAF will be distributed to provide safedrinking water for the households using arsenic-contaminated water. KAF distribution will be donefollowing the implementation model presentedabove. This is a big achievement and example oftransferability of such approaches.

References

Ngai, T.K.K.; Murcott, S.; Shrestha, R.R.; Dangol,B.; Maharjan, M. (2006) Development anddissemination of KanchanTM Arsenic Filter in ruralNepal. Water Science and Technology: WaterSupply 2006, 6(3) 137-146.

Ngai, T., Walewijk, S. (2003) �The Arsenic BiosandFilter (ABF) Project: Design of an AppropriateHousehold Drinking Water Filter for Rural Nepal�.Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Cambridge,USA.

Shrestha R.R., Maskey A., Dahal B., Shrestha K.(2003) �Ground Water Arsenic Contamination andits Mitigation in Nepal Red Cross Society ProgramArea.� DWQIP-NRCS/ENPHO. Kathmandu Nepal.

Shrestha R.R., et al. (2003). �Groundwater ArsenicContamination, Its Health Impact and MitigationProgram in Nepal.� Journal of EnvironmentalScience and Health. Part A � Toxic/HazardousSubstances & Environmental Engineering. Vol.A38, No. 1, pp. 185�200, 2003. ENPHO.Kathmandu, Nepal.

Tabbal, G. (2003) �Technical and Social Evaluationof Three Arsenic Removal Technologies in Nepal�.MIT Master of Engineering Thesis. Cambridge,Massachusetts.

World Health Organisation. (2003a) �The Right toWater.� Geneva, Switzerland.

Ngai, T., Murcott, S., Shrestha, R.R. (2004)KanchanTM Arsenic Filter (KAF) � Research andimplementation of an Appropriate Drinking WaterSolution for Rural Nepal International Symposiumand Workshop on �Technology to overcome thepressures of a changing earth: In search of a newintermediate technology for the local community�November 14-16, 2004 Kyoto Institute for Eco-sound Social Systems (KIESS) Kyoto, Japan.

Murcott, S. (2001). �A Comprehensive Review ofLow-Cost, Well Water Treatment Technologies forArsenic Removal.� In: Arsenic Exposure and HealthEffects IV. Proceedings of the 4th InternationalConference on Arsenic Exposure and HealthEffects, June 18 � 22, 2000. Society forEnvironmental Geochemistry and Health. SanDiego, CA. W.R. Chappell, C.O. Abernathy andR.L. Calberon, Eds. Elsevier Science Ltd., London.

Maskey, A. (2001) �Arsenic Contamination�.ENPHO 10th Anniversary Report, page 40-41.

Lee, Tse-Luen (2001) �Biosand Household FilterProject in Nepal�. MIT Master of EngineeringThesis. Cambridge, Massachusetts.


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Box 3.1: Household Level Water Treatment Systems, Nepal

The Municipal water supplies in Nepal are rarely chlorinated to an adequate level and bacterialcontamination in tap water is common, resulting in a high incidence of water-borne diseases.Common practices are simply to cover the water vessels to protect the water from contamination.Boiling, filtering and using chemical disinfectant are the commonly used techniques in the households.These treatment systems have limitations and only a small percentage of the population are usingthem. Raising awareness of the issues and promoting household water treatment options or point-of-use drinking water treatment (POU) can play a vital role in ensuring access to safe and clean water.

The Environment and Public Health Organisation (ENPHO), a Non-governmental and Non-profit-making Research organisation, one of UN-HABITAT�s partners, has been promoting, over a decade,three different kinds of point-of-use drinking water treatment (POU) options, namely,

� 0.5 % chlorine solution, with brand name of �Piyush�;� Solar water disinfection (SODIS); and� Kanchan Arsenic Filter (KAF), an innovative drinking water device for household water treatment.

Piyush is a 0.5% chlorine solution, (a small-scale chlorination), specially packed in locally made60 millilitre dropper bottles. Only three drops are required to add to a litre of water which, aftershaking and allowing to stand for 30 minutes, brings the FRC content between 0.2 and 0.5 milligramper litre which is within the recommended WHO drinking water guidelines. Piyush is simple to use at thehousehold level; costs little (only US$ 0.2 per bottle), reliable; easily accessible; no adverse effect onhuman health and saves energy.

Solar water disinfection (SODIS), another water treatment system at the household level, is a simple,low-cost and effective technology for disinfecting small quantities of drinking water by using solarenergy to destroy pathogenic microorganisms. Clear PET bottles filled with water are exposed tosunlight for improving the quality of drinking water.

Kanchan Arsenic Filter (KAF), an innovative household drinking water treatment device, is discussedin detail as above.

All three of these water treatment options have great potential, widely used, socially acceptableand more so locally available. These applications can be replicable for promotion and dissemination inother regions since problems with quality of water is almost similar in the developing world. There isalso opportunity for job creation at local level by producing and marketing the product locally,especially 0.5 % chlorine solution and Kanchan Arsenic Filter.

UN-HABITAT has entered into a partnership with Centre for Affordable Water and SanitationTechnology (CAWST) for promotion of these technologies in Mekong Region. Similarly, Water for AsianCities Programme, UN-HABITAT Nepal, developed partnership with Coca Cola Company to build localcapacity and nation-wide promotion of POU in Nepal. UN-HABITAT has also collaborated with theGovernment of Nepal, UNICEF, and WHO to commence National Level Arsenic Mitigation programmeto support in building local capacity.

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LILOAN, THE PHILIPPINES

Decentralised Wastewater Management:Big Results from Small Solutions

Liloan, a costal town in The Philippines is essentially an agricultural Municipality in the province of Cebu.Tourism contributes significantly to the town�s economy. When water pollution due to poor sanitation threatenedthe tourism industry, the Mayor of the town and the municipal council sought the assistance of ADB and theDepartment of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) to help the town in eradicating the problem.Through a pilot and demonstration activity and a grant from ADB�s Cooperation Fund for the Water Sector, theMunicipality established a decentralised wastewater treatment facility (WTF) using local technology. The resultswere outstanding and financially promising. The coastal waters have become clearer and contamination hascompletely receded. The success of the project has drawn the attention of the neighbouring towns.

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Problem, Process and Resources

The Liloan Municipality has been facing thechallenges related to sanitation such asoverflowing of septic tanks, creating watercontamination, unsanitary conditions and healthrisk. This situation worsened in 2004 when wastefrom public market�s septic tank directlydischarged into Liloan�s coastal waters. The watercontamination caused sharp decline in the tourismindustry and increase in water-borne diseasesamong tourists and locals. The Municipalityadopted a decentralised Wastewater TreatmentFacility (WTF) that uses a locally-made technologycalled �Rotating Biological Contactor�, which wasthe first of its kind implemented in Northern Cebu.It treats 60-100 cubic metres of wastewater a day,has radical impact on health, sanitation, andtourism situation and facilitate as a cost-effectivesolution to address the sanitation problem.

The facility was located in the middle of the towncentre. Setting up adequate power supply for sucha technical facility in such location was aconstraint. Another major barrier was the town�snegative attitude towards pollution control. In theimplementation of the project, Communities wereinvolved at every step. As they understood theirgains, there has been a dramatic shift among thepeople from �I don�t care attitude� to �I care and Ipay� attitude.

Asian Development Bank (ADB) provided fundingto construct the WTF and the DENR � the technical

assistance. Consumers were assured of reliablequality water supply at their doorstep for whichthey were willing to pay. A differential water tariffwas provided � a lower tariff for subsistence livingneeds and rates are higher as the consumptionincreases. The Municipality identified cost-recoveryschemes such as recycling, selling treatedwastewater for use in flushing toilets or forgardening. The financial results are promising.

A Cooperative was established with the Liloanmarket vendors and provided training to them inthe operation and maintenance (O&M) of the WTF,and handed over the management of the facility tothem. They were also encouraged to operate thecommunal toilets at the public market. Measureswere taken to build consensus among localofficials, residents and other stakeholders as theywere immensely involved in the project. Feasibilitystudies were carried out and right technical expertsidentified as specialists and facilitators throughoutthe entire process.


The results were exemplary. User charges for theWTF, the public toilets and other cost-recoverymechanisms generated revenue more than enoughto cover the O&M costs of the WTF, and aconsiderable amount was saved by theCooperative. The community was enthusiasticabout the WTF project. Just a few months after itsoperation, the coastal waters have become clearerand contamination has completely receded.


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Value of awareness and understanding:

On the political side, it is important to convince thelocal council about the validity of the projectstrategy. The people, too, should understand howsanitation improves their health, livelihood, andoverall quality of life; and, thereby, can rely ontheir cooperation during project implementation.

Decentralised WTF work wonders:

It is important to conduct clean-up drives as well asto prompt the industries, subdivisions, and the

commercial establishments to have their ownsanitation facilities if they are located too far awayfrom the decentralised WTF.

Keep ends to sustain the means:

It is necessary to keep WTF in full operation and itsworking order with perfect cost-recovery.

The success of the project drew attention of severalcommunity representatives from neighbouringtowns. This local action which is cost-effective andsustainable can be replicated in other towns undersimilar circumstances.

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Prior to its independence in 1965, Singapore was water-dependent on Malaysia. Singapore�s heavy investmentsin the water sector with innovative interventions, after it became an independent nation, have made thecountry self-sufficient. Singapore is no longer importing its water from Malaysia. The internationally acclaimedPublic Utilities Board, Singapore�s Water Authority, has been highly successful in combining frontline technologywith demand management. The NE Water, produced from the recycling of the used-water and supplied asdrinking water in bottles, has not only gained wide support and acceptance of the Singaporeans, but it hasalso kept the unaccounted-for water low. A desalination plant is capable of producing daily potable water at46 U.S. cents a litre to Singapore�s four million citizens. The Prime Minister of Singapore believes that theisland country�s initial water dependency on mainland Malaysia was a blessing in disguise that it helped toturn the �vulnerability into strength.�

SINGAPORE

Technology Turns Water Weakness into Strength

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Background

Singapore, the tiny island nation of 700 squarekilometres, imports nearly half of its dailyconsumption of 1.14 billion litres of water a dayfrom reservoirs and rivers in Malaysia�s JohorState, under agreements signed in 1961 and1962 when Singapore was still a part of the MalayFederation. Under the agreements, Singapore isallowed to draw 1,277 million litres daily fromrivers in Johor for a price of less than 1 cent per1,000 gallons (3,800 litres) until 2011. Two otheragreements signed during this period allowSingapore to use up to 461 acres of land in Johoras catchment areas for 99 years. All this water ispumped into Singapore through three hugepipelines across the two-kilometre causeway thatseparates the two countries.

After Singapore became an independent nation inAugust 1965, the island Republic felt vulnerableenough to register the agreements at the UnitedNations Charter Secretariat Office in June 1966.Acrimonious debates between the neighbours onthe renegotiation of these agreementscontinued � while Malaysians demanded forincreased prices for their water, Singaporeanswanted guaranteed access to the water for anindefinite period.

The country also lacks land area for more reservoirs.It has separate drainage and sewerage systems thatsafely drain water into existing local reservoirs incatchment areas that already cover half the island.


To achieve self-sufficiency in drinking water for thecitizens of Singapore by adopting appropriatemeasures to turn the weakness into strength.

Keeping in view the limitations and the weaknessthat persisted in respect of drinking water formillions of its population, Singapore madeinnovative interventions to promote drinking waterby recycling the used water and, thereby, keepingthe unaccounted-for water low, desalination of theseawater and efforts to use and manage waterwisely. Singapore�s Water Authority, viz. PublicUtilities Board, combined the front line technologywith demand management.

Process

The drinking water, called NE Water, was producedfrom recycling of the used water. The NE Waterhad been consistently distributed as bottled waterto the public for sampling, especially at majorpublic events. The NE Water became a popularbrand with people�s acceptance.

The desalination plant was designed and built by alocal water treatment company, Hyflux, andfeatures �reverse osmosis� technology in whichdissolved salts in seawater are extracted by forcingthe water through membranes with microscopicpores. The �Desal H2O�, produced by the plant,was a dynamic and vibrant part of Singapore�swater industry.


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Resources

Singapore has invested heavily on water facilitiesin making the country as self-sufficient as possible.US$ 119 million was invested for the desalinationplant which is capable of producing 114 millionlitres of potable water a day. The Government hasoutsourced 2.7 billion dollars worth of waterinfrastructure projects and another 900 hundredmillion dollars to improve the water services. Theexperience gained from these projects gaveSingapore companies a competitive edge in theglobal market.

Results Achieved

Singapore announced a breakthrough whenthe country�s water authority, the Public UtilitiesBoard (PUB), was able to collect all used water (in acountry which is 100 percent sewered) to produceNE Water � a popular brand of bottled drinkingwater. There are three plants producing 76 millionlitres of NE Water. The country rolled out itsfive millionth bottle, a testimony to the cleanlinesswith which the country�s drains are maintained

since they flow back into the reservoirs � the mainsource of drinking water. The NE Water has gainedthe wide support and acceptance of the citizens ofSingapore. The desalination plant produces daily114 million litres of potable water to serve 4millions of Singapore population at 46 US cents alitre. The water industry in Singapore is a dynamicand vibrant part of its economy.


Singapore showcased its expertise in watermanagement and purification technologies to 600delegates from different parts of the world, whereHyflux has already built five water recycling plants.Valuable praise came the Minister for Water andElectricity from the desert country of Saudi Arabia,who said that Singapore�s achievements lay incombining frontline technology with demandmanagement. The secret behindSingapore�s successful water policy included�keeping unaccounted-for water low, water pricingto reflect its scarcity value and encouragingeveryone, be it households, communities or theindustries, to use and manage water wisely.�

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Qatar, a country of 522,000 people located in the west coast of the Arabian Gulf, is the first country toimplement a comprehensive and integrated nationwide Geographic Information System (GIS) for improvedinfrastructure services and waste disposal mechanism.

QATAR

Geographic Information Systems for ImprovedInfrastructure Services

30

Background

Qatar is an independent country situated halfwayalong the west coast of the Arabian Gulf. Theterritory includes a peninsula covering an area ofapproximately 11,500 sq.km. and a number ofislands around it.

Qatar, which was a desert country with a smallpearl fishing industry, experienced rapid andunprecedented growth during the past threedecades after the discovery of oil. Several hundredkilometres of roads, drainage networks, telephonelines, power and water networks, etc. have beenbuilt accompanied by an explosion in new realestate developments. The Government agencies inthe country were unable to keep up-to-daterecords of this rapid and large-scale development.The lack of information together with inadequateinter-agency coordination led to inefficientmanagement of resources. Nineteen Governmentagencies involved in specialised tasks producedand maintained their own paper-based maps atdifferent scales to store and display informationrelevant to them. In the face of growing demandsand shrinking budgets, the Government could notafford such large-scale duplication efforts andwastage of resources.

The Environment Department of the State of Qataris endeavouring not just in keeping theenvironment clean and healthy but also for itssustainability. Amongst various environmentalissues that the Department is tackling andmonitoring, the management of waste disposalsites in the country is one of the prime concerns.More important still is the task of locating an idealsite for waste disposal. Selecting an ideal site forwaste disposal, particularly the hazardous waste, isa cumbersome task. Many factors � like thegeology and the structure of the bedrock,

groundwater regime, development andsettlements, agricultural farms and fields, fragilegeographical features etc., have to be taken intoconsideration.

Innovative Interventions and theProcess

The Government realised the need for aninnovative means of tapping and managing vastinformation resources that facilitate more efficientdecision-making required to sustain thedevelopments and to maintain the newly builtinfrastructure. This aspect, together with theconsideration that eighty percent of this vastinformation was geographically related, promptedthe Government to opt for implementation of afully integrated Geographic Information System(GIS) programme for the country. To realise thisaim, the National GIS Steering Committee and theCenter for GIS (CGIS) were established in the year1990 for this purpose.

The National GIS Steering Committee wasentrusted with authority as well as power toimplement GIS policies among Governmentagencies for fostering inter-agency coordinationand ensuring common national standards ondata/information, software and hardware. Theprimary tasks of the CGIS were the maintenance ofonline and up-to-date high resolution DigitalTopographic Database, training, support in GISimplementation and development of associatedstandards and applications.

The CGIS�s state-of-the-art high-resolution, onlineand up-to-date Digital Topographic Databaseprovides a common base map for all the GIS useragencies in Qatar through a high speed, fibreoptic network named GISNet. Through commondata standards and inter-agency coordination, it


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has been ensured that there is only one sourceagency for any given type of information, thuseliminating data redundancy.

Results Achieved

The benefits of GIS implementation have gone farbeyond the set goals and objectives. The GISprovided analytical and modelling capabilities tovarious agencies. To illustrate, the sewer modellingwhich required an outside consultant, is done in-house with the help of custom applications utilisingdigital elevation model. The citizens now reap therewards of having street names and numbers forthe first time in the country�s history, so thatemergency services can easily get to the rightlocation using Electronic Place Finder. The ability toview superimposed thematic layers at desktop hasgreatly enhanced physical and infrastructureplanning capability. The Master Plan for thecountry for the year 2020 has been completelyprepared using GIS, thus making it dynamic,flexible and easy to update, monitor andimplement. The transportation planning model thatpredicts the impact of land use changes on roadtraffic has a GIS interface, a unique feature, whichis probably one of its kind in the world.

The Environment Department has turned to GIS toconstruct a �Hydro-Geo Environmental Map�depicting and categorising the suitability of areasby taking into consideration the factors relating toenvironmental degradation and waste disposalsystems. Such a map is generated by taking into

account all the possible constraints, creatingthematic maps of these constraints and thensuperposing these thematic maps to evolverespective synoptic maps; and finally integrating allthe synoptic maps into the final Hydro-GeoEnvironmental Map. It shall be in best of thepractices to adopt this resultant map in decidingthe location and appropriate site selection forwaste disposal in the country.

With the online and up-to-date data from variousagencies through GISNet and with the help ofcustomised GIS applications developed by theCGIS, the right information at the right time isavailable for the decision makers at their finger tips.

These are but a few of numerous benefits thecountry has been enjoying with GISimplementation.


Qatar is the first country to implement acomprehensive and integrated nationwide GIS,internationally recognised as one of the finest GISimplementations in the world. Many agencies arepresently updating spatial features directly into thedigital database thus completely eliminating theneed for cumbersome paper map updating. UsingGIS tools, consistency and uniformity in policies,standards and regulations for the whole of Qatarhas been achieved. The Government saves moneyin delivering services like sewerage, electricity andwater through linked up-to-date databases.

SECTION IV

Community-managedInitiatives and Awareness

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Community-managed Initiatives and Awareness

The present reformative perspective advocates thatwater is a scarce resource and must be managedlocally as a socio-economic good. The presenttarget-based supply-driven approach pays littleattention to the realities. Implementation of aparticipatory and demand-driven approach isexpected to ensure the desired level of service tothe people and can recover the capital and O&Mcosts. Full recovery of these costs is expected togenerate a sense of ownership and ensure financialviability and sustainability.

Community Managed Water Supply and Sanitationinitiatives (CMWSS) play a vital role in facilitatingpro-poor water and sanitation governance.CMWSS enables a demand-responsive approachbased on community empowerment. This wouldensure community�s full participation in the project� in planning, design, implementation, control offinances and taking up total responsibility ofOperations and Maintenance (O&M). This Sectionpresents 12 such proven practices fromBangladesh, India, Iraq, Japan, Lao PDR, Nepal,Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines andUkraine.

Bangladesh: water was successfully supplied to theurban poor of the city of Dhaka with theinvolvement of the user groups in the planning andimplementation of the project. The user groupswere made responsible for managing the waterpoints and to secure payments of water bills, whichgenerated a sense of community ownership andthereby ensured sustainability.

India: the community-managed water supplyinitiative of UN-HABITAT supported by ADB in thecities of Indore, Gwalior and Jabalpur helped inproviding water connections to the slums ataffordable costs. In Orissa, Gram Vikas, an NGO,provided hundred per cent pro-poor water supplyand sanitation coverage to over 200 villages byadopting a social inclusion approach whichempowered the marginalised groups, especially thewomen. In Pune, Maharashtra, communityparticipation together with the changed role of thePune Municipal Corporation towards servicedelivery as a facilitator instead of a provider,resulted in providing community sanitation blocksto all the slums of the city.

Japan: the water utility management practicesadopted in Yokohama with customer awareness

resulted in access to city water for every citizen andalso contributed reduction in unaccounted-forwater.

Iraq: the community-based neighbourhoodrehabilitation programme augmented municipalwater supply, sewage network and otherinfrastructure through a participatory process.

Lao PDR: a community-based fast-track watersupply and sanitation project demonstrated theimpact of a �Community-Water Utility� partnershipin improving the water and sanitation services aswell as enhancing the community, utility and localauthorities capacities.

Nepal: the Samriddha Aawas, a first of its kindproject is a unique example of adoptingcommunity-based water resource management forpromoting the eco-friendly community with theprovisions of eco-friendly technologies forsustainable water supply, sanitation, waste andwastewater management.

Pakistan: the Orangi Pilot Project for small urbancentres in Karachi is unique in many ways. Thismodel acknowledged the faith in the abilty ofpeople to address their own problems.

Papua New Guinea: a pro-poor partnershipinitiative among the stakeholders raised awarenessamong the community and improved the water andsanitation services.

The Philippines: institutions that provide technicaland financial support for the effective managementof water supply and sanitation systems along withcommunity-managed approaches promote the safedrinking water supply to the southern province ofAgusan Del Sur.

Ukraine: campaigning and creating awarenessamong the people, especially the women,promoted effective water use and management aswell as facilitated in bringing changes in thenational water policy.

Community-managed Water Supply and Sanitationinitiatives, thus, improve the lives of the urban poorand the disadvantaged by connecting them to safedrinking water and sanitation services throughaffordable and appropriate means and ensureusers� comfort with the desired level of satisfaction.

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Water supply for the urban poor of Dhaka City, especially the slum dwellers, has been inadequate and verypoor. A pilot project was initiated by Dushtha Shasthya Kendra (DSK), an NGO in partnership with the DhakaWater Supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA) to establish two water points in select communities, in 1992and 1994. Community groups were organised to manage the water points and secure payments of water bills.The community was satisfied with the service and the DSK recovered its investment cost. The success wasattributed to organising the user groups involved in the planning and implementation of the project andresponsible for managing the water points. This generated a sense of community ownership and therebyensured sustainability.

DHAKA, BANGLADESH

Community Interventions Ensuring Sustainability

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Background

Water supply for the urban poor of Dhaka City,especially the slum dwellers, is problematic. Theobstacles are both institutional and technical. Atthe institutional level, the Dhaka Water Supplyand Sewerage Authority (DWASA), the agencythat provides water supply and sewerageservices in the city, only provides connections tolandowners. Slum dwellers are, therefore,automatically outside of the service coverage. Atthe technical level, Dhaka does not havecontinuous water supply. Households musttherefore construct storage tanks to store collectedwater when it is available (often at night). Slumdwellers cannot afford this infrastructure.

Process

As a pilot project, Dushtha Shasthya Kendra (DSK),a Non-governmental Organisation (NGO)approached DWASA for connections to the pipedwater system and served as guarantor for thesecurity deposit and regular payment of bills onbehalf of the community, for which DWASA hasagreed. The pilot project involved establishing twowater points in selected communities, the first in1992 and the second in 1994. Community groupswere organised to manage the water points andsecure payment of water bills.

Results Achieved

The second water point succeeded tremendously.The community was satisfied with the service.DWASA bills were paid regularly, and DSKrecovered its investment cost.

Sustainability

DSK attributes the success of the second waterpoint to the fact that the user groups wereorganised, oriented to assume the responsibility ofmanaging the water point, and involved in theplanning and implementation stages of the project.This generated a sense of community ownership,thereby ensuring sustainability.

Transferability

Encouraged by this success, several developmentinstitutions collaborated to further test theapproach and develop a replicable model ofsustainable water supply for the urban poor.Among these were UNDP-World Bank Water andSanitation Programme, WaterAid, UNICEF andthe Swiss Agency for Development Cooperation.The project has been replicated and,approximately, 150 water points have beenconstructed servicing 17,500 families covering110,000 people.

Section IVCommunity-managed Initiatives and Awareness

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Community-managed Pro-poorDemand-Responsive Initiatives

The Community-managed Water Supply Scheme (CMWSS) was initiated with a vision to demonstrate that it ispossible to quickly improve the lives of the urban poor and the disadvantaged by connecting them to safedrinking water. The end-users would not have to travel long distances or waste time in queuing for water. Thisinitiative had a pro-poor approach and the cost of construction of the system was met upfront from the revolvingfund especially created for the project implementation.

The project was taken up in the cities of Gwalior, Jabalpur and Indore of Madhya Pradesh targeting 1,200, 800and 1,200 households respectively. The projects were implemented in partnership with UN-HABITAT, theMunicipal Corporation (MC) and the community represented by Community Water and Sanitation Committee(CWASC) in Gwalior and Jabalpur, whereas it was implemented in Indore in partnership with UN-HABITAT,the District Urban Development Agency (DUDA) and CWASC.

The approach waived the upfront payment of connection charges and instead facilitated easy installments.The schemes were commissioned in all the three cities. The community�s financial management improvedremarkably through the capacity building. The initiative also enhanced the capacity of the MC, the localcommunity and other stakeholders to take up the projects on community participation. This project has provenprospects for managing sustainable drinking water supply at affordable costs.

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Situation before the initiative began

With rapid urban development, the gap betweendemand and supply of water in urban areas iswidening, imposing stress on the basicinfrastructure facilities of the local bodies, whichoften fails to address the growing demand. Thepoverty pockets in the cities usually do not havesustainable water supply, and augmentation ofwater supply for the poor usually do not figure inthe priority list of the urban civic bodies.

The notified slum of Ramaji Ka Pura, Islampuraand Subhash Nagar are situated in a hilly terrainof Ward No. 1 of Gwalior city having 6,000households almost totally below the poverty line.Water was supplied by MC through direct pumpingwith the time schedule for supply to this areaduring the night between 2 am to 4 am. These oddhours of water supply kept the people awakealmost the whole night round. Besides this, around1,500 households located at relatively higherreaches of the hilly terrain did not get water at all.They, therefore, purchased water from thehouseholds located in the lower reachesapproximately @ Rs. 100/- per month.

The notified slum of Bagra Dafai, located inGuarighat Ward of Municipal Corporation of

Jabalpur, is having more than 1,200 householdsalmost totally below the poverty line. The locality isbeing supplied water free from three tube wells ofthe municipal corporation which are supplyingwater to public stand posts. There is no pipedwater supply system in this locality. People queueup for substantial period in the morning, when thetube wells are operated, fill up water in buckets fortheir houses. On account of disputes regardingwater allocation amongst the residents, around 30to 40 First Information Reports (FIRs) have beenfiled in the police station in the past. The electricitybilling for each tube well is approximately Rs.25,000 per month (US$ 556) which is borne bythe Municipal Corporation of Jabalpur (MCJ). Tomake matters worse the underground water supplyin the area is having excessive fluoride and doesnot conform to the standards for safe drinkingwater. The households are, however, drinking thiswater due to lack of any other alternative source.

The notified slum of Shiv Nagar, Shahin Nagar,Pawan Putra Nagar, Kamal Nagar and ChowdharyPark Colony are situated in Ward No. 64 of Indorecity having 1,200 households almost below povertyline. Presently, there are no dug wells orhandpumps available in the locality and thehouseholds are dependent on private tube wellowners for their water requirements. The poor also

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fetch water from nearby Lakhani factory, which islocated at a distance of 3 kms from the colony.During summer, people get water from the tankersof Indore Municipal Corporation and in othermonths they buy it from private tube wells.


The objective was to initiate a demand-responsiveapproach, full ownership of the assets by thecommunity, responsibility of O&M and loanrecovery from the community.

The scheme was undertaken in the participatorymode involving the MC/ DUDA and thecommunity. The community was converted into alegal entity to carry out the responsibilities ofplanning, design, implementation, operation,maintenance and management of the CMWSS.The MC/DUDA entered into a MoU with CWASCfor institutionalisation of arrangements.

The priority of CMWSS was to provide waterquickly to improve the lives of the urban poor andthe disadvantaged by connecting them to safedrinking water. It is expected that the users do nothave to travel long distances or waste time in

queuing up for water. The consumers will also beassured of continuous service or, if not continuous,on a regular basis (same time everyday) andprovided with enough water to cover their dailyneeds, which would facilitate properhousekeeping. Providing water to those living onupper reaches of the hilly area was the immediatetask.


A Revolving Water Fund (RWF) has been createdwith the fund provided by UN-HABITAT under theWater for Asian Cities programme to facilitateimplementation of this initiative. The RevolvingFund is being managed by the MCs /DUDA. Thecommunity was provided a loan equal to thecapital cost of the scheme from the fund to meetthe infrastructure development cost, which is beingpaid back by the community to the MC/ DUDA ininstallments.

The poverty pockets were selected after series ofstakeholder consultation. The body of CWASC hasadequate representation of women. The planningand design of scheme was done based onaffordability and technical feasibility by the CWASC.


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Process

In Gwalior, the scheme involved supply of treatedwater through construction of a ground level sump,pumping water from the sump to a ground levelreservoir constructed at higher level in the areaand supplying water to the consumers throughgravity by a network of pipelines.

In Jabalpur, the water is being supplied from anoverhead of the existing water supply scheme ofMCJ. Under this project, only the distribution linehas been laid. In Indore, this project involvedconstruction of the elevated reservoir and laying ofpipeline.

The training activities on record-keeping,procurement & contracting procedures, and O&Mwere conducted for the CWASC.

Results Achieved

Addressing all the concerns and unheard voices byconsultative process with community proved aneffective tool for participation of community. TheCWASC could work as a participatory institutionaldevice for target-oriented association of community.

The implementation of scheme in the participatorymode is proving that, even the poor in thecommunity are willing to pay for the basic service.Another outcome is the demonstration of workablepartnership among local government andcommunity, setting the ground for scaling up/ensuring provision of other civic facilities. Suchpartnerships are capable of recognising andaddressing local opportunities and constraints.

The involvement of community in O&M of thescheme will relieve the human resources of MC ofthis work and they will be available for otherworks. The participatory decision making in theCWASC could resolve the conflicting views andsynergise the opinions in forming a commonapproach in addressing the common problems.

With the implementation of CMWSS, the healthconditions of people including women andchildren, are improving as they started gettingquality water. The initiative in the process of projectimplementation was able to establish bettercoordination and integration between communitymembers, CWASC, and MC/DUDA. In a way, the

initiative improved the capacity of MC/DUDA intaking up community-based projects. It hasbrought visible changes in people�s attitudes,behavior and in the respective roles of women andmen in meeting their water needs.

Sustainability

As it is evident, the poor are unable to get thepiped water supply in their homes on account ofhigh connection charges which have to be paid atthe start to the MC. Under CMWSS, a pro-poorapproach has been adopted for the residents ofslums for ensuring economic sustainability of thescheme. After extensive consultation with thecommunity, it has been agreed in Gwalior thateach member of the community would pay theconnection charges at easy installments of Rs. 100per month for seven and a half months. Usercharges of Rs. 80 per month would be charged asper the normal prevailing rate in the municipalarea. In Jabalpur, the connection charges and usercharges are being paid in the form of lump sumpayment of Rs. 100 per month (for 36 months)and monthly user charges afterwards as per MCsprevailing rates. In Indore, the connection chargeswill be paid in 5 installments of Rs. 200 each. Usercharges of Rs. 60 per month will be paid inaddition to the monthly connection charges.

The residents will also have the flexibility of weeklyor fortnightly payments. Fixed installments havebeen proposed as it does not appear to bepractically feasible to meter the consumption ofeach household in this below poverty line area.The entire capital investment would be recoveredin 32 months in Gwalior, 46 months in Indore and36 months in Jabalpur for executing a similarpiped water supply scheme.

On completion of the payback period, the CWASCmay resolve to hand over the scheme to the MCfor operation and maintenance leading to ultimateintegration with Municipal supply with the residentsonly paying MC for the water charges as per theprevailing rate. The initiative was successful inleveraging of resources from community includingcost recovery through pro-poor user charges andpay back of loans taken up from revolving fund tomeet cost of capital works upfront. It is sustainableas the men and women are equally involved anddue consideration was given to community�sattitudes, behaviour patterns and heritage.

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Lessons Learned

The CMWSS approach established that if thecommunities are empowered with informedchoices and mobilised substantially, they canexecute and manage drinking water supplyscheme as per their needs and affordability. Aremarkable improvement in community�s financialmanagement can be achieved through theircapacity building with the result that the CWASCopened bank account and carried out all thetransaction relating to project execution andoperation and maintenance. The participation ofwomen is crucial for the success of CMWSS, sincewomen are the main collectors and users of water,as well as the main sufferers if the system does notfunction. The implementation of the initiativeenhanced the capacity of the MC, local communityand other stakeholders on taking up the projectsbased on community participation.

Transferability

The Government of Madhya Pradesh (GoMP)issued guidelines for the implementation ofCMWSS in Urban Areas in partnership withcommunity, CBOs and ULBs. Since Community-managed Water Supply Scheme is a processproject designed to enable the community to haveaccess to acceptable, adaptable, sustainable andaffordable safe drinking water system, the reformprocess does not end with the physical completionof water supply schemes. In several ways, it marksthe beginning of a new and more challengingphase in the process where the local communityhas to shoulder the responsibility of operation andmaintenance of the system. This entails putting intooperation the decisions taken by the communitywith regard to tariff structure, collection of monthlywater charges from the users, ensuring propermaintenance of the system so as to ensure reliable

and regular supply of safe drinking water. Towardsthis end, the community will have to arrange forperiodic quality checks of water being supplied aswell as ensure sustainability of sources. All theseactivities would require high degree of communitymobilisation and awareness. The local actionthrough CMWSS has proven prospects formanaging sustainable drinking water supply ataffordable costs through empowerment of thecommunities and their capacity building, whichcan be replicable and adoptable in the other citiesand towns.


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Box 4.1: Orangi Pilot Project for Small Urban Centres, Karachi, Pakistan

The Orangi Pilot Project (OPP) model is unique in many ways. The model acknowledges thecommunity�s ability to help itself. The main feature of the model is its simplicity, based primarily onthe notion that people and/or the community have been dealing with problems from timeimmemorial and they always come up with solutions. The spirit of OPP is that people can and dohelp themselves and it endorses the faith in the ability of people to address their own problems.

Orangi is a low-income settlement extending over 10,000 acres (or 4,160 hectares) with some 1.2million inhabitants. The informal settlement began in 1965, and now most of the 113 settlementswithin Orangi have been accepted by the Government, and land titles have been granted. Mostinhabitants built their own houses and none received official help in doing so. There was no publicprovision for sanitation as the settlement developed; most people used bucket latrines, which wereemptied every few days, usually onto the unpaved lanes running between the houses. More affluenthouseholds constructed toilets connected to soakpits, but these soakpits filled up after a few years.Some households living near creeks constructed sewerage lines which emptied into the creeks. Theeffort of getting local government agencies to lay sewerage lines in Orangi was too much for localresidents, who felt that these should be provided free. Believing that Government should provide,they had little incentive to improve their situation.

Project Initiatives

A local organisation called the Orangi Pilot Project (OPP), established in 1980 by Dr AkhtarHameed Khan, was sure that if local residents were fully involved, a cheaper, more appropriatesanitation system could be installed. Research undertaken by OPP staff showed that the inhabitantswere aware of the consequences of poor sanitation for their health and their property, but theycould not afford conventional systems, and they did not have the technical or organisational skillsto use alternative options. OPP organised meetings in lanes that comprised 20-25 adjacenthouses, explained the benefits of improved sanitation and offered technical assistance. Whereagreement was reached among the households in a lane, they elected their own leader whoformally applied for technical help. Their site was surveyed, plans drawn up and cost estimatesprepared. Local leaders kept their groups informed and collected money to pay for the work. Thelaying of sewers then proceeded, and the maintenance was also organised by local groups. OPP�sresearch concentrated whether the cost of sanitary latrines and sewerage lines could be lowered tothe point at which poor households could afford to pay for them. Simplified designs andstandardised steel moulds reduced the cost of sanitary latrines and manholes to less than one-quarter of the contractors� rates. The cost of the sewerage line was also greatly reduced byeliminating the profits of the contractor. The average cost of the small-bore sewer system is nomore than US$30 per house.

Process

Technological and financial innovations were the easy part. The difficult part was convincingresidents that they could and should invest in their own infrastructure, and changing the nature oflocal organisations so that they responded to these needs. OPP staff had to wait for six monthsbefore the inhabitants of one lane were prepared to organise themselves to develop their ownsewerage system. Gradually, the residents of other lanes, after seeing the results achieved, alsosought OPP�s assistance. There were problems in some lanes, and money sometimes went missingor proved to be insufficient. In general, OPP staff stood back from these issues (once they hadpersuaded the first communities to begin). Once a lane had ensured that the finance wasavailable, they would provide technical assistance only. The first challenge was one that thecommunities had to realise by themselves.

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Results Achieved

The scope of the sewer construction programmegrew as more local groups approached OPP fortechnical assistance and the local authoritiesbegan to develop the mains into which the sewerscould be integrated. The concept of component-sharing between people and governmentevolved. The inhabitants could finance, manageand maintain the construction of latrines, lanesewers and small secondary sewers (known asinternal development), and the government couldtake responsibility for financing, managing andmaintaining the large secondary sewers, trunksewers and treatment plants. As a result, nearly6000 lanes have developed their own sewer systems linked to sanitary pour-flush latrines servingover 90,000 housing units, using their own funds (the equivalent of around US$1.4 million) andunder their own management. One indication of the appropriateness of the model developed byOPP is the fact that many lanes have organised and undertaken lane sewerage investmentsindependent of OPP; another is the households� willingness to make the investments needed inmaintenance. The main reason why low-income households could afford this is that the work costone-sixth of what it would have cost if it had been undertaken by the State. Women were veryactive in local groups; many were elected group leaders and it was often women who found thefunds to pay for the sewers out of household budgets.

Lessons Learned

OPP understood the need to simultaneously improve technical, financial and organisationaloptions. At the beginning, it was established to provide a pilot scheme for the Government. Itsexperience taught it that the Government generally had little interest in what it was trying to do. Butas local residents became more interested and involved, so too did their elected representatives,who now found that they were dealing with people who had a good understanding of infrastructureinvestments. There are now many project-level agreements between OPP, local communities andState agencies. In all of these settlements, the State is doing much more than it was before,although it is working within a model of sanitation that has reduced its responsibilities.

Transferability

The programme is being replicated in eight cities in Pakistan by local NGOs, CBOs and localgovernments, and in 49 other settlements in Karachi by local governments and the governmentagencies responsible for upgrading the informal settlements, the Sindh Katchi Abadi Authority.

Source: Hasan. Arif (l997), Working with Government: The Story of OPP�s Collaboration with StateAgencies for Replicating its Low Cost Sanitation Programme. City Press. Karachi, 269 pages;Orangi Pilot Project-Research and Training Institute (2002), Katchi Abadis of Karachi:Documentation of Sewerage, Water Supply Lines, Clinics. Schools and Thallas, Volume of The FirstHundred Katchi Abadis Surveyed. Orangi pilot project, Karachi, 507 pages.


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Gram Vikas, an NGO working with the rural poor provided 100 per cent water supply and sanitation coverageto 211 villages in the State of Orissa. A family-oriented approach and a socialised community fund-raising arethe organisation�s hallmark strategies for encouraging total village participation. Gram Vikas� Rural Healthand Environment Program (RHEP), an integrated rural development intervention, has helped over 200 villagesto acquire good quality toilets and bathrooms, coupled with at least 3 taps per household and 24 hour watersupply. Providing water and sanitation is RHEP�s core rallying element that brings communities together, andserves as a springboard for collective action in Gram Vikas� other programmes.

Gram Vikas� interventions in Orissa are directed at energising the villages, and are driven by the involvementof the entire community in planning, implementation and monitoring. The uniqueness of Gram Vikas is theadoption of the social inclusion approach wherein all families, irrespective of their economic, social and casteconsiderations, build the same type of toilet and bathrooms.

Gram Vikas�s integrated approach culminates in a process of empowering marginalised groups, especiallywomen who are traditionally excluded from meaningful participation and decision making.

ORISSA, INDIA

Social Inclusion and Empowering the Marginalised:The Gram Vikas Way

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Process and Resources

An initial subsidy of Rs. 3000 for toilet constructionwas granted per household in the community throughits own funds sourced from its pool of donors,including the Government. This was considered as asocial cost and was spent for materials like cement,steel, pan, and doors. The villages co-financedprojects through a �corpus fund� in amounts ofRs.1,000 which the community must raise. Thefamily�s contribution to the corpus fund wasdetermined by their economic capacity, with the poorgiving lesser contributions. Income from piscicultureand vegetable farming was used for operation andmaintenance expenses. If the income was not enough,the villagers contributed another 0.5% or 1% of thegross product at harvest time. These contributionswere also socialised. The maintenance ofinfrastructure was the responsibility of the villagers.Local youth were trained to undertake minor repairsand maintenance of the pumps, motors and pipelines.

Results Achieved

Gram Vikas has helped in acquiring good qualitytoilets and bathrooms to over 200 villages coupledwith at least 3 taps per household and 24-hourwater supply, besides putting up 64 common unitsin schools and community halls.

Sustainability

Over the years, Gram Vikas has pioneeredmechanisms that ensure building sustainability in

water and sanitation. The corpus fund is put into aninterest-earning deposit and the interest is used foroperations and management as well as forextending support to new families in the village forbuilding toilets and bathrooms with piped watersupply. Through the villages� corpus funds, GramVikas is able to leverage for additional resources. Ithas successfully leveraged for Government fundsfor rural water supply or from local areadevelopment funds from Members of the Parliamentand members of the Legislative Assembly. Inaddition, the corpus fund has also been used ascollateral to source more funds from financinginstitutions.

Transferability

Gram Vikas�s integrated approach not onlyprovided piped water supply, toilets and bathroomsbut also culminated in a process of empoweringmarginalised groups, especially women who aretraditionally excluded from meaningful participationand decision-making. The organisation is hopefulthat by 2010, they would serve 120,000 families in1,000 villages. Networking with like-minded civilsociety groups operating in Orissa is a primaryconsideration to replicate Gram Vikas� water andsanitation projects in other parts of India �especially in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, MadhyaPradesh and Andhra Pradesh � in partnership withother NGOs who have expressed interest inthe approach.

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PUNE, INDIA

Community-Municipal Partnerships forImproved Sanitation

The main thrust of the local action was to provide community sanitation blocks for all the slums in Pune by thePune Municipal Corporation (PMC) in the State of Maharashtra. The uniqueness of this initiative was communityparticipation. The significant feature was the changed role of PMC in relation to the service delivery � Insteadof being a provider, the PMC became a facilitator. Though the communities had never been involved in thepast, NGOs and CBOs came to the fore front and took a proactive role in the design, construction andmaintenance. Around 500,000 slum dwellers were benefited from this initiative. The Pune experiment wasrecognised as a Model by the State Government. The Government of India launched the National Programmefor Universal Sanitation, based on the Pune experience.

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Introduction

The construction of community toilet blocks inslums had been undertaken by the Pune MunicipalCorporation (PMC) for more than 30 years.Considering the magnitude of the problem, thenumber of blocks built was miniscule. There werearound 2,500 toilet blocks in slum areas in the cityof Pune, Maharashtra State, mostly built 25-30years ago. The costs were very high due toinvolvement of contractors. In the absence ofcommunity involvement at any stage, existing toiletblocks fell into disuse, became dilapidated andmunicipal conservancy staff could not maintainthem. As a result, people had to, perforce, sufferthe indignity of defecating in open areas. Theincidence of diseases like diarrhoea were highlyprevalent in the slum areas which are polluted,leading to the spread of diseases and the threat ofepidemics.

For the first time in 1999, the MunicipalCommissioner of PMC took a stand to tackle theissues frontally by taking up the sanitationprogramme at the city level scale and managed toreach the benefits to 500,000 people out of theslum population of 600,000.


The main objective of the initiative of PuneMunicipal Corporation was to provide communitysanitation blocks for all slums in the city throughNGOs and people�s participation. NGOs wereentrusted with the design, construction andmaintenance of the blocks and a partnership was

established with the Corporation. The capital costsof construction and the provision of water andelectricity were the responsibility of theCorporation, while the NGOs/CBOs were toprepare the design, construct the toilets andmaintain them by collecting monthly familycontributions.


The annual budget of the Municipal Corporationgets approved by the House. For this initiative, theentire project cost was made in the budgetaryprovisions of the Corporation. In two-year period,the money spent on toilet blocks was more thanthe amount altogether spent in the previous 20 or25 years. The programme was kept on highpriority and all the technical and human resourcesavailable with the Corporation were pressed intoservice. NGOs contracted qualified engineers andarchitects who were to dialogue with localcommunities while finalising the design. Whereverthere were strong community-based organisations,construction was taken up by them as well as themaintenance.

Process and Project Management

Bids were invited only from Non-governmentalorganisations (NGOs) so that communityparticipation in construction, design andmaintenance would be ensured. The costs werebrought down significantly by laying the conditionthat NGOs would not bid higher than theestimated cost. This was done in view of the non-profit approach of NGOs as compared to the


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contractors. Personal review by the Commissioneron weekly basis strengthened the implementationof the programme and energised all the PMC staffin removing the obstacles.

Demand assessment was the key factor indetermining the requirements. A survey of all slumsin the city by the PMC staff was carried out bycategorising the slums � Category �A� referred tothose areas where there were no toilet blocks andpeople had no choice but open squatting;Category �B� covered those existing blocks whichwere in unusable and dilapidated condition andrequired either major repair or demolition andreconstruction, and category �C� covered areaswhere there were functioning toilet blocks but theywere inadequate in relation to the user population.67 slums in the �A� category were given top priorityand 452 slums in the �B� category second priority.

What was unique about the initiative was its stressupon Community Participation. The PMC�s normalpractice was to float tenders, invite bids fromcontractors and get the blocks constructed bythem. The conservancy staff of the Corporationwas expected to maintain them, at no stage doesthe community get involved and the blocks becomeunusable very soon.

The Project had undergone various problems andhindrances. One of the problems faced was thatthe Corporation staff were not used to dealing withNGOs/CBOs because their experience had alwaysbeen limited to dealing with contractors. Byholding weekly review meetings, the concept andunderstanding of NGO/CBO partnership wasaugmented. Another problem was that initiallysome of the elected Municipal Councillors opposedthe initiative, at least partly, because they felt thatthey had lost control and patronage. However, asthe toilet blocks started coming up in some areas,these Councillors were pressurised by their ownconstituents to get the programme implementedand soon visualised its value. The third problemwas the low level of technical skills in theCommunity to design and construct the blocks.Where there were committed NGOs, Communities� particularly women � were encouraged tointeract with qualified engineers and architects andbring in their inputs into the process. Progressively,these slum women became familiar with RCCdrawings and other technicalities as theirexperience and knowledge was progressing.

The operation and maintenance was the mainproblem. At some locations, there were notenough users to cover costs through contributionsbut at others, income from user charges exceededthe costs.

The significant feature of this initiative was thechanged role of the Corporation in relation toService Delivery. Instead of being a Provider, itbecame a Facilitator. Though communities hadnever been involved in the past, NGOs and CBOscame to the forefront with a proactive role in thedesign, construction and maintenance.

Results Achieved

The results achieved were impressive. 418 toiletblocks with 6,958 toilet seats were constructed forPune slums through people�s participation. Peoplein most areas do not have to suffer the indignity ofopen defecation. Children�s toilets have also beenprovided at many locations. Health and hygienewere better with this environmentally soundapproach of waste disposal. It is the poor slumdwellers who were primarily benefited. Theprovision of a caretaker�s room is an incentive toany family to look the after cleanliness. 500,000slum population of the city were benefited underthis initiative.


The Corporation became familiar with NGOs andCBOs and the latter had learnt how to deal withthe officialdom. This newly formed confidence ofthe communities extended to other areas of theState. The Pune experiment was recognised as amodel by the State Government and otherCorporations were encouraged to follow it. Visitorsfrom other cities also tried to incorporate the mainprinciples into their programmes. The Governmentof India launched a National SanitationProgramme (Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan) for UniversalSanitation on the basis of the Pune model andoffered State Governments/Local Bodies 50%subsidy on cost of construction. The new attentionto urban sanitation meant a greater focus on theneeds of the poor. The National Programmelaunch meant greater resources being pumpedinto the sector and, in turn, resulted in betterphysical coverage in slums and impact onpeople�s health.

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In this initiative, the Municipal Corporation ofPune funded the entire sanitation programmethrough its budgetary resources. Themaintenance of toilet blocks was rested with thecommunity. During the course of time, theCorporation is saving money on the conservancystaff appointed and the user fees to fund for themaintenance.

Some of the NGOs gave pride of place to slumwomen in the implementation of the programme.These women were in a position to take up otherconstruction programmes, visit government officesto negotiate their entitlements and were treatedwith greater respect in the family and thecommunity. The construction of toilet blocks inslums contributed to preserving the modesty ofwomen and preventing sexual abuse.

The environmental impact of this initiative issalutary � open defecation was a thing of the pastin the areas where these blocks were constructedand the spread of disease contained.

As the work in Pune proceeded, it attracted anumber of visitors from Governments in India,NGOs and Community Representatives from othercities. Several international visitors from UNagencies, Municipal Councils and NGOs visitedPune, studied the experiment and interacted withmunicipal officials and slum dwellers in Pune. They

carried back this experience with them to theirorganisations, cities and countries. When themunicipal Councillors of Mumbai were reluctant toapprove a similar programme in their city, a visit toPune convinced them of the value of the effort andthey gave the green signal. When the Slums BoardSecretary of Bangalore visited, a decision wastaken to implement the programme on the samelines in that city. A toilet model was put up in theUN building in New York in 2001 to informinternational delegates about the potential of thisinitiative.

Lessons Learned

The most important lesson that emerged from thisinitiative was the importance of partnershipbetween State Functionaries, NGOs, CBOs and theCommunity. Experience revealed that theadministrative machinery of the State cannot byitself reach the poor while NGOs and CBOscannot go to scale without partnering with theState. The initiative brought out the synergyachieved when the roles and relationships betweenthese entities underwent change and the Statelimited itself to being an Enabler and Facilitatorwhile the communities acquired a proactive role inthe provision and maintenance of suchinfrastructure. The lessons learned moved fromPune to Mumbai to Bangalore and to the all-Indialevel through the National Sanitation Programme.


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YOKOHAMA, JAPAN

Water Utility Management by Customer Awareness

Water is a precious resource in Yokohama, Japan, as elsewhere in the world. Reducing unaccounted-for water(UFW) remained an important challenge for the Yokohama Waterworks Bureau (YWW). This Local Action isabout the water utility management practices in Japan and in particular, some of the practices followed byYWW with customer awareness for the conservation of water and reduction of UFW. The measures adoptedresulted in 100 per cent access to the city water by the Yokohama population.

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Background

Yokohama Waterworks Bureau (YWW) is the firstorganisation of its kind in Japan, commencedoperations in 1887, and since then has beenpracticing appropriate systems to cope up with thewater demand on priority.

Water Utility Management

Water utility management can be considered in 3components � management of quantity, quality andeconomic aspects of supply. The operations ofYokohama Water Works Bureau (YWW) arestructured around these broad components.However, there is a need to raise customerawareness on minimising water leakages andensuring their participation in the process of waterconservation. Set out below are three of the ways inwhich water conservation and reduction ofunaccounted-for water (UFW) is accomplished byYWW.

a) Role of Water Metre Readers (WMRs)

The role of WMRs is summarised in the followingseven functions:

� Proper reading of meters: This includes not onlychecking correctly the consumption volumes ofcustomers accurately but also examining eachtime whether the meter itself is working well. Theservice areas for each WMR comprise of twozones � an odd month zone and an even monthzone. An average of 2,900 metres is read eachmonth by a WMR;

� Transmitting data to and from the computer centre:Before visiting customers, the WMRs receive astatement setting out customer data such asprevious consumption records and other relatedinformation. After reading the meters, WMRsupdate the records and transmit the same to thecentralised computer centre;

� Examination of metre reading records: Bycomparing with previous records and taking into

account other factors such as seasonal variations,a reality check of the WMRs� work is undertaken;

� Data updating: Based on the visits of WMRs,records are updated to provide the latestinformation on customers (eg., names ofcustomers who have newly moved in, etc);

� Estimation of consumption volumes: While keepingmeters in good working order is the responsibilityof customers (hence, the costs of leakage are alsoborne by them), in practice, whenever the meter isfaulty, the WMR would need to make estimates ofthe consumption;

� Handling customer complaints: Since WMRs areYWW�s points of contact with customers, theyhave an important public relation role to play �listening/communicating to customers andproviding feedback to the water utility; and

� Communicating important messages: Messagesfrom the Urban Local Government (ULG) arecommunicated six times a year, printed on thereverse side of the consumption slip. Since YWWis the only service managed by the ULG, it is animportant point of contact with citizens.

b) Dealing with customer claims

When current consumption volume shows a sharpincrease over the previous records, the WMR wouldneed to consider the following:

i. Whether the customer has fulfilled his/her duty toreport or get the leakage (where applicable) fixedat the earliest possible instance;

ii. Whether the leakage is easy to detect; andiii. Quantum of leakage.

A 6-point scale (with 2 points for each of theaforesaid categories) is used to compute the charge(penalty) to be borne by the customer for the leakage.The same is illustrated by the following example:

Step 1: Determination of leakage volume

A. Current consumption volume (as indicated by thewater meter): 100

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B. Previous consumption volume (indicated inprevious record): 7

C. Assumed leakage volume (A-B): 30

Step 2: Award of points to customer

D. Whether customer performed duty in time or not(Not performed=0): 2

E. Whether leakage was easy to detect(most difficult=2): 1

F. Assumed leakage volume (Less than double): 0G. Total customer points (D+E+F): 3

Step 3 : Leakage volume to be charged to customer

H. H = C/G = 30/3 = 10

Step 4 : Consumption volume to be charged tocustomer

I. I = B+H = 70+10 = 80

Step 5 : Leakage volume loss to be borne by YWW

J. J = C-H = 30-10= 20

In FY 2002, there were 1,673 cases of customer claimsfor leakages which have been analysed as follows:

Easy to detect : 710 casesDifficult to detect : 963 casesDetected by WMRs : 80%Detected by customer : 20%

This clearly indicates a need for more proactivecustomer behaviour in leak detection and reporting.For this, YWW promotes customer awarenessprogrammes for conservation of water.

c) Raising awareness among customersand children

YWW conducts general �people awareness�campaigns, promotes study visits for school studentsand citizens to the water museum, purification plantsand a conservation forest, and organises summerclasses. A standard videotape presentation on thetheme has also been prepared. Some of these effortsare detailed below:

� Water museum: The water museum was openedin 1987 to commemorate the 100th anniversary ofYWW. Since then, over 430,000 people visited themuseum with school children accounting for 35%of the total. The museum is managed by theretired staff of YWW, well experienced in watersupply operations;

� The Kosuzume water purification plant plays hostto elementary school students in Yokohama.Between 1999 and 2003, over 12,000 students(from 173 schools) visited the plant;

� A conservation forest situated in Dohsi village,Yamanashi, which houses one of the watersources for Yokohama � the Dohsi river(originating from the foot of Mount Fuji) is the sitefor study tours every summer. Every year, around800 people participate in this tour; and

� Summer classes are organised for parents andchildren in a �Water Quality Examination�seminar. This includes experiments to check waterquality, through which children understand andappreciate the need for water conservation. This isconsidered as an effective long-term strategy topromote better citizenship.

Water Tariffs and Social/Welfare Policies

The ULG manages the water utility and does notprovide any funds from general revenues to YWW.YWW, therefore, operated on commercial principleswith its main revenues being water charges. Sincewater supply has a public health dimension,underprivileged customers can apply for governmentsupport/exemption from payment of water supplycharges and sewage fees. The categories exemptedinclude:

� handicapped persons : physical handicaps (Class1 and 2), mental handicaps (IQ lower than orequal to 35), multiple handicaps (Class 3 togetherwith IQ lower than or equal to 50) and elderlypersons � bedridden or those suffering fromsenile dementia; and

� households receiving welfare benefits/medical careassistance, including single parent households.

For such customers, YWW exempts the payment ofwater and sewerage charges and the charges aredirectly borne by the welfare bureau of the ULG.

International Cooperation

On the occasion of the centenary year of YWW, ascholarship programme was commenced by the cityof Yokohama, under which water experts from Asiancountries were invited to join the trainingprogrammes conducted in Yokohama.

Other Initiatives

YWW adopted commercial accounting systems, asused by the private companies, which enabledefficient operations of the water system. Anenvironmental policy including water conservationwas started under the initiative of the NationalGovernment.

Results Achieved

All the population of Yokohama have access tocity water.


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XIENG NGEUN, LUANG PRABANG, LAO PDR

Community-based Pro-poor Governance

A fast-track Community-based Water Supply and Sanitation project is being implemented under the MekongRegion Water and Sanitation (MEK-WATSAN) initiative in Xieng Ngeun, a secondary urban town in Lao PDR.This project aims to address the problems of water and sanitation of the rapidly expanding urban poor. Theproject is implemented by the Water Supply State Owned Enterprise of the Province of Luang Prabang incooperation with UN-HABITAT and demonstrates how a community can work together with a utility to provideimproved water and sanitation, and also in the process, enhance the capacity of the community, utility andlocal authorities.

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Introduction

The Government of Lao PDR has been facing thechallenges of relatively high unit capital costs andthe problems of the poor. With the exception of thecapital city, Vientiane, and other provincialcapitals, water supply and sanitation coverage insecondary and district towns remain a majorconcern for the Government of Lao PDR. Beforethe initiative, access to improved water supply andsanitation was at zero percent in Xieng Ngeun witha population of 6,500, the women and childrenbeing most affected.

The National Growth and Poverty EradicationStrategy (NGPES) has identified water supply andsanitation as one of the four high priority sectors tobe developed in order to meet the Government�seconomic growth and poverty eradicationobjectives. The two most fundamental criteria forselection priority were �Needs� (level of servicecoverage) and the incidence of �Poverty�. The townappraisals included stakeholder consultations andworkshops, as well as key informant interviews.


The main objectives of the initiative are to:

� Demonstrate how a community can work with awater supply entity to acquire safe water andadequate sanitation that meets its needs withina short time frame of around eighteen months;

� Demonstrate pro-poor water connectioncharges and tariffs;

� Improve community awareness of environmentalsanitation and enhance the capacity of watersupply entity and local artisans.

The provincial and district authorities of XiengNgeun worked together with the State-OwnedWater Supply Enterprise of Luang Prabang Provinceand the local community in order to address the

problem of water supply by jointly undertaking theconstruction of a piped water supply project usingthe spring located on the slope of the mountain,about 6 kilometres from Xieng Ngeun.


UN-HABITAT entered into a cooperationagreement in August 2005 with the water utility tocollaborate within the framework of the MEK-WATSAN initiative. UN-HABITAT provided US$250,000. The counterpart contribution from thelocal community of Xieng Ngeun and the Utilitywas US$ 200,000. Key actors in this process havebeen the community and the Lao Women�s Union.

Process

The Xieng Ngeun project was designed by theWater utility and validated by UN-HABITAT and itsconsultants. In terms of activities, the processincluded an initial rapid assessment to address anyethnic or gender issues, as well as assist in thedevelopment of a participatory framework.

In conjunction with surveys and designs, work planswere developed for all stakeholders, includingimplementation arrangements and procurementpackages. In parallel with the implementation ofthe facilities, pricing policies and structures weredeveloped and implemented. Revolving funds werepilot tested for water connections and latrines,billing and collection systems were established.Operation and maintenance systems wereimplemented. Community awareness programmeswere established. A simple system was evolved tomonitor the sustainability. In essence, a frameworkof sustainability was developed.Monthly progress reports were generated, as wellas a final report to be produced within 28 days ofcommissioning. Project performance monitoringand evaluation tool was used to monitor andevaluate the project outputs, outcomes and

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impacts. Several steering committees were formedto handle different activities, such as procurement,community activities, to name a few. Thesecommittees involved the members of the XiengNgeun community, as well as officials from theutility and the District Authority, with womenrepresentation. Problems faced during theimplementation process were amicably mitigatedwith local efforts.

Results Achieved

Xieng Ngeun is the first community-managed fast-track water and sanitation project in Lao PDR.Pricing policies developed supported the pro-poorconnection charges and tariffs. The introduction ofrevolving fund enabled the poor to gain access toboth water and improved sanitation facilities. Thecommunity awareness programmes covered allaspects of the project. Capacity building of thewater service entity was provided to sustain theproject investments, as well as training of localartisans in the construction of latrines. Apart fromproviding labour, the community was willing to bea active partner in all aspects of the project fromthe planning to the implementation phase.

Achievements of the Project

� From zero percent at the beginning of theproject, the coverage in water supply will bearound 80% and for sanitation 100% by theend of the project;

� 11 community standpipes for poor householdswere installed; and

� 20 schools and public infrastructures hadaccess to safe drinking water.

Sustainability

UN-HABITAT developed a guidebook, �Guidelines onRevolving Funds for Constructing Latrines and WaterConnections in Luang Prabang, Lao PDR�. Currentlythere are 239 households that have signed up for therevolving fund scheme. Funds have been transferredfrom the UN-HABITAT fund to the water service entityaccount, which, in turn, transferred to the Nam PapaXieng Ngeun Branch. Each household, interested intaking loan, will fill-in a request form to beguaranteed by the Chief of the Village concerned. Aloan contract between the household and Nam PapaXieng Ngeun Branch will be signed, with the loanceiling being 800,000 kips per household andrepayment period will be 18 months. The loan will bea combination of cash and materials in order toguarantee that the loan will be used for theconstruction of latrine and to reduce the cost ofmaterials when bigger quantities are procured.

Another aspect of the revolving fund is communitypreparation and mobilisation. The community wasoriented on the importance of sanitation and

hygiene as well as access to the revolving funds.Each family borrowing loan will receive hygieneeducation to ensure behaviour change and theproper use of hygienic latrines.

Since the project is using a Gravity-fed system, itbecomes economical to provide water while theoperation and maintenance costs are kept tominimum. The community has also taken up theresponsibility to cooperate on the operation andmaintenance activities with the water utility.

The project, in a nutshell, has endeavoured toensure that the set objectives are sustainablethrough active involvement of the community andpro-poor financing mechanism.

Lessons Learned

The project has been able to prove that it is possible:

� For the community, government authorities andwater supply entity to work together to providesafe water and improved sanitation to meet thecommunity�s needs, including the poorhouseholds and act as a driving force forchange and development and not as mereproject beneficiaries; and

� To have effective pro-poor connection chargesand tariffs, with appropriate tariff policy and pro-poor micro-financing tools like the revolving fund.

Transferability

UN-HABITAT, on request by the Government ofLao PDR, is undertaking a similar project inSayabouly town to cater to about 4,700 citizenslocated on the left bank of the Nam HoungRiver. It is in the formative stages and DistrictAuthority officials as well as the water utilityofficials from Sayabouly have already visited theXieng Ngeun project.


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KATHMANDU, NEPAL

Samriddha Aawas: Promoting Eco-community throughResource Management

Samriddha Aawas or Kirtipur Housing Development Project was initiated when the squatters along the VishnumatiRiver were evicted under Vishnumati Link Road project in 2001, for providing shelter to 44 displaced urbanpoor families with their participation, right from the project preparation, implementation and maintenance.The project was the first of its kind in Nepal. It provided environmentally sustainable and affordable housingto the urban poor by promoting an eco-friendly community with provisions of eco-friendly technologies forsustainable water supply, sanitation, waste and wastewater management. The project adopted the principlesof Community-based Water Resources Management (CWRM), involving the community with equal participationof women in the decision-making process. This project can be viewed as an acceptable local action to help thedisplaced communities who dwell in the informal settlements, for transforming into a sustainable eco-friendlycommunity as well as improving the environmental infrastructure of the city.

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Background

Over the years, Kathmandu has been experiencingrapid urbanisation and its infrastructure facilitiesare deteriorating due to the growth of slums andsquatters, which needed to be addressed. For thepast 50 years, migrant populations of variousethnic groups were living on the banks of theVishnumati River. The living conditions of thesepeople were dismal. They lived without basicsanitation. There was no sewage or drainagesystem. They did not have access to basicnecessities of life like shelter, clean water,sanitation facilities, etc. The women were the mostaffected with no privacy of using latrines. Therewas no provision of drinking water in thecommunity. The environment of the slum waspolluted affecting every individual across genderand age.


The main objective of this project was to improvethe living conditions of the urban poor byproviding basic services in a sustainable manner.Since its beginning, the strategy was to develop apro-poor implementation plan which aimed atproviding better quality of life to otherwisedisenfranchised community, by involving them inthe decision-making process from the beginning ofthe project. The policies and guidelines for thedesign of the project were prepared by Lumanti,an NGO.

The priority was to address the needs of thesepeople and to improve their living conditions. Sincethe communities were economically weak, thechallenge was to provide affordable andenvironmentally sustainable housing for 44displaced families with basic amenities.


Urban Community Support Fund (UCSF) is acollaborative effort between KathmanduMetropolitan City (KMC), Lumanti, and severalother national and international developmentagencies committed to the urban poor. The fundsupports community development initiatives for theurban poor settlements through low-interest loans.

The Kirtipur Housing Project is the first initiative toreceive funds from UCSF. Lumanti has played anactive role from the starting of the project, byencouraging an understanding between the donorsfor resource generation and mobilisation for thesuccessful completion of the project.

This project was also supported by organisationslike Department of Urban Development andBuilding Construction, Slum Dwellers International,UN-HABITAT�s Water for Asian Cities Programme,Action-Aid Nepal, WaterAid Nepal, Asian Coalitionfor Housing Rights and other urban partnerorganisations like Centre for Integrated UrbanDevelopment and NGO Forum for Urban Waterand Sanitation. Lumanti also supported as aSecretariat with a transparent working approach.

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Process

Lumanti developed policies, regulations andguidelines for this project with the help of differentorganisations working in the field of urbandevelopment. It involved the community peoplewhile designing and formulating the plan. Itcollected funds from the donors and mobilised it.

Through the entire planning process, the peoplehave demonstrated their capacity to develop viablesolutions. They prepared to fight for housing rightsand security of tenure by organising themselves,saving money, planning, developing managementskills and remaining committed to build better livesfor their families and communities.

The unstable political and security situation affectedthe communities� ability to generate income andprotest for their rights. They were required tobalance their long-term needs to secure housingwith short-term commitments to pay for livingexpenses and debts.

This housing project is designed to be an eco-friendly community by introducing eco-friendlytechnologies. One of the major challenges was tobring change in the attitude and behaviour of thepeople towards preserving the eco-community.

The community members were made to feelanchored at their housing site and were involved inthe setting up of the eco-friendly technologies. Theywere trained for the optimum usage andmaintenance of these technologies. For its smoothoperation, a maintenance fund was created. Eachhousehold contributes Rs. 10 (approx. US$ 0.15)per month in this fund.

A Housing Management committee was formed. Inorder to ensure that the eco-technologies are wellmaintained and operated, the responsibility wasplaced in the hands of this committee. They monitorthe project and also ensure that money is contributedto the maintenance fund. The community has giventhe responsibility to manage the fund to themanagement committee. In order to maintaintransparency, the committee shares the financialstatus of the maintenance fund every month.

Results Achieved

This project was successfully completed byproviding shelter to 250 people from the 44evicted families. Their living condition hasimproved significantly. People have access to

latrines with proper drainage system. There is anadequate supply of water in the community.Various awareness campaigns and trainingprogrammes have been conducted for thecommunity people on rainwater harvesting,environmental sanitation, waste and wastewatermanagement, water education and promotion ofhealth and hygiene. There is a sense of ownershipamong the people of the community and theirdreams to own a house has been fulfilled.

Sustainability

The houses are owned by the people of thecommunity at zero interest rate loans provided byUCSF. The loan can be repaid within 15 years. Thisproject has gained prominence in the society asaffordable, pro-poor, eco-friendly and cost-effective. The buildings are earthquake-resistant.There is hardly any water crisis in this eco-friendlycommunity as rainwater harvesting techniqueshave been used to ensure water supply facilities. Italso incorporated solid and liquid waste recycling,recovering and reusing techniques forenvironmental sustainability. Women equallyparticipated in the decision-making process. Theyrun a cooperative in the community which hasempowered them. The cooperative has providedfinancial help to the people of the community. Thecommunity people are engaged in various income-generating activities like selling vegetables, smallbusinesses and shops.

Lessons Learned

The lessons learned during the formulation andimplementation of this project include:

Community involvement

It is imperative for the success of such relocationprojects that the community members feelanchored at their housing site. The project is aboutrelocating the squatters as much as constructing aeco-friendly community. This is hard to achieve ifthe people feel that they have no power overdecisions concerning the community.

Communication and information dissemination

In a collaborative project such as the KirtipurHousing Project, it is very important that thecommunication between all the relatedstakeholders is sustained throughout the project.Transparency in communication and informationdistribution is crucial.


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Persistence is required to keep issues alive in thepublic eye. It was important to keep encouragingthe communities even when their situation seemedhopeless, and to continue raising the issues.

Multiple stakeholders and media should be used tobuild pressure � Lumanti supported the federationsto advocate directly for the communities and workedtogether with them to pressure the KMC for securedhousing. This community level participation addedlegitimacy to Lumanti�s arguments and gave a focuson the communities� concerns.

Transferability

Samriddha Aawas has successfully establisheditself as an eco-community. It has significantlycontributed in improving the living conditions ofthe poor in eco-friendly housing at an affordablecost. This project is an obvious example of howone can help the homeless without hampering theenvironment. This knowledge must be sharedbetween the organisations working in the field ofurban development nationally and internationally.

Box 4.2: Participatory Process for Neighbourhood Rehabilitation, Baghdad, Iraq

The Baghdad Neighbourhood Rehabilitation programme is a community-based initiative with thesupport of international and national NGOs. The programme was established to counter problemssuch as poor communication networks, poor sewage disposal, inadequate water supply (for bothpotable water and for irrigation), poor or non-existent garbage collection, lack of green areas and lackof playgrounds for children through the participatory process.

After more than 10 years of sanctions, local governments of Iraq have no longer been able to meet theshelter needs (housing, water supply, sanitation, solid waste collection, etc.) of their people. In addition,schools and buildings were in a deplorable state stemming from the aftermath of the Gulf War andeffects of the sanctions imposed on the country.

To put the concept of community participation into practice, pilot schemes of essential remedialmeasures have been undertaken with the support of NGOs and the inhabitants in four low-incomeneighbourhoods in Baghdad, which were affected with dilapidated living environment, infrastructureservices and, thereby, reducing the burden on the municipalities.

UNOHCI and UNDP supported the project with additional funds to promote this pilot concept and totrain the residents on self-management and local leadership, improve and maintain the quality ofservices provided to them with the help of the newly established service cooperatives.

In addition to institutionalising this concept within the municipalities, Information and Awareness sectionwas established at each municipality. The project also provided some elements as income-generatingtools for the coops, thus providing job opportunities for the residents of the target areas.

ECHO-Humanitarian Aid Office allocated further funds to the project for rehabilitation of water andsanitation services to:

� Serve the target neighbourhoods and adjacent areas,� Support and increase the capacity of the Baghdad Municipality,� Upgrade and improve the environmental conditions in which the people are living,� Address the immediate living conditions of the targeted communities, and� Reduce health hazards, partly with new supplies from the oil-for-food programme.

Through a participatory process, the municipality water supply, sewage network, roads, public buildingsand utilities have been repaired and restored. Household waste management has been improved. TheAl-Shu�lla region of the town is now green through drilling an artesian well to irrigate green areas whichwere once dumping grounds for solid waste.

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PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Software Enhances Hardware:Pro-poor Partnerships and Community Awareness

Papua New Guinea (PNG) is the poorest among the ADB�s developing member countries in the Pacific. ThisLocal Action is intended to be a model of pro-poor partnership building involving the provincial Government,urban authorities, community-based organisations, for improving water and sanitation services by raisingawareness and health education initiatives among community.

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Background

About 37% of Papua New Guinea (PNG)population lives below the poverty level of $350per year. Most of its 4.5 million inhabitants live asubsistence lifestyle in the rural areas withoutaccess to basic services like potable water oradequate sanitation.

In the towns, about 16% of the population is poor,urban water supply reaches only 43% of thepopulation, and sewerage only 20%. As in mostdeveloping countries, it is the poor who suffer the mostfrom the lack of safe water and good sanitation.

Although communities rank safe drinking water astheir number one priority, lack of water during thedry season is a very serious and universal problemin PNG. Those without safe water often resort topolluted supplies, thus exposing themselves to therisk of water-borne intestinal diseases likediarrhoea and typhoid fever. Sanitation is alsogenerally inadequate, and the sewerage systemsthat do exist mostly serve the developed sections oftown. Many residents have a low awareness ofgood sanitation and hygiene and its efforts onhealth. In many towns, inadequate sanitation is asource of major health hazard. For many poorcommunities living in the urban fringes, defecatingin open areas is the only option. Human wasteoften pollutes water sources used for all purposes,while raw or poorly treated sewage flows intowatercourses and pollutes beaches and coastlines.

Initiatives for Improved WATSAN

In November 2000, ADB approved a $15.3million loan to the Government of PNG for aproject that would provide water supply andsewerage to six selected provincial towns. The

Provincial Towns Water Supply and SanitationProject would create or extend water supplyfacilities in Kerema, Mendi, and Wabag, andrehabilitate sewerage services and sewagetreatment in Alotau, Madang, and Mt. Hagen.

Objectives

The project was intended to increase coverage andimprove the quality of basic water supply andsanitation services, with the ultimate goal ofimproving public health and overall social indicatorsfor the population, especially the poor communitiesof the selected towns. Another objective was toimprove the management and coordination of thewater supply and sanitation sector by strengtheningthe capacity of the PNG Water Board.

Pro-poor, Community Awareness andHealth Education Initiatives

When the project was designed, it becameincreasingly clear that an infrastructure projectalone would not be enough to improve the livingconditions of the urban poor in the project area. Toincrease the benefits from the loan, and to make itmore pro-poor oriented, a Low Cost Sanitationand Community Awareness and Health Education(LCS-CAHE) programme financed by the JapanFund for Poverty Reduction (JFPR) was added as acomplementary support.

The long-term goal of the LCS-CAHE programme isto improve the health of the poorer residents of theproject towns, and ultimately their standard ofliving, by lowering health expenditure, increasinglabour productivity, and generating more income-earning opportunities. The immediate objective is toprovide poor urban dwellers with affordable,environment-friendly, and appropriate sanitation


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facilities and to bring positive changes in thesanitation behaviour.

The LCS component involved building of low-costsanitation facilities such as ventilated, improved pitlatrines for 4,200 needy households in the projecttowns. The LCS project provides funds forconstruction of the toilets and the beneficiaryhouseholds contribute materials and labour toproduce a sense of beneficiary ownership. Fieldvisits during the planning period have confirmedthat households are prepared to contribute 5%-10%of the construction costs. The LCS is implementedover a period of 3 years, including an initial pilot-testing period in two poor settlements of theproject. During the pilot phase, workable, sociallysensitive, and cost-effective approaches aredeveloped to provide a model and build a sense ofownership and involvement of the community.

Before the toilets are installed, CAHE activities arecarried out in the beneficiary communities. Theobjective of this programme is to teach poorhouseholds the basic hygiene, safe methods ofcollecting and storing water, environmental health,and the operation and maintenance of various toiletsystems. The awareness and education programmeentail production of printed materials (e.g., cartoons),focus group meetings, and the use of popular theatreand the mass media. About 80% of the beneficiariesof the programme are women, as they have theprimary role in collecting water, controlling its use,and looking after sanitation facilities.

Domestic consultants act as facilitators of theprogramme and, together with the communitydevelopment officer of the urban settlement, theprogramme activities are planned andimplemented. Community groups (Women�sgroups, Traditional landowner organisations,Church networks, Non-governmental organisations(NGOs), Neighbourhood associations, etc). helpplan, design, and implement LCS-CAHE activities.During the project preparation, Civic SocietyGroups, NGOs, and Local Communities expressedtheir firm willingness to take part in projectimplementation.

References

Asian Development Bank 2000. Report andRecommendation of the President to the Board ofDirectors on a proposed loan to Papua NewGuinea for the Provincial Towns Water Supply andSanitation Project and a proposal for administeringa Grant from the Japan Fund for Poverty Reductionto Papua New Guinea for Low-cost Sanitation,Community Awareness and Health EducationBack-to-Office Report on the inception MissionLoan No. 1812-PNG (SF): Provincial Towns WaterSupply and Sanitation Project and JFPR Grant No.9002-PNG: Low Cost Sanitation. CommunityAwareness and Health Education Programme,2001, Manila.

Priorities of the Poor in Papua New Guinea,2002, Manila.

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AGUSAN DEL SUR, THE PHILIPPINES

Institutionalised and Community-based Approaches

Residents of Barangay Doña Flavia in San Luis, Agusan del Sur, The Philippines, used to dream of safe watersupply and improved sanitation. The efforts of the Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation (PCWS), anNGO, resulted in round-the-clock water supply and the community now manages its own water supply andsanitation facilities.

The PCWS brought safe drinking water supply to the southern province of Agusan del Sur by helping to createinstitutions that provide technical and financial support for the effective management of water supply andsanitation systems and adopting a community-managed approach � a consolidation of local government support,community participation and partnership, and civil society organisation initiatives. The initiative now serves asa model for future rural water and sanitation projects in the Philippines.

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Introduction

The province of Agusan del Sur in Mindanao is one ofthe poorest in the Philippines, and is one of the top 19priority provinces for national government assistance.Barangay Doña Flavia in San Luis used to get waterfrom 24 wells that dotted the community. Of these,only eight wells supplied potable drinking water.Ensuring adequate supply of safe water for DoñaFlavia�s growing population became a major concernof various water sector stakeholders, as it is fastbecoming the commercial centre of San Luis. In 1998,the water supply and sanitation system was put onpriority through the concerted efforts of the localcommunity, municipal and provincial government units,and the Philippine-Canadian Local GovernmentSupport Programme (LGSP).

Resources and Process

PCWS is a Non-governmental organisation providingpublic information, research, community organising,advocacy, and training for the awareness,appreciation, protection, and conservation of Philippinewater resources. With assistance from the local andprovincial Governments and funding from the LGSP,the PCWS organised a Provincial Water and SanitationCenter (PWSC) in Agusan del Sur. The PWSC took thetask of building the capacity of municipal-level projectimplementers in providing sustained support forcommunity water and sanitation associations. Theproject�s hardware � communal standpipes,individual house connections, and water wells � wasprovided by the local Government. PCWS took care ofthe software � managing the water supply andsanitation system.

PCWS initiated and conducted a series of capacity-building activities to help facilitate the water supply andsanitation project in Doña Flavia. An orientationseminar for the community organisers and facilitatorswas conducted during the initial stages of the project toidentify the community�s immediate needs, drafted theframework for all project activities, and prepared acommunity action plan. A trainers� training formembers of the municipal and provincial water andsanitation team was also conducted to prepare themfor facilitating the training programme for community

implementers. The training introduced concepts andaspects of sound and sustainable water and sanitationmanagement systems, and developed strategies fortransferring knowledge to the community.

Doña Flavia community members, who were to becomethe caretakers and members of the Doña Flavia Waterand Supply and Sanitation Association, were also trainedon the technical aspects of managing water facilities,computing tariffs to cover operations and maintenancecosts, and sanitation and hygiene promotion. PCWScontinues to provide technical advice to maintaincommunications and periodically visit Doña Flavia evenafter the project was completed.

Results Achieved

Doña Flavia Water Supply and Sanitation Associationnow manages the entire water system. Their efforts haveexpanded the water coverage, and the system nowserves 2,687 people or 429 households � 100% ofBarangay Doña Flavia�s population � 24-hours a day.


The Municipal Government of San Luis has utilised theconcept of community management in Doña Flavia inpursuing other development projects, while thirty-threeother Municipalities in Mindanao have adopted thecommunity-managed approach in pursuing their ownwater supply and sanitation services. PCWS�scommunity-managed approach � a consolidation oflocal government support, community participation andpartnership, and civil society organisation initiatives �now serves as a model for future rural water andsanitation projects in the Philippines.

Lessons Learned

The PCWS�s project in Doña Flavia showed thatcommunity-managed water and sanitation systems canwork as long as it is built on:

� An effectively sustained and functioning system orservice with effective financing mechanisms.

� Adequate support and investments for capacitybuilding of community members and localgovernments to effectively manage water supply andsanitation facilities.


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UKRAINE

Campaigning and Awareness Initiatives

This Local Action highlights the work of �MAMA-86�, a national level Environmental NGO in Ukraine. MAMA-86 focuses on the environmental challenges of water contamination, air pollution, women and children�s illhealth, environmental policy making, by campaigning and creating awareness among the people,,,,, especiallywomen,,,,, to bring in action on water use and management as well as bring in change in Ukraine Water Policy.

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Background

Ukrainian nationals are confronted with theproblems of daily drinking water. About 75% of thepopulation is supplied by surface water, but mostof which is not fit for consumption. In urban areas,the problems of low water quality, limited watersupply and rapid increase in tariffs are common.In rural areas, where wells provide a significantsource of water, the problems are water shortagesand water contamination containing manganese,iron, hydrogen sulphide and nitrates.

Drinking Water Campaign

The Drinking Water Campaign was started by fourNGOs. The campaigning expanded to 10organisations and worked towards:

� Monitoring the drinking water quality in the Ukraine;� Raising public awareness and provide

information about critical water issues;� Stimulating the cooperation and debates

between different sectors;� Conducting pilot projects aimed at improving

drinking water quality and rational water use;� Building pressure for a change in Ukraine�s

water policy.

Campaign Successes

The campaign was successful in mobilising people,especially women, to action. Among its successes were:

� In Tararbunary, a small town in the southernpart of Ukraine, the campaign movers helped

to determine the viability of small-scale waterpurification systems and installed a watertreatment system that benefits the schoolchildren.

� In the cities of Kiev, Odessa and Kharviv, pilotprojects promoting water use reduction andeducating people on economic instruments astools for water sector reform, were successful.

� In Artemivsk, an industrial town, the campaigninterventions helped to improve the capacityand quality of existing wells, install watermeters, enabled the water utility to runprofitably, established good relations withresidents and ensured payment of water bills.

Lessons Learned

Among the valuable insights highlighted by thecampaign are:

� Water is a critical resource and a commongood. Water may not be a means for profit.

� A watershed/water basin approach is essentialto water management solutions.

� More focus on water treatment and a holisticmanagement of the water cycle.

� Women�s actions for change are setting newparameters for democratic governance.

� Transparency in all water utilities and localauthorities and an open process of consultationwith the public.

� Arrival of multinationals and the push forprivatisation requires to be approached withcaution as it may lead to an increase in povertyand inaccessibility of water to a significant partof the population.

SECTION V

Gender Mainstreamingand Empowerment

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Gender Mainstreaming and Empowerment

Water and sanitation projects undertaken over thedecades suggested a positive linkage between thefocus on gender, women participation in particularand the degree of project success for itsmanagement and sustainability. Gender focusleads to the benefits that go beyond the projectperformance such as better procurement, operationand maintenance, cost recovery, hygieneawareness, more time for women for incomegenerating activities, benefits to school-goingchildren particularly for girls, and womenempowerment. Gender needs to be addressed witha participatory and responsive approach. The roleof women in water and sanitation resources forsustainable water resource management has beeninternationally recognised.

Developing gender mainstreaming strategies andempowering the community has been the newmantra (strategy) in promoting sustainabledevelopment in water and sanitation services. Toelucidate, five pioneering practices from India,Nepal and Pakistan are presented.

India: to bring the required focus on genderconcerns and remove inequities, a GenderMainstreaming Strategy (GMS) and Action Planwas developed for four cities - Bhopal, Indore,Gwalior and Jabalpur, in the State of MadhyaPradesh under the Water for Asian CitiesProgramme by UN-HABITAT in collaboration with alocally-based NGO, �Mahila Chetna Manch�. Itemphasised pro-poor gender responsivegovernance with the participation of women in thedecision-making, operation and maintenance,monitoring, evaluation of water and sanitationservices, and forms a basis and model frameworknot only for the Asian countries but also to otherparts of the world.

The integrated water supply and sanitation projectin Tiruchirapalli district in the State of Tamil Nadu,India is a unique example of an urban sanitationproject where the gender mainstreaming approachcontributed to the project success.

Nepal: Nepal Water for Health (NEWAH), anational-level NGO has been providing safe water,improved sanitation, and better hygiene to the ruralareas by intensifying the gender and povertymainstreaming strategies in its water, sanitation,and health education programmes through theinstitutionalisation of a �Gender and PovertyApproach� (GAP), which addresses the existingsocial inequities by increasing the gender equalityand social justice among the rural communities.

Pakistan: the initiative and leadership of one singlewoman in the village of Banda Golra benefited thewhole community of the village with clean water,reduced the women�s burden in collecting waterand improved the family and community health.This is a classic example of women empowermentand leadership in bringing out adequate watersupply with the dedicated effort of women�scommunity-based approach. Another sustainedexample is the effort of the Government of Pakistanwith the help of ADB-funded Punjab Rural WaterSupply and Sanitation Sector Project, wherein thewomen of Punjab gained easy access to cleandrinking water through a community-baseddemand-driven approach involving local peoplefrom planning to construction and maderesponsible for O&M. Women, the primarybeneficiaries, were involved in carrying out sub-projects, operate and maintain them, collect tariffsand evaluate projects as active participants inCBOs and community development units.

Gender Mainstreaming in water and sanitation hasbeen recognised as an instrument for sustainablepro-poor and gender-responsive governance.Adopting an appropriate strategy ensuressystematic mainstreaming of gender towards pro-poor upscaling of water and sanitation services.The Gender Mainstreaming Strategy also envisagesfaster, equitable and sustainable achievement ofthe Millennium Development Goal 7, Targets 10and 11 with the participatory approach of bothwomen and men particularly those from sociallyexcluded and marginalised sections.

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Policies, programmes and services for water and sanitation are mainly conceived as engineering solutions andoverlook the needs, concerns and perspectives of both women and men. They strongly reflect gender rolestereotypes. It is the men who participate in planning and decision-making as women have no say in thepublic domain. This inequity also affects efficiency and sustainability of the services.

In order to bring required focus on gender concerns and remove inequities, a Gender Mainstreaming Strategy(GMS) and action plan was developed for four cities in Madhya Pradesh - Bhopal, Indore, Gwalior and Jabalpurunder the Water for Asian Cities Programme by UN-HABITAT in collaboration with a locally based NGO,Mahila Chetna Manch.

GMS envisages faster, equitable and sustainable achievement of the Millennium Development Goal 7, Target10 and 11 and 100 per cent coverage for both women and men particularly those from socially excluded,marginalised sections with adequate water and sanitation services in the project cities by 2009.

It emphasises pro-poor gender responsive governance with the participation of women in decision-making,operation and maintenance, monitoring, evaluation of water and sanitation services.


Developing a Gender Mainstreaming Strategy forEquity and Sustainability

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Section VGender Mainstreaming and Empowerment

Introduction

The Rapid Gender Assessment (RGA) of four projectcities �Bhopal, Gwalior, Indore and Jabalpurconfirmed that women are burdened withresponsibility of collecting, transporting and storingwater for the need of their families and also forwaste disposal. Erratic and inadequate watersupply, inappropriate toilet facilities furthercompounded the problems related to water andsanitation particularly for women. Slums litteredwith garbage for want of proper arrangement forwaste disposal added to their woes. Womensuffered in silence and gender ideology promptedmen not to bother about women�s sufferings.Women having internalised the gender roles nevertried to voice their concerns.

Despite narrowing gender gap in education,health, skills and opportunities for participation indecision making at various levels, the inequalitiesfor women in water and sanitation services werereinforced by the patriarchal values and norms thatpersisted in the local self governance and thegender role stereo types that were embedded inperceptions of decision makers.

Though the legal framework of India provides forequal opportunities for women and the State policyprovides for visibility of women in public domain, yetwomen suffer inequalities and remain invisible in

processes and decisions. Policies and programmesfor water and sanitation too reflect gender rolestereotypes as they are mainly conceived and lookedupon as engineering solutions and overlook thegender concerns. There was virtually norepresentation or participation of women in waterand sanitation committees or projects.


The objective of GMS is to promote gender equity,efficiency and sustainability of water supply andsanitation facilities according to need, convenienceand suitability and in furtherance of the MillenniumDevelopment Goal 7 and target 10 & 11.

Specific objectives include:

� Time bound reduction in number of peoplewithout access to adequate water andsanitation.

� Improving life of all slum population in projectcities by March 2009 with provision ofappropriate, adequate and sustainable waterand sanitation services.

� Ensuring all schools have full time water supply,separate and appropriate toilets for boys and girls.

� Establishing open defecation free cities by 2009.� All institutions, offices, shopping complexes to

have sustained and functioning water supplyand toilet facilities.

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� Management of water distribution andcommunity sanitation facilities at local levelparticularly slums by local women andtheir groups.

GMS aims at adopting pro poor governance at theMunicipal level, through incorporation of genderconcerns in policy, planning and implementation ofwater and sanitation services. It envisages supportto organisations, departments and other partners inwater and sanitation sector by advocacy, training,institutional capacity strengthening in gendermainstreaming, resource mobilisation andoperations including appropriate norms,procedures for equitable access and participationof men and women in management and decision-making processes. GMS emphasises the role ofwomen and men as active participants and agentsof change. The action plan outlines theresponsibility of Municipal Corporation, ProjectDirectorate, UN-HABITAT, NGOs and Self HelpGroups (SHG) within a stipulated time frame.

The non-inclusion of women�s views andperspectives adversely affect the equity, efficiencyand sustainability of water and sanitation services.For delivery of fair and equitable water andsanitation services, following priorities were settaking into account the voices of women capturedduring the Rapid Gender Assessment and focusgroup discussions with men folk in the project cities:

� Introduction of gender issues in programmeframework, reviews, monitoring, evaluation andall other activities.

� Inclusion of staff with gender expertise in projectdesign, selection, implementation andmonitoring teams of the project.

� Framing and inclusion of gender relatedguidelines in programmes and undertakinggender analysis in designing projects.

� Enabling women and men from all sections,especially those from the socially excluded,marginalised, deprived sections to participate atall levels of water and sanitation sector projectsand services through organising groups,building their capacities and entrustingresponsibilities.

� Advocacy, awareness, sensitisation for all levelsof policymaking and implementation.


GMS stipulates gender budgeting to reflect resourceallocation for women�s needs and priorities. Gender-disaggregated data collection and continuous genderanalysis in monitoring and evaluation using genderindicators are also emphasised.

For operationalisation and compliance of GMS, aGender Nodal Unit at the project directoratesupported by an Advisory Committee and GenderFocal Unit at each Municipal Corporation isenvisaged. In addition, inclusion of a gender experton project teams, strengthening the ability of staffto integrate a gender perspective through trainingin gender orientation, tools for gender analysis andgender planning. To ensure participation of womenin decision-making and delivery of equitable waterand sanitation services, reservation and nominationof women in all committees of MunicipalCorporations and promotion of women groupsare envisaged.

Process

RGA and Video films, viz. �Voices from the Margins�and �Silences no more� capturing the voices ofwomen, brought out issues for GenderMainstreaming Strategy and action highlightinginequalities and inequities faced by women in thewater and sanitation sector.

Inappropriate, inconvenient timings of water supply,failure in maintenance of pipelines and water taps,non-availability or inappropriate location of publictoilets with no water and electrical connection andno regard for security and privacy of women, showscomplete neglect of women�s needs in planningwater and sanitation arrangements in the slums.

A proactive approach was needed to integratewomen�s and men�s needs, concerns andperspectives into policy, planning and managementof water and sanitation services. Thus a GenderMainstreaming Strategy and action plan wasdeveloped after consultation with stakeholders tobring the required focus on gender equality andequity.

Implementation of GMS was simultaneously takenat policy level and community level. Advocacy andawareness workshops for Municipal Councillorsand officials was organised in each project city tomake policymakers aware of gender, equity andmainstreaming in water and sanitation sector andalso appropriate processes and tools forimplementing GMS. These workshops provided aplatform for developing capacity, commitment anda sense of ownership of the strategy.

As a pilot to implement GMS at community level,Mahila Chetna Manch in partnership withUN-HABITAT mobilised women in five slums ineach project city to form their self-help groups formanagement of water and sanitation services intheir locality. Skill building training sessions

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empowered these women leaders to participate indemand and delivery of water and sanitationservices. The men in the locality were alsosensitised towards gender issues in waterand sanitation.

Equipped with the know-how, women groupspresented their demand to respective municipalcorporations for repairing the community toilet andhanding over to them for its operation andmaintenance. The Municipal Corporation of projectcities Gwalior, Indore and Jabalpur initiated theaction on their demand. Meanwhile, waiting foraction on part of Bhopal Municipal Corporation,Self Help Group (SHG) members in Ankur Nagarslum went ahead with managing the toiletthemselves.

Obstacles: Initially there was resistance to women�sinvolvement in managing community toilet. Somewomen also opposed levying user fee. Despite theopposition, the SHG members decided to managethe toilets. The local people came forward to helpthese groups. The issue of imposition of fee ontoilet use was resolved by the agreement ofcommunity to contribute money for regularcleaning and maintenance of the old communitytoilets and payment of regular monthly fee of Rs.30per household for new toilet complexes withadequate number of seats for men, women andchildren. Some SHG members and menvolunteered to safeguard the sanitary fittings.

Results Achieved

Involving women self-help groups inimplementation of GMS is effective. The womenstarted voicing concerns for better water andsanitation services, and undertook to change thesituation themselves. Municipal Corporationsacknowledged demand of SHGs for repair,provision of electricity and water connection atcommunity toilet. The gender orientation of men inthe locality prompted them to see the deficit inthese services as burdensome on women. Theyhelped women to discuss and participate inmanaging water and sanitation services.

Sustainability

Gender Mainstreaming in water and sanitation isnot only an issue of equity but also of efficiency andsustainability. Pro-poor and gender responsivegovernance is the base for sustainability.Integrating gender perspective into policies,programmes, projects, capacity building activities;adopting gender tools, use of gender

disaggregated data, gender analysis inimplementing, monitoring and reportingmechanism; support of gender responsivebudgeting; dialogue and consultation with menand women at local levels as envisaged in GMS,are effective in making services affordable andsustainable.

Moreover inclusion of women as chairpersons,secretaries and treasurers in committees of localself- government and management of delivery ofservices by local women groups who are trainedleadership, operation and maintenance of theservices, ensures efficiency of water andsanitation services and thus leading tosustainability of efforts.

Lessons Learned

Trained women groups can take the initiative tomanage these services on their own. This was seenin Bhopal where SHG members collectedcontributions for getting toilets cleaned and white-washed when the Municipal Corporation took noaction on their demand for repair and provision ofwater and electricity connection in community toilet.Women leaders requested Mahila Chetna Manch(MCM) to provide overhead water tank for thetoilet. MCM utilised an earlier received donation forinvesting in a water tank for slum locality. Waterconnection was provided from nearby bore well.Water taps were provided in each toilet. Localcouncillors supported the move.

Request to keep the toilet and locality clean by thegroup members led to change in sanitationbehaviour of the community. Now women, menand children, especially adolescent girls are happyto use toilet; the children have stopped defecatingin open. Some families who have toilets built intheir houses now use the community toilet as it hassufficient water availability. This reduced the burdenon women to fetch water for cleaning the toilets intheir houses.

The community contributes for cleaning of toiletand the group has taken the responsibility ofsafeguarding and filling overhead water tank. Nowgroup members take pride in sharing their effortwith women of other locality.

Transferability

The handing over O&M after building capacities forparticipation of women and mainstreaming genderin water and sanitation services provides the basefor its transferability.


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TIRUCHIRAPALU, TAMIL NADU, INDIA

From Alienation to An Empowered Community:Gender Mainstreaming Approach to a Sanitation Project

This Local Action is an excellent example of an urban sanitation project where the use of a gender mainstreamingapproach contributed significantly to the project�s success. It documents a community sanitation projectimplemented by the NGO, Gramalaya, in eight slums in the Tiruchirapalli district of Tamil Nadu State, in SouthIndia. The project involved the formation of women�s self-help groups, the construction and rehabilitation ofcommunity sanitation complexes and the establishment of a community sanitation facility management systemby the women.

Background

Lack of adequate water and drainage facilities forthe community in the Tiruchirapalli district of TamilNadu, India caused disuse and apathy among theresidents. For decades they had used the brokentoilets or pavement area, or open drains in front ofhouses for defecation. It was a way of life theygenerally accepted, despite its harshness. The eightslums in Tiruchirapalli district had six communitydry latrines and the human wastes are dumped inan open pit. There were also two latrines with septictanks constructed by the Municipal Corporation.These latrines had become unserviceable due topoor maintenance of infrastructures created beforeApril 1999. Women hold their noses covered withthe end of their saris to escape the stench, but theyhad no choice but to continue to use the pits. Toovercome embarrassment, the women coveredtheir faces while defecating or waited-till dawn ordusk to prevent being noticed. They find itpreferable to locate a tiny bit of land for defecationand use this small space repeatedly.

Men and women sanitary workers from the lowercastes collected the human waste from the pits, andswept them to the side, creating a huge mound ofhuman waste that was a hazard to communityhealth. The city did not have undergrounddrainage, so rains would dislodge the waste andfloat it around the community. This wastewateroften entered the households, waste accumulation

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The women in Viragupettai reported that �the non-maintenance of the latrines caused faecalworms to generate and reproduce, and they could be found nearby the water taps, and eveninside the walls of their houses.� Poor sanitation and contaminated water affected all familieswith disease, increasing their medical expenses.

caused also blockages in the latrine complexeswhich government bodies were expected to clear,but did not do so.

Water tankers supplied the community withdrinking water, but there was considerable wastageas well as fights to collect water. Male communityleaders did not take any steps to provide improvedfacilities. Requests to the Government for betterservices were of no avail until the people joinedforces with Gramalaya, a Non-governmentalOrganisation (NGO) that works with communitieson water and sanitation projects.


The Project emphasised on formulation of womenSelf-help Groups (SHGs) for communitymobilisation, sanitation management,establishment of micro-credit, conversion/construction of water seal latrines, undergrounddrainage system, garbage bins to dispose solidwaste, capacity building of women groups.


To address this situation, in 2000, the StateAuthorities for Urban Affairs in the Tiruchirapallidistrict proposed involving NGOs to encouragepeople�s participation and empower women underthe Namakku Name Thittam (We for Ourselves)programme. Gramalaya and two other NGOs

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formulated the project with funding from WaterAid. The funding enabled the project to serve atotal of 25 local slums in various communities, withguidance from the District Collector and theCommissioner of the City Corporation. InGramalaya, eight slums in total benefited from theproject. Water Aid covered the equipment andinstallation costs, while Gramalaya wasresponsible for the capacity building andcommunity mobilisation components. TheGovernment provided the land sites, electricity,water supply, and loans to community members.

Process

Gramalaya had prior experience in water,sanitation and hygiene projects in rural areas andhas been working with women�s groups as thefocal point for dissemination and change.

The project design called for the installation ofdrinking water facilities and individual toilets, aswell as community mobilisation with a focus ongender mainstreaming as detailed below:

� Forming women�s self-help groups as theprimary community mobilisation and sanitationmanagement mechanism;

� Using the self-help groups to establish a savingsand credit scheme related to the project;

� Converting dry earth communal pits to waterseal latrines;

� Installing low cost individual toilets;� Installing underground drainage systems and

garbage bins to dispose of solid wastes;� Installing drinking water facilities;� Providing related training for local mechanics

and masons;� Providing training for the women�s groups in

accounting and assessing finances and servicesfrom the Government; and

� Providing Family Counselling.

There was hesitancy within the communityregarding the project. The project staff�s initialwork was slow and difficult. As a result of havingbeen let down in the past, community memberswere reluctant to trust the efforts of Government,politicians and the NGOs. Garamalaya workedwith the community to change this situation byforming women�s self-help groups, convincing mento support the women in their new roles andcleaning up garbage and waste.

The usual Government practice was to contractcompanies to do waste and sanitation-related

construction work without any consultations withcommunity members. Lack of supervision led tounfinished work and, in one instance, thecontractors simply locked the new toilets and didnot open them for two years. For Gramalaya�sproject the Government gave land, electricity,water supply and loans to the community but wasnot expected to provide the services themselves.Gramalaya followed the project design asillustrated above, as well as by:

� Demolishing old structures, cleaning upgarbage and human waste so that thecommunity started to believe again;

� Forming the first self-help group of 20 women.These women contributed to a savings account tosupport the project, which gave them increasedconfidence as they were able to access credit anddetermine their own interest rate;

� Convincing men to support women in their newroles following their initial resistance;

� Providing daily support to and interaction withthe women to strengthen their new confidence;

� Assigning the full responsibility for collectingand distributing savings to the women aftereach group�s formation; and

� Encouraging new start-up group activities insavings and social interaction.

The introduction of a �pay and use� system wasdiscussed and agreed upon by the women�sgroups and was critical to facility maintenance. Itwas agreed that each person would pay half arupee (US$ 0.01) per usage and that each groupmember would take turns to serve as a caretakerso that the sites would be staffed day and night.The women�s husbands accompany them for thenight shifts. Tokens are issued before usage, whichhelp to keep accounts and monitor the number ofusers. The women also set up a maintenancesystem in which both men and women take turnscleaning the complexes twice a day. The systemgreatly improved the hygiene levels in thecomplexes.

Results Achieved

The project achieved remarkable results at multiplelevels.

Women�s empowerment

� Women learnt vocational skills, including howto repair hand pumps;

� Women now look after family and communitybudgets and are able to maintain me self-help

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group�s accounts with both transparency andaccuracy;

� Women are now also able to make decisionsrelated to water and sanitation;

� Women have increased privacy and access toclean facilities;

� Men now look up to their women with respectand admiration;

� Women have a new sense of self-esteem;� The women�s groups increased in such numbers

that they formed a city-wide federation, �Ezhillyakkam�, to work towards improving the qualityof life in the slums;

� The project�s success has attracted visitors fromall over and has given the women considerablerecognition; and

� As a result of the gains made by the women inthe project area, women from the slums inOrissa State have now begun a similar initiative.

Men�s involvement

Initially men were against the women becomingmore empowered. They asked the Gramalaya staffwhy women were given so much importance anddemanded assistance in forming men�s groups.This problem was aggravated by the fact that localpoliticians would foment conflicts among men�sand women�s groups in order to get votes in futureelections. They reasoned that when communitymembers gained awareness and skills resultingfrom the capacity building and empowermentactivities provided by the NGOs, it would be moredifficult to get their votes. However, with theintervention of Gramalaya staff, the men graduallychanged their attitude towards cooperation. Themeetings Gramalaya held with the men served toincrease their understanding that this programmegave importance to women�s roles and improvedtheir status, and that this was of benefit to noneother than their own wives, mothers and sisters.The men also came around when they started tosee the benefits the women�s groups generated. Inthe end, they began to participate as volunteers toclear debris and for other works, to realise thatwomen could tackle many problems and even toencourage their wives and female relatives toparticipate.

Income from �pay and use� toilets

The 2002 Expenditure statement showed that onepublic sanitation complex with 20-seat capacitygenerated an income of about Rs. 3,65,000 (US$8,000 approx in 2000) in one year with a totalclose to 730,000 paid usages at Rs. 0.5 per

usage. From this revenue 39 per cent was utilisedfor complex maintenance and 61 per cent forcommunity development activities.

Community Development by women

The income from the sanitation complexes wasused for a variety of works, including:

� Bore-well hand pump renovation and street taprepairs;

� Construction of a community hall, well anddrainage facility;

� Toilet renovation works;� Sanitary complex maintenance;� Loans to nearby slums for toilet construction;� Running a computer centre;� Social welfare activities such as the celebration

of water day and women�s day;� Special units for adolescent girls, cottage

industries, and small shops; and� Loans for education and other purposes.

Vermi- composting - sanitation and incomegeneration

The Ezhil lyakkam Federation concerned about thewet and decayed vegetables generated by thenearby market and thrown near the communitylatrines. In response, Gramalaya sought externaltraining and then converted this waste into aresource by providing composting expertise to thewomen. Now women can generate compost andare able to sell for a good price.

Emergence of innovative child friendly toilet(CFT) complex

The women�s groups realised that, if children donot use toilets, the slum would never be clean. Oneof the women observed that, �as our children arehabituated to using the drainage system fordefecation, something similar to squatting on a�drain type model was needed.� This led to theinvention of a child-friendly toilet. About 230children use a child-friendly complex that thecommunity built with walls separating boys andgirls. Children�s toilet usage was a big step forwardfor achieving total sanitation in the community.There is no payment required for the children�stoilets and the women�s groups clean them.

Improved sanitation facilities

There are a total of 201 new pour-flush toilets with104 for men and 97 for women. Formerly, there

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had been only 90 toilets with broken seats, whichserved 5817 people. Now there is no need for theemptying of septic tanks, as the new toilets are allconnected to the newly created and expandedGovernment underground drainage system. Thenew sanitation complex has about 900 users onaverage per day.

Changes in hygiene behaviour

The changes in people�s hygiene behaviourconfirmed from the comparison of baseline data atthe start and midpoint of the project (1999 and2001 respectively) are given at Table-1.

Reasons for Project Success

� The project�s focus on women�s empowerment,including the formation of women�s self-helpgroups and the related savings and creditscheme run by the women;

� Open discussions with male communitymembers regarding the benefits of increasedwomen�s empowerment to themselves, theirfamilies and the community;

� Capacity-building of the women�s groups in theareas of accounting and accessing governmentservices;

� Provision of family counselling on domesticviolence and communal problems;

� Daily contact with and support of the women�sgroups by Gramalaya;

� Development of community sanitation facilitiesmanaged by the community;

� Adoption of a �pay by use� system thatsupported both facility maintenance andcommunity development activities; and

� Collaboration between the Government, NGOsand the community.

Hygiene Behaviour Before (%) Midpoint (%)

Dipping hands in container 70 26

Hand washing without any washing 75 2agent after defecation

Ownership and use of 8 (also with unsafe disposal) 22 (with safe disposal)household toilets

Percentage using community toilet 40 - damaged facility 64 -using new orrenovated facilities

Children affected by diarrhea 73 10

Children�s use of toilets 0 (100 per cent practiced 90open defecation)

Percentage of monthly family income 36 4spent on medical expenses


� Success of gender mainstreaming indevelopment programmes: The developmentof water and sanitation facilities using a model-based on women�s empowerment will bringsuccess to a country where 70% of thepopulation currently still defecate in the open.This project�s impact clearly demonstrated thata gender mainstreaming approach should beincluded in all development programmes toaddress major concerns more effectively andobtain the maximum benefits.

� Respect for women spreads from thecommunity to the Government: InTiruchirapalli, not only is the communitybenefiting from improved water andsanitation facilities, improved health andincreased resources to support communitydevelopment initiatives, but the women havealso gained enormous self-confidence.Women who were once treated shabbily byofficials are now given respect and invited tosit on chairs when they visit governmentoffices. Not only their men, but the world alsonow admire them, and they receive a streamof visitors from all over. Their life has a newmeaning filled with hope.

References

Desprez, A., Doolaege, J., Ruprecht, L., 1999.Guidelines on Gender Neutral Language. Paris,UNESCO; http://www.tn.govt.in/policynotes/sw2004-05-4.htm. Accessed February 2005; http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2000-01/chap 1006.pdf.Accessed February 2005; http://gramalaya.org.Accessed Feb. 2005; http://rural.nic.in/book00-01/ch-11.pdf.

Table-1: Changes in hygiene behaviour

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Nepal Water for Health (NEWAH), a national-level NGO has been providing safe water, improved sanitation,and better hygiene to rural areas in Nepal. NEWAH�s main thrust is on Gender and Poverty Approach (GAP),which aimed at dissolving the disparities between women and men, and between the rich and the poor in therural communities. To intensify the gender and poverty mainstreaming strategies of its water, sanitation andhealth education programmes, NEWAH institutionalised GAP approach in its interventions in Nepal�s ruralcommunities. The GAP approach addresses existing social inequities by increasing gender equality and socialjustice in rural water supply, sanitation, and hygiene projects.

NEPAL

Making Rural Water, Sanitation and Hygiene GenderSensitive and Pro-poor

The Situation

NEWAH�s experience showed that the rich and thehigher caste men dominated all aspects of thewater and sanitation delivery projects. Thissituation often excluded women, poor Dalit (low-caste), and the local people from every form ofdecision-making, training and other benefitsrelated to improved water and sanitation systems.Water systems predominantly controlled by maleelites in Nepal often cause unequal access to safedrinking water between the better-off and thepoorest socio-economic groups. More often, thesemale-led water projects prove to be unsustainable.NEWAH recognised that unless efforts are made tocorrect the situation at the organisational andprogramme levels, poor women and men willcontinue to be deprived of the benefits of theirwater and sanitation projects.

Strategy and Process

One of the GAP approach�s most importantstrategy was the conduct of a �well-being� rankingof all households in GAP project sites to determinethe socio-economic status of each household. Theranking results were used to identify whichhousehold gets greater subsidies and more paidemployment opportunities. The ranking also helpedto identify households and community members,particularly poor women, who need to be givenbetter chances of participating in decision-makingactivities, especially when it comes to water supplyand sanitation services delivery.

The GAP approach also provided equal division ofpaid and unpaid labour, and skill training to women

and men in project-related work. Women workersreported that their family and community status wasenhanced, and their self-confidence increased. Themen were also trained in health and sanitationpromotion. The increasing roles that poor women inGAP projects allowed them to get more involved indecisions over the location and orientation of waterpoints in their communities. Consultations withwomen through the GAP approach have alsodirected the design of faucets and platform walls,pipe railings for women to hang clothes, and bathingunits to meet women�s practical needs. Child-andgirl-friendly school latrines were also installed.

Another feature of the GAP approach was aflexible water points policy that allows theconstruction of water points even to communitieswith a small number of households. The policyensured the provision of water and sanitationfacilities to more distant households, who are oftenpoor and socially excluded. A socialised gradedrate system for operations and maintenancepayments were also put in place, benefiting thepoorest households. By providing 50% ofnecessary labour to help install the water andsanitation system, poor households were providedwith free latrines and pay less for the services.Livelihood training programmes were alsoprovided to add to the households� income. TheGAP approach also paved the way for the creationof a gender sensitive savings and creditorganisation.


Five project sites in Nepal were used to pilot-testthe GAP approach. As of July 2005, NEWAH hasprovided these project sites a total of 12,508

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community tap stands, around 42,000 domesticlatrines, 181 school latrines, and 7 public latrines.NEWAH also trained about 15,000 members ofNGOs, women credit groups, and othercommunity organisations. NEWAH�s GAPapproach was instrumental in increasing womenand the poor:

� Access to water supply and sanitation services,� Awareness on health issues and hygiene

education,� Participation in decision making processes and

skill training, particularly in relation to thedesign, implementation, and operation of thewater supply, sanitation and hygiene projects.

Lessons Learned

While NEWAH�s GAP approach was successful innarrowing the gender and poverty gap, much stillneeds to be done to achieve gender and socialequality in rural Nepal. NEWAH�s projects providea few lessons and suggestions in undertakingsimilar water supply, sanitation, and hygienepromotion projects:

� First, disaggregating community data by gender,socio-economic groups and caste/ethnicity isnecessary to help identify the extent of the

projects� benefits, that is, whether women, thepoor and socially excluded groups are beingreached. Female headed households or thosewith elderly or handicapped members should beprioritised in the provision of latrines, subsidies,suitable and affordable alternatives;

� Second, innovative approaches for health andhygiene promotion should be used such asconsidering children as change agents in thepromotion of good hygiene behaviour, andtraining males to become community healthworkers to foster change in men�s attitudeswhen female community health workers cannotmake headway; and

� Third, monitoring the sustainability of anintervention, however crucial and challenging,must be considered an essential component ofthe projects. Future projects should be designedwith greater emphasis of social inclusiveness sothat no women, the poor, and otherdisadvantage groups will be left out from water,sanitation and hygiene services.

References

Serving the Rural Poor: A Review of Civil Society-ledInitiatives in Rural Water and Sanitation by UmeshPandey, Director, NEWAH, NepalE-mail: [email protected]


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Background

Banda Golra is a small village in Pakistan located10 km from Abbottabad, with about 120households scattered over the hill-side. Most menwork as day labourers, while women havetraditional roles in the household and take littlepart in decision making. Most of the families arelarge, as women are usually not allowed to usefamily planning methods. The average householdhas eight members. The majority of women areilliterate, while most men have primary education.

The primary school is at a distance of 4 km fromthe village. The girls only attend until fifth grade upto they reach puberty as using purdha is strictlyobserved. Women work at home, manage livestockand do other household work. Diarrhoea is amajor health problem among the children. Thereare only five latrines in the village and these arelocated in the homes of influential villagers, assuch most of the villagers have to use open fields.

Access to water in this area has been a problemfor decades. The only water sources for the villagewere two natural springs, located on a mountaintop and in a deep valley, which are used by thepeople as well as by village livestock and wildanimals. Collecting drinking water is the women�sresponsibility and they spend three to four hoursdaily just completing that task. Obtaining water forlivestock and other household purposes requiredanother full day every week. During dry seasonwomen would have to sit all night at springs to gettwo buckets of water.

A government pipeline also supports, but there areonly four connections to the village � one for theMosque, two were installed privately and only onefor the communal. The pipeline water runs twice aweek and is not sufficient to meet local waterdemands.

Main Obstacles

The men own and control most of the villageresources, including houses and land. According tothe State and Islamic law, women can inheritproperty, but in most cases they do not receive theirinherited property or are pressurised to waive theirinheritance rights in favour of their male relatives.The men in the village exercise greater decision-making power than women although the majorityof women involved in the water and creditschemes. Thus, the need for improved access towater and sanitation was urgent.


� Increased community access to clean water� Develop an appropriate water supply scheme to

the village� Reduce the burden of water collection placed

on women� Improve family and community health.

Though, the men in the village exercise greaterdecision making power, one village woman, NasimBibi, took the initiative to motivate the villagers toformulate a water supply scheme to the village andformed a community-based women�s organisationfor its implementation


The water supply scheme involved installing sevennew handpumps in different locations in thevillage. The community had to contribute 20 percent of the costs and the regional NGO, SarhadRural Support Programme (SRSP) 80 per cent. Eachparticipating household had to contribute Rs. 1000(US$ 16), and each hand pump was financed by agroup of seven households. The CBO membersmobilised their households and worked to get thesupport of their male relatives.

BANDA GOLRA VILLAGE, PAKISTAN

Initiative of One and Relief for All: Women�s Leadership

This Local Action documents how the women�s group brought water to their village; the strategies the womenused to gain acceptance for the scheme and the leadership role in the village. The project is a unique model ofwomen empowerment in bringing out adequate water supply services through community management, andis self-reliant and sustainable with the dedicated effort of a women�s community-based approach with dynamicleadership.

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The village women also contributed to the schemeimplementation. Every participating household hadto take turns providing food and accommodationfor the labourers engaged in drilling boreholesand installing handpumps. Village women alsocollected enough water to help soften the groundfor drilling and to support construction of thehandpump platforms.

Woman�s Leadership

The village water supply scheme was initiated byNasim Bibi, who needed money to help constructher house. She had heard about Sarhad RuralSupport Programme (SRSP), a regional NGO thatprovided credit in the area. Nasim Bibi contactedSRSP to apply for a loan, but was informed that theorganisation only lends money to community-based groups.

Undaunted by the refusal, Nasim Bibi mobilisedthe women of the community and formed aWomen�s Community-based Organisation (CBO)in 2002. CBO members started a saving schemewith each member depositing Rs. 10 (US$ 0.16)every month. Over two years period, 21 womenmembers received loans from SRSP for household,construction, weddings, purchase of livestock andthese loans were successfully repaid. This hasmotivated many other women to become membersof the CBO and sustained faith in the leadership ofNasim Bibi.

During their monthly CBO meetings the womenidentified increased access to water as a priorityfor action and decided to develop a village watersupply scheme. SRSP though initially rejected, withthe advocacy efforts of Nasim Bibi and other CBOmembers to take full responsibility for the project�smanagement and loan repayment, SRSP finallyagreed.

Nasim Bibi in her work as an activist and socialworker sending their daughters to school and shehad the support of her husband who had liberalviews on gender mainstreaming. He stronglycriticised the behaviour and attitudes of othervillage men in restricting girls� educationalopportunities and women�s right to workindependently. His support of his wife�s leadershiphelped her considerably in the organisation ofboth the credit and water schemes.

Nasim Bibi�s leadership helped other womenbecome involved, as community leaders. The

women�s CBO formed three committees tomanage the project. These included:

� Project Committee - responsible for thepurchase and actual installation of thehandpumps: two women and three Men;

� Audit Committee - responsible for financialauditing and bill payment: two women andthree men; and

� Maintenance Committee - responsible forproviding regular handpump maintenance: twowomen and two men.

The work the women did on these committees tookthem out of their traditional reproduction-focusedgender roles. It involved them both in publicleadership and in taking on non-traditional taskssuch as pump maintenance. Nasim Bibi herselfwas on the Project Committee and purchased allthe equipment, hired the labourers and monitoredthe project�s implementation to avoid cost andtime over-runs. In essence, serving as the waterscheme project manager.

Households that did not participate initially hadthought the scheme was a fraud, and that NasimBibi would keep the money collected for herself.They were also concerned that drilling a well for ahandpump would be difficult because of the area�srocky terrain. However, after the successfulinstallation of new handpumps, these householdsregretted for not having joined. They havecommitted themselves to contribute to any newvillage water schemes, as well as to themaintenance costs for the recently installed pumps.Despite the fact that some households did notcontribute to the initial water scheme, they areallowed to use the handpumps.

Results Achieved

The women�s water supply scheme has led to thefollowing changes and impact on the village:

Decision-making power

� Increased decision-making power at thehousehold level for the majority of womeninvolved in the water and credit schemes, andthe value of participation in public activities isincreasingly recognised;

� Recognition of the value of women participatingin public activities and how this could benefittheir husbands and families directly throughgaining increased access to new services suchas credit and water;


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� Increased recognition of the ways in whichwomen contribute to bettering their family�seconomic situation; and

� Open discussion of health issues related tofrequent pregnancies; many women upto 35years old report that they are now able todecide to keep their family small.

Time saving

� Significant increase in time available for otheractivities as the time needed for collection ofwater has greatly decreased, with most womenindicating that they use this extra time for familyand group meetings; girls use it for embroideryand sewing for themselves and their families;

� Decreased pressure and stress for women;� Improved women�s social relations outside their

homes; and� Increased sense of independence due to

greater social mobility.

Health, hygiene and sanitation

� Increased frequency of clothes washing from aweekly to an almost daily basis;

� Increased frequency, convenience and privacyof bathing for families almost on daily basis,particularly women and girls, as they no longerhave to walk to the spring to bathe;

� Increased sense of security regarding thecleanliness of their new water sources;

� Decreased contamination of the new watersources due to animal waste; and

� Increased understanding of the importance ofsanitation in the village by planning a villagesanitation scheme.

Education

� Girls� access to education has improved. Anon-formal school has been established in thevillage that offers both primary and secondaryclasses, mainly to girls. The high number ofgirls enrolled is a result of the special efforts ofNasim Bibi and her daughter. It was becausethey have confidence in Nasim Bibi and herdaughter due to the successes of credit andwater supply schemes and because of the factthat parents prefer to send their daughters to aschool that is close by.

Increased CBO membership

There is a significant increase in the number of newCBO members, with new members now findingthat they are receiving support for this activity from

the male family members, unlike before, when theymet with considerable resistance.

Changing attitudes

The attitudes of men and women who did notparticipate in the scheme have changed significantlyfrom the project�s beginning. They now perceive thistype of activity as something that is being done onbehalf of the entire community, and are no longersuspicious of it. They also see women�s participationin the CBO as something positive that could benefittheir entire family, particularly in terms of gainingincreased access to credit.

Creation of role models

The project also made role models out ofparticipating women by:

� Increase in the respect of male communitymembers for active women members of theCBO and for Nasim Bibi in particular,

� Increasing acceptance by men that women canbe effective community leaders. It was of theview that if Nasim Bibi competes in the localelections for Councillor, she would definitelywin. This would have been unthinkable, prior tothe water scheme.

Nasim Bibi has acquired the respect andconfidence of the community through her hardwork on their behalf. Through this process she hasbecome an informal community leader, especiallyfor the women who come to her for advice, moraland financial support. Village men also come toher for advice and help. After the successfulcompletion of the credit and water supply schemes,they see her as a person with strong linkages withNGOs and often come to her for help, seekingjobs and credit.

Community involvement and higher rate ofparticipation

Villagers who did not participate in the schemenow perceive it as something that is being done onbehalf of the entire community.

Sustainability

After the successful completion of the credit andwater supply schemes, the community membersnow see Nasim Bibi as an informal leader and aperson with strong linkages with NGOs. Increasedunderstanding of the importance of sanitation inthe village is a long-term result of this project.

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This Local Action demonstrates how strongpersonal leadership, when supported in strategicways and at strategic times, can lead to significantpositive results for increased gender equality aswell as improvements in water and sanitation.Nasim Bibi had the courage to step outsidetraditional gender roles in her village, even thoughshe is poor and had no real power base orinfluence in the village. Yet the support of anexternal NGO stimulated her to organise awomen�s community-based organisation. ThisCBO, because it was able to address the women�simmediate financial needs and because thewomen were able to provide additional financialsupport for their families through the SRSP micro-credit scheme, helped the women gain increasedrespect from male family members as well asincreased decision-making power at the householdand community levels.

The CBO members provided support for NasimBibi�s leadership when she had to advocate onbehalf of the village first with SRSP, and then with

the village men to get them on her side for thewater supply scheme. SRSP�s condition that theCBO take on the project management also hadthe impact of empowering the women, as it gavetheir new leadership role validation and credibilityfrom an external organisation.

The women�s CBO was able to gain men�s supportfor the water scheme because it started with a baseof people who trusted each other due to theirfamiliar relationships and because the members�male relatives realised that the women�sparticipation was benefiting the entire family andhelping support the men in their role as householdheads. This helped the women gain male supportfor the water supply scheme, as did the fact thatthe women consciously involved the village men ina shared management model in the water scheme.

All these factors came together to increasecommunity access to clean water, lessen women�sburden, and improve family and communityhealth. They have also empowered the women ofBanda Golra and confirmed them in a newleadership and decision-making role.


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PAKISTAN

Ladies First: Accessible Water for Entrepreneurial Women

Imagine living in a village in Pakistan and getting water � for drinking, bathing, and washing clothes � froma stagnant rainwater pond, or a muddy irrigation and drainage canal contaminated with pesticides. This iswhat villagers in rural Punjab faced every day.

But what a difference clean water made to the lives of the beneficiaries of the Punjab Rural Water Supply andSanitation Sector Project, especially the women and children, whose job was to fetch water each day for thefamily�s needs.

The project provided safe drinking water and drainage facilities to about 800,000 people through simple,low-cost sub-projects that used the community-based approach. The primary beneficiaries were the womenand children from 335 mostly poor and remote villages in the Punjab�s seven priority districts.

The results are impressive, including more than 90 per cent reduction in reported water-related diseases;increased household income of 24 per cent on an average; 80 per cent increase in the school enrollment ofchildren; considerable improvement in the local environment (decreased odours and insects); and fewer sickdays reported throughout the community.

It was the first project in the Punjab to employ a community-based, demand-driven approach, wherein thelocal people participated from the planning through the construction stage and eventually became fullyresponsible for operation and maintenance (O&M).

BackgroundPunjab, the largest province in Pakistan, is home to62% of the country�s total population of 135million. About 60% of Punjab�s 84 million residentslive in some 27,000 rural settlements, where onlyabout half of the population has an adequatesupply of water. Until recently, the remainder ofrural Punjab relied on often-distant sources ofunsafe water, such as uncovered wells, rivers andcanal or rainfed ponds. Regarding sanitation, onlya little more than 25% of the rural population hasaccess to household latrines. The remainder of thepopulation defecates in open areas, a situationthat is particularly difficult for women, as bycustom, they can only use the fields either beforesunrise or after sunset. Drainage is also very poorin rural areas, and maintenance of drains iscommonly neglected. In addition to the obviousunpleasant odours, this results in infestations ofdisease-bearing insects such as flies andcockroaches�a source of health problems foradults and children alike.

It can be said that poverty in Pakistan has awoman�s face. Among Pakistan�s poorerhouseholds, the incidence of chronic malnutritionin female members of a family is considerablyhigher than in other members. These are the same

women and children who have to walkconsiderable distances daily, carrying heavy waterpots on their heads to fetch water from ponds�water from which cows and water buffalossometimes bathe. This task becomes especiallydifficult in bad weather. As this responsibility andother culture-specific restrictions deprive girls fromschooling and other opportunities to advancethemselves. Many Pakistani girls when they growup, get trapped in the web of dependency andsubordination because of their low social,economic and political status in society.


The Government of Pakistan has been concernedabout the inadequate provision of social services,especially in rural areas for it believes that greaterinvestments in such projects will stimulateproductivity; reduce poverty; and promote smaller,healthier, and better-educated families. Nationally,the government has identified low water supply andsanitation coverage as one of the major issuesconfronting the water supply and sanitation sector.With the help of the Punjab Rural Water Supply andSanitation Sector Project, the government sought tobring safe drinking water and sanitation facilities topoor rural communities in Punjab province.

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The overall goal was to build community watersupply and drainage facilities to reduce poverty andimprove quality of life as well as the living conditionsof rural communities in Punjab province, where wateris scarce and groundwater, brackish.

Resources

Through the Punjab Rural Water Supply andSanitation Sector Project funded by the AsianDevelopment Bank (ADB), the women of Punjabgained easy access to clean drinking water�aradical change that will continue to uplift their livesfor generations.

Process and Community Participation

Men and women formed community-basedorganisations (CBOs) to maintain the watersupply distribution system, drains, and oxidationponds, as well as to promote social developmentwork and livelihood activities. They solicitedcommunity donations of land�for theconstruction of pump houses and oxidationponds�and earthwork�for paving streets andconstructing drains. CBO members alsosuccessfully facilitated the collection of tariffs.

Community involvement in project planning,design, and implementation was a key feature ofthe project. This set the stage for the CBOs� properO&M of the water supply and sanitation schemes.They were trained to supervise the constructionbefore the subprojects were implemented. Theywere trained in efficient O&M, including financialmanagement, technical operations, and waterquality monitoring, before the subprojects werehanded over to CBOs.

As the primary beneficiaries of the project, womenwere encouraged to carry out sub-projects, operateand maintain them, collect tariffs, and evaluateprojects as active participants in CBOs andcommunity development units. Communitydevelopment unit staff and CBOs were mainlyresponsible for community benefit monitoring andevaluation, another key feature of the project. Thisinvolved the collection of baseline data andinformation on performance indicators, dataanalysis and evaluation, and the preparation ofbiannual benefit monitoring and evaluation reports.

A Hygiene Education Programme was also held(4-day seminars) in each village using video andaudio clips as well as flip charts to teach men,women, and school children about proper sanitationand cleanliness. As part of this programme, latrineswere also sold for about US$12 to be paid ininstallments under the supervision of CBOs.

Monthly user fees ranged from Rs. 50 to Rs. 150for piped water and up to Rs. 20 for gravity-basedsystems. Community pressure and promptdisconnection of services for non-payment ofaccounts generally made tariff collection easy.

Following the provision of clean water, the numberof children enrolled in schools increased andcommunity members donated their labour toexpand schools.


The project provided safe drinking water anddrainage facilities to about 800,000 peoplethrough simple, low-cost subprojects that used the

�Farzina, a college student from Punjab, recounts: �Girls wanted to go to school, but there wasno time. Mothers would say, �first you must fetch the water, then you can study.�� In Farzina�svillage, children often spent 5�6 hours a day fetching water.

The children of Sughran Bibi also used to spend much of their day fetching water. Their story istypical in Punjab.

�We used to get our water from a pond used by animals. It was so dirty. Then, they dug a well,but we had to line up all day under the sun, to get a little water. The water wasn�t good. It wasbrackish. We didn�t have clean water, even for funerals. Many children would get sick withdiarrhoea. There was cholera in the rainy season and malaria because of the mosquitoesbreeding in the stagnant water. We have no money to go to the doctor. Life was so bad. Somefamilies left the village and moved to the nearby a town, Bahawalpur.

But now that we have clean water, they have come back. Now I have time for sewing andembroidery. I make clothes that I sell. Moreover, my children are now going to school�.


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community-based approach. The primarybeneficiaries were women and children from 335mostly poor and remote villages in Punjab�s sevenpriority districts out of a total of 34 districts.

Since the project was completed, the availability ofwater has significantly transformed the lives ofwomen and girls in these communities. Theypreviously spent 2�6 hours a day gathering water,and an additional 5�8 hours a week washing clothesat sources far from their homes and villages.

A survey of the project revealed that when relievedof water collection, women become increasinglyinvolved in income generation activities�about45% of their time saved is used for income-generating activities. Knowing this, some CBOshave started programmes such as needlecraft andhandicraft. One women�s CBO in the north set upa school for girls, employing two female teachers;another provided financial support for women toestablish a small flour mill. Still another helped toset up a grocery store in the village.

Women in Punjab now command an averagewage of Rs. 5 an hour. The monetary value of thetime saved could add about Rs. 135 to Rs. 337monthly to household income in the project area.Relief from the heavy labour of carrying waterhome also gives the women more energy. In manyvillages, households saved money on medicines asa result of improved health.

Monitoring of the project has shown impressiveresults�more than 90% reduction in reportedwater-related diseases, increased householdincome of 24%, on an average, 80% increase inthe school enrollment of children. The monitoringreport also notes a considerable improvement inthe local environment (e.g., decreased odours andinsects) and fewer sick days reported throughoutthe community.

Lessons learned

� To ensure the sustainability of community-basedprojects, both men�s and women�s communitygroups should be involved in planning, design,implementation, and O&M, and CBOs should betrained at an early stage of project implementation.

� Subproject selection criteria should be widelydisseminated to ensure transparency andproper interpretation.

� The community is often more willing to pay forservices than expected.

� The local private sector usually responds well tosmall rural water supply and sanitation schemes,and these are generally efficient and cost-effective.

� Construction activities should be properlypackaged to capture economies of scale.

� More attention must be given to genderconsiderations as well as to sanitation andhygiene education to achieve lasting results.

� Delays in implementation can be avoided byrequesting proforma approval from the planningcommission establishing the project managementunit, appointing the project director and staff,recruiting consultants, and prequalifyingcontractors, before the loan takes effect.

� Electrifying the pumping wells in advance wouldhave avoided delays in operationalising severalsubprojects.

� To ensure good quality construction and timelycompletion, payments to contractors should belinked to consultants� verification of the qualityof the work.

� Low salaries can result in a high turnover ofcommunity development unit staff, which canadversely affect the progress of implementationand the quality of the unit�s activities.

Transferability

There are positive indicators of substantialtransformation and social upliftment, as well asconsiderable increases in household income.

Note: Rs. 1 (Pakistan Rupee) = US$0.0317524, US$1 = Rs. 31.4937 (1995) ADB. 2002.

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SECTION VI

Innovative Financing

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Innovative Financing

There is a need to intensify the mobilisation ofadequate financial resources to facilitate theimprovement of basic services for the urban poor,particularly in the small urban centres. Thesecentres vary widely both in terms of the economicbase and the service delivery. They serve a varietyof purposes and represent a significant proportionof the population to be reached.

Access to the basic services of water and sanitationto the low-income and the needy population andthe widening demand-supply gap remains achallenge, despite substantial investments by thecountry governments over the years. The problemalso lies in the approach as most governmentssuffer from the tendency to invest in new assets andfacilities and paying less attention to conserve andmanage the existing resources. Traditional sourcesof external finance are often inadequate. Mostgovernments are increasingly aware of thesignificance of the internal mobilisation of fundsand the gains of potentially significant economicdevelopment and poverty reduction impactsthrough sustainable access to safe water andsanitation.

Financing water and sanitation services demandscreative thinking. The innovative financingmechanisms that focus on filling the criticalfinancial gap considers alternatives both in terms ofexpanding the notion of who can provide financeas well as how finance can be supplied anddemanded. While traditional finance flows wereused for capital investments, innovative finance canbe applied to issues such as utility�s operationalefficiency, developing skills and long-termsustainability of services. It involves a wide range ofstakeholders including the users, informalproviders, utilities, NGOs, CBOs, banks or financialintermediaries, donors and International FinancialInstitutions (IFIs) and moves well beyond thedevelopment agencies and the countrygovernments.

This Section highlights some of the creative ideasand innovative mechanisms that emerge to addressthe financial constraints for effective servicedelivery, particularly benefiting the small urban

centres. Six such Local Actions from Cambodia,India, Nepal and Vietnam are presented.

Cambodia: the experience demonstrates thepossibility of structuring innovative financingpractices suitable to the needs of the small urbancentres by using guarantees to support local utilitiesto strengthen their sources of finance.

India: UN-HABITAT used the approach ofRevolving Fund for financing water and sanitationinfrastructure for the poor through micro-financingmeasures, involving community-managed initiativesfor water supply and construction of householdtoilets in select cities in the State of MadhyaPradesh. Various innovations that increased accessto water and sanitation to the poorest of the poorare also illustrated, which can be used fordesigning micro-financing mechanisms utilisingrevolving funds. Other innovative initiatives includeimplementing financial reforms including MunicipalBonds and developing public-private-people�spartnerships for the delivery of services. The localaction in Ananthapur District, Andhra Pradesh is aunique example of such partnership to finance pro-poor investment for drinking water supply throughvoluntary contributions received from individualsfrom all over the world in the true spirit of a globalpartnership for a worthy cause.

Nepal: the capital cost recovery approach for theurban poor communities, an initiative of first of itskind in Nepal, is based on 80 per cent capital costcontribution by the communities in installments withimmediate gain to access water supply services, aswell as mobilising the funds thus recovered for thebenefit of other poor communities.

Vietnam: adopted an innovative financing practiceappropriate to the requirements of the small urbancentres by developing locally focused design-build-operate contracts for water supply and sanitationprojects.

The above practices emphasise on domesticsources of finance for both hardware and softwareinvestments and would help support for efficientand effective service delivery in the sector.

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Revolving Funds for Financing Water andSanitation Infrastructure

The levels of investments in the water and sanitation sector within the Asian region are quite inadequate tobridge the widening demand-supply gap and to extend services to the low income and needy population.External investments into the sector are inadequate. Most governments are increasingly aware of the significanceof internal mobilization of funds. There is need for more intensified funds for ensuring the urban poor toobtain improved services. This requires devising innovative financial mechanisms that focus on filling thecritical financial gap by involving NGOs and CBOs and providing loans to initiate the development of waterand sanitation facilities. Thus efficient use of existing resources as well as community participation is imperativeto make increased water and sanitation coverage.

Creating �Revolving Fund� would be an appropriate solution to finance the community initiatives in the waterand sanitation sector, in particular for managing the drinking water supply as well as the construction ofindividual household toilets for safe sanitation.

UN-HABITAT under its Water for Asian Cities (WAC) Programme has used the approach of revolving fund forfinancing the water and sanitation infrastructure for the poor. The WAC programme has initiated a RevolvingWater Fund (RWF) for implementing the Community Managed Water Supply Scheme (CMWSS) as a pilotdemonstration project in Gwalior, Jabalpur and Indore in the State of Madhya Pradesh. A Revolving SanitationFund (RSF) has also been created to facilitate the construction of household toilets under the Slums EnvironmentalSanitation Initiative (SESI) which is being implemented as a demonstration project in the four project cities.

This approach involves micro-financing measures for providing loans to the Community-based Water andSanitation Committee (CWASC)/ Self Help Groups (SHG) from the fund and then uses the repayments from theCWASC/SHG to provide loans to other CWASC or members of the SHGs, thus �revolving� or reusing thecapital. The recovery of the cost is expected to generate a sense of ownership, ensure financial viability,sustainability and alternative means of financing water and sanitation infrastructures.

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Revolving Water Fund (RWF)

Background

Many slums in the cities of Madhya Pradesh havethe problem of water supply in requisite quantityand at normally required timing. The notified slumof Ramaji Ka Pura, Islampura and Subhash Nagarare situated in a hilly terrain of ward No. 1 ofGwalior city having 6,000 households almosttotally below the poverty line used to face suchproblems. The water was supplied by the MunicipalCorporation through direct pumping with the timeschedule for supply to this area being 2.00 am to4.00 am. These odd hours of water supply kept thepeople awake almost the whole night round.Besides this, around 1,500 households located atrelatively higher reaches of the hilly terrain did notget water at all. They, therefore, purchased waterfrom the households located in the lower reachesapproximately @ Rs. 100/- per month.

Similarly, in the notified slum of Bagra Dafai,located in Guarighat Ward of MunicipalCorporation of Jabalpur, having more than 1,200households are almost totally below the povertyline; people used to queue up for substantialperiod in the morning, when the tube wells areoperated, fill up water in buckets for their houses.On account of disputes regarding water allocationamongst the residents around 30 to 40 FirstInformation Reports (FIR) have been filed in thepolice station in the past. To make matters worsethe underground water supply in the area is havingexcessive fluoride and does not conform to thestandards for safe drinking water. The householdswere however drinking this water due to lack ofany other alternative.

In the notified slums of Shiv Nagar, Shahin Nagar,Pawan Putra Nagar, Kamal Nagar and ChowdharyPark Colony, situated in ward No. 64 of Indore cityhave 1,200 households, almost below poverty line;the households were dependent on private

Section VIInnovative Financing

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tubewell owners for their water requirements. Thepoor also used to fetch water from nearby Lakhanifactory, which is located at a distance of 3 kmsfrom slum cluster. During summer people get waterfrom the tankers of Indore Municipal Corporationand in other months they used to buy it fromprivate tubewells.

In all the three cases, the community expressedtheir willingness to develop the water supplyfacilities if the finances are available to meet theupfront cost of construction of capital works.Consequently, a revolving water fund has beensetup for initiating Community Managed WaterSupply Scheme (CMWSS) with a view todemonstrate that it is possible to quickly improvethe lives of the urban poor and the disadvantagedby connecting them to safe drinking water whichwould result in users not having to travel longdistances or waste time in queuing for water.CMWSS has a pro-poor governance approach inwhich, the cost of construction and the waterconnection charges are met upfront from therevolving fund.


CMWSS was implemented in partnership withMunicipal Corporation (MC) and the communityrepresented by Community Water and SanitationCommittee (CWASC) in Gwalior and Jabalpur,whereas in Indore it was implemented inpartnership with District Urban DevelopmentAgency (DUDA) and CWASC. UN-HABITAT hasentered into an agreement with MC/DUDA forcreating a �Revolving Water Fund� (RWF) in the cityfor implementation of the CMWSS and furtherscaling-up later on. Funds were provided from theRWF to CWASC for the implementation of CMWSS,which will be returned to the RWF by the CWASC ininstallments in due course of time depending ontheir paying capacity. The CWASC has planned,designed and executed the scheme of their choiceand collecting the user charges, while the MC hasprovided the technical assistance and guidance.The schemes have been completed in all the threecities.

Mobilization of Resources

The CMWSS at Gwalior involved in the supply oftreated water through construction of a groundlevel sump, pumping water from the sump to aground level reservoir constructed at higher level inthe area and supplying water to the consumersthrough gravity by a network of pipelines. Out of

the total capital investment of Rs. 3 million (US$67,000) the MC, Gwalior had contributed Rs. 1million (US$ 22,300) from the resources at itsdisposal and the balance was provided by the UN-HABITAT to meet the cost upfront. In Jabalpur thedistribution system has been commissioned inJanuary 2007 covering 4.6 km length. The totalcapital cost of the project was Rs. 2.2 million (US$50,000) and this was executed by CWASC. InIndore the total capital investment for executingthis system was estimated at Rs. 3.024 million (US$68,000). The construction of 420 kl overheadservice reservoir and laying of pipeline have beencompleted and the system has beencommissioned. The DUDA, Indore has contributedRs. 1 million (US$ 22,300) from its own resources.The balance amount (US$ 45000) was, funded byUN-HABITAT.

Process

The Municipal Corporation/ DUDA in consultationwith UN-HABITAT had first identified the povertypockets having preparedness, entrepreneurialability and willingness to undertake and implementthe project. Consultations with the community wereinitiated by Municipal Corporation/ DUDA officials.The Officials of the Corporation as well as those ofthe UN-HABITAT briefed the community about therequired approach of the community managedwater supply scheme and explained themechanism of cooperation, participation andmanagement of such schemes. The issues raisedby the residents on various operational aspects ofthe scheme, were explained and clarified by theteam. An informal committee was formed whichstarted the process of registration. The Communityunanimously supported the necessity of such ascheme and agreed to form a Committee andsubmitted a proposal on such lines to theMunicipal Corporation/ DUDA. Finally a CWASChaving one third of the Executive Body consisted ofwomen representatives was constituted. Theplanning and design of scheme based on thecommunity choice and consensus on the mostappropriate scheme based on affordability andtechnical feasibility was undertaken by the CWASCwith the technical assistance from MC/ DUDA.

The CWASC decided on the method of executionof work and invited the offers for execution ofCMWSS from various construction agencies andwith the technical assistance from MC/DUDA,finalised and issued the work order. Before thecommencement of work training activities to equipthe community in the record keeping, maintenance

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of minutes of proceedings of community meetings;technical matters like installation & specification ofvarious components, procurement and contractingprocedures, and matters related to O&M wereundertaken by MC/DUDA. The CWASC hasimplemented the scheme and the scheme is inoperation in all the three cities.

Results Achieved

At present the revolving fund is in operation inGwalior, Indore and Jabalpur. From the CMWSSfinanced fund, water is being supplied to 200households in Gwalior which will be increased to1200 households; to 600 households in Jabalpurwhich will be increased to 800 households; and to850 households in Indore which will be increasedto 1,200 households within three to four months.An amount of Rs. 30,000 has been recovered byCWASC in Gwalior, Rs. 75,000 in Jabalpur and Rs.800,000 in Indore.

Sustainability

The Revolving Fund is setup in partnership withlocal governmental agency involving communityfrom inception of the water supply scheme throughconstruction to operation and maintenance. Thecommunity will operate and maintain the schemesand will pay back the cost of the capital works,which will be revolved for financing such schemeelsewhere in the city.

After extensive consultation with the community, ithas been agreed in Gwalior that each member ofthe community would pay the connection chargesin easy installments of Rs. 100/- per month forseven and half months. User charges of Rs. 80/-per month would be charged as per the normalprevailing rate in the municipal area. In Jabalpur,the connection charges and user charges arebeing paid in the form of lump sum payment of Rs.100/- per month, for 36 months, and afterwardsmonthly user charges as per MC�s prevailing rates.In Indore, the connection charges will be paid in 5installments of Rs. 200/- each. User charges of Rs.60/- per month will be paid in addition to themonthly connection charges. The residents will alsohave the flexibility of weekly or fortnight payments.Fixed installments have been proposed as it doesnot appear to be practically feasible to meter theconsumption of each household in this belowpoverty line area. The entire capital investmentwould be recovered in 32 months in Gwalior, 46months in Indore and 36 months in Jabalpur forexecuting a similar piped water supply scheme

elsewhere. Thus, the Revolving Water Fund hasbeen structured on the principles of pro-poor watergovernance with affordable recovery framework.

Revolving Sanitation Fund (RSF)

Background

Consumption of unsafe drinking water, improperenvironmental sanitation and lack of personal andfood hygiene have been major causes of manydiseases. Madhya Pradesh is no exception to this.Prevailing high infant mortality rate is also largelyattributed to poor sanitation. UN-HABITAT on therequest of Government of Madhya Pradesh hastaken up the exercise of �Poverty Pocket SituationAnalysis (PPSA)� in Bhopal, Indore, Jabalpur andGwalior. The PPSA revealed that there are 1,537Poverty Pockets in these cities wherein 4,75,368households reside, out of which 1,51,626households defecate in the open.

The PPSA also revealed that communities havepassive demand for the creation of sanitationfacilities. Accordingly, it was felt that if thecommunities are made aware of the importance ofsanitation and at the same time supported with amechanism to meet the upfront cost of constructionof toilet, they will construct the household toilets.Under this backdrop a revolving fund forsanitation was setup.

The PPSA exercise mapped all the Poverty Pockets(PPs) of the 4 cities on the important parametersincluding accessibility of water and sanitationfacilities and ranked the PPs on this basis ofsanitation needs. UN-HABITAT with Water Aid andthe Municipal Corporation of these cities, in atripartite partnership model, launched a SlumEnvironmental Sanitation Initiative (SESI) covering5000 households in each city for making theslums open defecation free by setting up arevolving fund.


A revolving fund for sanitation is setup for theimplementation of SESI. This demonstrates howcommunities can be empowered to acquireadequate sanitation that meets their needs bygenerating demand for sanitation facilities inslums. This can be done by awareness creation,health education, capacity building, encouragingcost effective and appropriate technologies andsetting up the appropriate financing mechanism


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for sanitation. It seeks to ensure total opendefecation-free slums through low cost individualhousehold toilets, community managed sanitationcomplexes wherever required, undergrounddrainage and school sanitation complexes. SESIhas a pro-poor governance approach aims todemonstrate that, it is possible to quickly improvethe lives of the urban poor and the disadvantagedby ensuring provision of individual householdtoilets facilities through the mechanism of aRevolving Sanitation Fund (RSF).


RSF is created for construction of individualsanitary toilets at a pro rata of Rs. 2,000/- pertoilet and is managed by a local NGO on behalfof the ULB/UN-HABITAT. The NGO creates Self-help Groups (SHGs) in each slum consisting ofmembers from households needing assistance forconstructing individual toilets. The SHG getsmobilised over a period of time as a cohesivegroup carrying normal intra-group activities ofdepositing monthly contribution from the savingsof its members and lending to members as pertheir need. The needy SHG members request theSHG for providing assistance for construction oftheir household toilets.

Process

Homogeneous communities organize themselvesinto groups, i.e. CWASCs/SHGs and improve theirfinancial and managerial capacity to execute andmanage the funds. This loan is made available toindividual members of the CWASC/SHGs, forconstruction of individual household toilets andmeeting the upfront cost of construction of superstructures as well. Individual households will havethe choice in deciding the design/ technologicaloption in meeting their sanitation need with thefacilitation of the NGO/ULB. SHG provides loansto individuals and recover through monthlyinstallments. If necessary the peer group pressureof the SHG assists in the recovery of loan. Onreceipt of demand/ application for loan from theindividuals, NGO provides technical support toindividuals to help them to finalize the design andestimation of the sanitation unit taking intoconsideration their preferences, technical feasibilityand affordability. NGO/SHG releases loans to theindividuals only after assessing the readiness of theIndividual�s contribution in the form of cash orkind. The NGO may constantly advise thebeneficiary for ensuring construction quality. Afterthe completion of the toilet, the individual will

intimate the CWASC/SHG, which in turn inspects thesite and records its assessment of the construction.

Results Achieved

The SHG has the responsibility of ensuring therecipients of the fund to return the loan amount forfurther disbursement to the newly motivatedhouseholds. The individual household toilets havebeen constructed by about 600 households inBhopal, 400 households in Jabalpur, 450households each in Indore and Gwalior, which willbe increased to 1,000 households within a span of12 months.

Sustainability

The RSF mechanism has been developed on theprinciples of community-managed pro-poorgovernance. The SHG from the community ensuresthat the interested individual has arranged hiscontribution of Rs. 1,000/- (50% of the cost of thetoilet) and recommends the case to the NGO. TheNGO, after ascertaining that the SHG has beenmobilised and the intra-group activities ofcontribution and lending is taking placesatisfactorily, provides loan from the RSF to theSHGs which in turn lends it (based on locallyagreed principles for lending and recovery) toindividual applicants, as per their need up to amaximum of Rs. 2,000/- for constructing latrinesincluding the superstructure of their choice. TheSHG has the responsibility of ensuring that the loanamount is returned for further disbursement tonewly motivated households. The CWASC/SHG willcollect monthly installments from each householdand maintain beneficiary-wise records relating tothe revolving fund and in case of default inpayments, intimate the guarantors for assisting in therecovery of the loan. The CWASC/SHG will itselfdecide the penalty in consultation with its members incase of non-repayment of loan installments.

Lessons Learned from RevolvingFund Initiatives

The setting up of revolving funds for water andsanitation initiated the leveraging of funds withinthe city and within the community establishing thepremises that if the communities are empoweredwith informed choices and mobilised substantially,they can meet finances for executing andmanaging drinking water supply and creation ofsanitation facilities as per their needs andaffordability. A remarkable improvement in

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community�s financial management can beachieved through their capacity building with theresult of opening bank account and carry out allthe transactions relating to project execution andoperation and maintenance.

The participation of women is most crucial for thesuccess of revolving fund, since women are the main:

� Collectors and users of water as well as the mainsufferers if the system does not function; and

� Victims due to the non-availability of sanitationfacilities.

The implementation of these initiatives enhancedthe capacity of the local governments (MunicipalCorporations/DUDAs), local NGOs, communityand other stakeholders in initiating the projectswith community participation.

Transferability of the initiatives

The GoMP issued guidelines for the setting up ofrevolving funds for water and sanitation toaugment the coverage of water supply, sanitationfacilities and creating open defecation free slumsin Urban Areas in partnership with community,CBOs and ULBs. Since maintenance of revolvingfunds is a process designed to enable thecommunity to have access to acceptable,adaptable, sustainable and affordable finance formeeting their safe drinking water and sanitationneeds, its setting up and operation does not justend with physical creation of facilities but for theirsustainable use. In several ways, it marks thebeginning of a new and more challenging phase,wherein the local community has to shoulder theresponsibility of operation and maintenance ofthese funds and the facilities created.


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INDIA

Micro-financing Mechanisms through Revolving Funds:Comparative Experiences

This Local Action presents various experiences in India that can be used as the basis for designing micro-financing mechanisms for promoting pro-poor water and sanitation, utilizing Revolving Funds. These experiencesinclude the kind of models being used for financing household water and sanitation facilities for weakersections and the innovations that have increased access to water and sanitation by the poorest of the poor. Thepresentation provides suggestions on do�s and don�ts and learnings about the possible pitfalls that suchprogrammes should avoid to ensure greater success. The institutions, organisations and programmes thathave adopted a similar approach and that can support in designing and capacity building are also identified.

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Introduction

UN-HABITAT has been supporting water andsanitation related projects at household levelthrough revolving funds in four cities, viz. Bhopal,Gwalior, Indore and Jabalpur in the State ofMadhya Pradesh, India and is keen to upscale atthe national level. The revolving fund has been setup for financing small community managed waterand sanitation initiatives. The guidelines for therevolving fund for water and sanitation have beendeveloped and are duly endorsed by the StateGovernment of Madhya Pradesh.

UN-HABITAT has facilitated piped waterconnections for individual households, where thecapital investment was done by UN-HABITAT andthe amount is being recovered from householdsthrough a monthly charge for the connection andthe water charges. The recovered money is put in arevolving fund for use by another neighbourhood.Similarly, a Sanitation Fund has also beendeveloped. The Sanitation Fund gives loan tohouseholds for construction of individual householdtoilets. The money is recovered in installments andthe fund utilised in a revolving manner so thatmore and more households can benefit.

Financing Models

The following are some of the experiences infinancing water and sanitation facilities to benefitthe poor with suggestions on how suchprogrammes can be designed and scaled up. Thewater and sanitation community have stressed thatnotwithstanding hidden subsidies for the affluent,revolving funds could be an appropriatemechanism to make water and sanitation

(WATSAN) facilities accessible to the poorest at alarge scale.

1. Small Grants Scheme in Urban WaterSupply and Sanitation: Gangtok - Shillong

The Gangtok-Shillong Water and SanitationProgramme funded by AusAID aims to improvewater supply, sanitation and solid waste services intwo cities in the north-eastern region of India. TheAusAID funded project �Gangtok-Shillong UrbanWater Supply and Sanitation� had a component ofmicro-finance. The fund is called �Small GrantsScheme� and it provides 70% capital cost as a one-time grant and 30% community contribution � not aloan. The whole process of planning, implementationand future management lies with community groupsor CBOs. This method is used successfully in almost30 projects in Gangtok by Ecotourism andConservation Society of Sikkim (ECOSS).

2. Water Credit Provided by Banks as part ofEconomic Activities, Usilampatti, Madurai,Tamil Nadu

Indian Bank�s Special Unit for Microfinance(IBSUM), Usilampatti branch in Madurai, TamilNadu State gave loans in the range of Rs. 2,000/-to Rs.3,000/- to 50 members for constructing rainwater harvesting structures in their homes. Theseloans were sanctioned to SHG members anddisbursed as a combined loan along with theenterprise loan. This type of water credit iscombined with loans for economic activities andthus fulfils the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) permitsto lend to SHGs for both consumption andproduction purposes. Under the RBI permit, Banks,while lending for economic activities can also add

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the water credit and lend as a combined limit, likethe Indian Bank did in the Usilampatti branch.Also, subsidy is still an attractive option to thetarget groups. When bank loans for toiletconstruction were given with subsidy under theCentral Sanitation Programme, many poor SHGwomen availed loans and constructed the toilets.

Organisations including commercial banks arekeen for micro-financing water and sanitationfacilities. They can design individual loan forWATSAN purposes which can be marketed to thetarget groups through SHGs. For instance, IndianBank has developed an exclusive individual loanproduct for financing Sakthi dealers under theSakthi Project of Hindustan Unilever Limited (HUL).

3. Water Credit through Self-help Groups forToilets and Water Connections,Tiruchirapalli District, Tamil Nadu

Gramalaya, an NGO, with �Water PartnersInternational� provided loans amounting toRs. 4.5 million to 490 borrowers throughTiruchirappalli City Corporation for householdwater connections and toilet facilities. Loans areprovided through women SHGs ranging from Rs.3,000 to Rs.10,000 at 18% rate of interest ondiminishing returns to be repaid in 18 - 24 monthswith Under Ground Drainage (UGD) facilities. Thecost of UGD is Rs. 6,000/- to be deposited with theTiruchirappalli City Corporation. There is 100%repayment of loans from the borrowers with moredemands from other interested SHGs. This has ledGramalya to form a separate Micro FinanceInstitution (MFI) for this Water Credit project fundedby Water Partners International. Water PartnersInternational is supporting NGOs and Miss in Indiaand Bangladesh through Water-credit in providingaccess to household latrines and water connectionsfor the slum dwellers and rural families throughwomen Self-help Groups.

The newly constituted GUARDIAN - (GramalayaUrban and Rural Development Initiatives andNetwork) will lend money for water and sanitationfacilities in Trichi and suburban areas. BASIX, ananother leading MFI for building inclusive financialsystem for the poor, is implementing pilot researchprojects in Hyderabad, Delhi, Ganjam and Indore.BASIX is commissioned by the International Fundfor Agriculture Development (IAFI) which is activelyinvolved in the field of Poverty Alleviation in India.

In addition, the Commercial Banks and thePrimary Agricultural Cooperative Banks (PACBs)supported Gramalaya, have mobilised Rs. 7.5million for construction of low-cost latrines, whereloans are provided to women self-help groupsdirectly on the facilitation from Gramalaya.Gramalaya has also planned to mobilize Rs. 100million through local commercial banks and PACBsfor construction of 30,000 household toilets inThottiyam, Thathaiengarpet and Thuraiyur Blocksof Tiruchirappalli District under its �War againstOpen Defecation Campaign Project� jointlysupported by Water Partners International, USA,WaterAid, UK and Arghyam, Bangalore.

4. Revolving Loans to promote Sanitation inVillages, Hooghly District, West Bengal

All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health(AIIHPH) introduced in one of its projects, arevolving fund to promote sanitation in thevillages. AIIHPH worked for the Research andDevelopment (R&D) on integrated and ecologicallybalanced water and environmental sanitation inSingur and Dhaniakhali Blocks in Hooghly Districtof West Bengal. The project was funded byUNICEF. Through a demand-driven approach,people were made aware and motivated to havehousehold toilets and constructed at affordablecosts. The minimum cost of household toiletconstruction (single leach pit with pour flusharrangement) was Rs. 500/-.

Various types of household toilets were developed.The cost of these toilets vary between Rs. 500/-and Rs. 3,000/-. Most of the families opted toiletscosting Rs. 500/-. The revolving loan was Rs. 500/- per family and to be paid back in 25 monthswithout interest. Experience showed that repaymentrate was satisfactory in first year but irregular insubsequent years. This was the experience ofAIIHPH during 1993 and 1995.

5. Innovation towards ensuring socialinclusion, Orissa

When poor families find it difficult, women as�inclusion ambassadors� persuade their better-offto contribute more. The money is invested and theinterest earned thereof funds, the water andsanitation schemes which permits the communitiesto manage resources. Communities bear a third ofthe capital cost, Government bears half the


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amount and Gram Vikas provides the rest at anaverage amount of Rs. 4,000/- per family. Thecommunity also attempts to tap local developmentfunds of local elected representatives (MPLAD/MLALAD Funds)*.

6. Community Participation Fund

The slum dwellers that migrate from nearbydistricts and villages for their livelihoods, mostly donot have their own houses (80% of the urban poorlive in rented and leased houses). They may not gofor upgradation without permission of their houseowner. Secondly, those who live in own houses,they may not have ownership of the land due toencroachment.

In order to promote effective sanitation and waterfacilities, there is a need to have a communitysurvey and slum profile because these two areasare closely related, with its main functions taken upby the Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). The Ministry ofUrban Development, Government of India, hasinitiated the Jawaharlal Nehru National UrbanRenewal Mission (JNNURM) in which 63 cities wereselected for entire city development at internationalstandards.

To tackle the water and sanitation problems of theslums, the Ministry has come up with a CommunityParticipation Fund (CPF) in order to enrich thepeople�s participation. The concept of CPF fallsunder housing upgradation fund, which is a veryviable product in urban areas. The CPF will begiven to the local NGOs and Community BasedOrganizations (CBOs) based on the issues of theindividual slum. The proposals are prepared by theCBOs and routed through the local municipalcorporation to the Ministry. The project cost foreach of the proposal is around Rs.1 � Rs. 1.5million and the community contributes 5 to 10% inaddition. The project will be implemented andmaintained by the community with or without thehelp of local civil society organizations.

Analysis of experiences in Micro-financing,Credit and Revolving Funds

Many efforts are being made in innovativefinancing of water and sanitation (WATSAN)projects in India. The results are mixed and arefacing serious scaling up challenges. Most of theinnovative financing options are incentivised withcapital investment subsidies of varying levels. The

revolving fund options are largely targeted atimproved private services, like the householdsanitation or household piped water supply. Asthere exists very high willingness to pay forWATSAN services, such schemes are apparentlyregressive in the sense that the poor tend to paymore as usual while the rich are covered bysubsidized service delivery. A major reason that puta priori ceiling on loan financing is the existingpolicy regime that promises (seldom delivers) basicessential service level through subsidized publicinvestments. Though this could be a laudableobjective, after 5 decades of planning, the poorare still the worst affected and are payingdisproportionately high for WATSAN services. Thisis again compounded by the inefficiency of servicedelivery in terms of quality, quantity and reliability,compelling the users to adopt various copingstrategies. According to studies, in a State likeKerala more than 55% of the investments indrinking water had come from private-householdsector and a significant share of the urbanhouseholds are spending as high as Rs. 18,000 �Rs. 25000, as capital investments (connectioncharges and facility up gradation) alone forassured supply.

Why then high benchmark willingness to paycoexists with many non starter revolving /loanfunds? The answer is the dichotomy of WATSANfinancing policies by national and Stategovernments � the promise of free provision keptprivate investments shied away. As the peoplegradually realize that promise do not deliver, thecircle is getting completed by crowding in thehousehold capital investments as coping strategies.

Ideally, the revolving/loan fund should target therich/better off sections to leverage greater financialresources to the poor. However, policy andimplementation distortions are making the taskonerous. Despite the imitations, the funds wouldserve a great purpose and could be scaled up:

(i) if public policy in unequivocal terms spell outits stand on free provision;

(ii) the thrust of the funds is more on communityassets; and

(iii) major Government/ donor fundedprogrammes have embedded venture fundwindow of optimum size, with options forcommunity bidding for counter partcontribution levels administered on normativeand transparent mechanisms.

* MPLAD: Member of Parliament Local Area Development Fund MLALAD: Member of Legislative Assembly Local Area Development Fund.

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There is an initiative by Hindustan Lever Ltd. (HLL)called �PROJECT SHAKTI� in India. During itsimplementation phase and it was actively involvedwith SHGs/NGOs/Government Agencies across 14States in promoting the concept of Micro Enterprise/Health & Hygiene. Now the project has more than15000 Shakti Dealers across the country and HLLhas been keen in promoting Health and Hygieneprogrammes through the rural communicatorscalled �Shakti Vahinis� and on the whole the entirechannel is getting stronger day by day with theactive participation of rural women in thisprogramme. Utilising this channel will be a greathelp in speeding up the implementation of theprogramme.

These types of programmes especially Water andSanitation programmes should be tried more throughpublic private partnerships and we should take thehelp of companies like HLL/Procter & Gamble/Wipro/ITC etc. Recently HLL also launched its new product�Pureit� water filters, which can be procured easily bySHG members through their internal loan options.Alternatively, even any local bank can extend a loanof Rs. 2,000/- to acquire the filters and therebyencourage them to have purified water for thefamilies.

More than providing access for the communities tothese facilities there is a great need for bringingawareness on the importance of the hygienic livingto rural women, who can in turn bring change into their families. All the Primary schools and HighSchools in rural India must exclusively deal on thesubject on a consistent basis to bring an over allunderstanding of water and sanitation problemsand how they can be addressed by theinvolvement of the community members/corporates and the Government Agencies.

Even taking the help of Nehru Yuva Kendras of therural youth programme can be tried involving ruralyouth and developing them into Water andSanitation Clubs. They could be trained as advisorsand technicians to deal with minor repairs andother works in the community. By this way, goodemployment to them can also be generatedsimultaneously.

Constraints in Revolving Funds

Constraints in Adoption

The adoption of revolving funds by the poor forWATSAN facilities saves time for the poorhouseholds, increases time availability foreconomic activities and thereby increased ability to

pay installments. Slum-dwellers living in rentedaccommodation or prone to frequent migration,may be reluctant to invest in toilets. Insecurity oftenure is another constraint. Poor people who lackownership over the land on which their houseswere built, may not be interested in taking suchloans. Absence of a steady revenue stream forrepayment of loans from revolving funds is anothermajor constraint for the poorest.

Constraints to scale up

There are many systemic constraints in scaling upWATSAN revolving funds. In general, hiddensubsidies are built into large-scale water andsanitation programmes, which benefit the rich andthe affluent, while the revolving funds are designedfor the poorer sections. The Government�s promiseto deliver such municipal infrastructure at no costhampers flow of private investment in buildingwater and sanitation infrastructure, which bynature is a high demand area, and could easilyattract such viable infrastructure. As this low costand efficient infrastructure delivery is plagued withpoor quality, quantity and reliability, the citizensultimately end up with investing private capital tomeet the gaps. In this process, the poor pay morethan the rich pay for water and sanitation services.

Suggestions

A system of revolving funds for financing waterand sanitation infrastructure needs to be evolvedfor affluent sections, and the money saved may beutilized in providing subsidised access to theservices for the poorer sections. In case if this cannot be done, the revolving funds should be scaledup, provided the thrust of the fund was kept oncommunity assets and if major Government anddonor funded programmes have a window toencourage venture funds. In addition, the followingare suggested to promote revolving funds:

� Designing customized individual loan productsfor the WATSAN programmes by UN-HABITATand other organisations in this business, suchas the special product that Indian Bankdesigned for the Shakti project.

� Undertaking community survey and preparingslum profiles to understand factors forreluctance against use of loans for sanitation.

� Using public-private models for promotingrevolving funds, as done by a companypromoting water filters through SHGs.

� Increasing awareness of women andschoolchildren about sanitation and involvingyouth as advisors and technicians.


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ANANTHAPUR DISTRICT, INDIA

A New Approach to Financing Pro-poor Investment forDrinking Water Supply

Responding to the request of the people, a unique public-private partnership was forged in 1995 to providesafe drinking water to Ananthapur district at the initiative of Sri Sathya Sai Central Trust � a private non-profit-charitable Trust. The district of Ananthapur (Population: 3.6 million) in the State of Andhra Pradesh is thesecond-most arid district in India and has been experiencing drought continuously for the past 15 years.Getting safe drinking water has been a daily drudgery for millions in Ananthapur. Another major threat is theexcessive fluoride in the ground water. The poor are the worst-affected by the fluorosis (a disease of fluorinepoisoning), which further restricts their income-earning opportunities. The Trust committed the fund requiredfor implementing this massive project by people�s participation.

The project was completed in a record time of 18 months at a cost of Rs. 3000 million (US$ 69 million), whichincluded the construction of:

� huge reservoirs in the river beds of Pennar and Chitravatty and Hagari,� Infiltration wells,� Borewells,� Summer Storage tanks,� Water treatment plants for treating the river and canal waters, and� a 2500 km pipeline for distributing drinking water throughout the length and breadth of the district.

About 40 litres of safe drinking water per capita per day reaches 731 villages in the district covering a populationof about one million, out of a total of around 1,000 villages in the district.

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Background

Prior to the implementation of the project, theavailability of drinking water was meagre andquality of water was not appropriate. The wholedistrict was deprived of ground water due tofrequent failure of monsoon and continuousdrought. The contamination of drinking water byexcess fluoride along with bacteria persisted. Thevillagers suffered severe health problems due tothe water borne diseases and bone deformation.Chronic water scarcity in Ananthapur hadadversely affected food security and incomeearning opportunities of the people, particularlythe rural poor. Of the 14 occurrences of faminebetween 1900 and 1959 in India, Ananthapur wasaffected as many as 11 times. Poverty continues tobe widespread in the district. Nearly 60 per cent ofrural households in the district survive on anincome of US$1 per day.

Salient Features of the Project

The project presented an innovative model ofpublic, private and people�s partnership for thedelivery of drinking water supply services to therural and urban poor. Key to this partnership wasthe rare motivation generated by the Trust among

the key partners. The State Government agenciestook the lead at the project formulation, planningand design phase. The contractor, Larsen andToubro Ltd., worked in close partnership with thecommunities and the State Government agenciesduring the implementation phase. The Trust fundedthe entire project through voluntary contributionsreceived from individuals of the civil society fromall over the world, in the true spirit of a globalpartnership for a worthy cause. After completion,the project was handed over by the Trust to theState Government which has assumedresponsibility for its maintenance, operation andmanagement in partnership with grass root leveldemocratic institutions (Panchayat Raj).

The significant features of the Project aresummarised as:

1. Population provided with safe drinking water -1.25 Million (Design); 900,000 (current) in 731villages and the Ananthapur Town.

2. Source of supply - 60 per cent surface waterfrom three rivers and 40 per cent ground waterfrom deep aquifers, fully treated.

3. Mode of supply at user end - 1,700 publicstand posts and 1,000 concrete Cisterns with 4taps in each.

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4. Project cost - Rs. 3,000 million (US$ 69 millionapprox.).

5. Project duration - 18 months (February 1995 toJuly 1996).


The Project�s main objective was to improve thequality of life of the people through safe drinkingwater. For this purpose, the Project adopted thefollowing strategies:

� Adopting an innovative approach which crossedseveral thresholds of excellence and set newfrontiers by demonstrating creation of a publicservice facility to serve the felt needs of thepeople despite Government�s initiative throughinspired leadership to �Love all and Serve all�and bringing out a basic desire to participateand contribute to the common good bymembers of all communities.

� Demonstrating an alternative mode of financing(compared to traditional institutional financing)for large-scale drinking water supply projectsfor the rural and urban poor, which couldsignificantly contribute to achieving theMillennium Development Goal.

� Adopting new approaches to build a broad-based partnership involving public, private andthe community by forging and succeeding in acollaborative endeavour between a nongovernmental organisation, a governmentalagency and a private contractor.

� Utilising situation specific and localisedtechnologies, systems and practices, and a well-designed Management Information System (MIS)facilitating continuous monitoring and evaluationfor timely completion without cost overrun.

� Creating abilities to achieve super-ordinategoals by effectively combining Staff, Systems,Strategy, Structure, Skills and Style for effectivefunctioning of both sets of Organisationaldynamics �transactional as well as thetransformational�. The former, through thecentralised Sri Sathya Saibaba Water SupplyBoard, Municipality and the Local SelfGovernment provided role and responsibility,standard and commitment, direction andexecution and the latter, because of theoutstanding and evangelical leadership producedthe right mission, strategy and culture.

� Generating right combination ofprofessionalism, compassion, credibility,leadership and inspiration for successfulexecution of the project with fruition of goodperformance and a sense of mission.


The initial cost of the Project was estimated at Rs.700 million mainly for construction of borewellsand De-fluoridation plants. However, the Trust

revised the project concept and decided in favourof a Permanent Source Framework for the project,adhering to all the normal Government proceduresin the formulation and implementation of theproject. Accordingly the detailed working of theproject resulted in an outlay of about Rs. 1750million. However, the scope of the project wasfurther extended keeping in view the groundrealities and the project was completed at a cost ofRs. 3,000 million (US$ 69 million) totally fundedby the civil society organisations through fundssubscribed by the global community to the SriSathya Sai Central Trust.

The operation and maintenance cost of the projectincluding staff, plant and machinery is being borneby the Government of Andhra Pradesh through aboard specially constituted for the operation andmaintenance of the comprehensive protected watersupply schemes and Gram Panchayats (Rural LocalSelf-government) in the ratio of 70:30, pendingcreation of corpus fund. The government releasesevery year 70 per cent of the maintenance costand the Board raises 30 per cent costs from thewater users by prescribing appropriate rates. Thecost of O&M has been worked out by the Board tothe tune of Rs. 90 million (US$ 2 million). Theoperation and maintenance costs mainly relate tothe costs of men and machinery, maintenance ofDG sets, electricity charges, cost of chemicals,other maintenance charges like spares or pump setrepairs etc. and the 2 per cent overheads of theBoard office establishment.

The cost of the water is calculated based on thecapacity of the storage facility in the overheadreservoirs in each village; generally devised at40,000 litres capacity for 1000 (approximately)population and 60,000 litres capacity for 1500population coverage. The water provision in termsof the users requirements is 40 lpcd, collectedthrough stand post. However, in terms of the waterdelivered the O&M cost works out at an average ofRs.15/- per kilo litre (US$ 0.33/kl) of which thegovernment contribution has been 2/3rd atRs.10/-, and 1/3rd at Rs.5/- is generated from thewater users.

Process

Sri Sathya Sai Drinking Water Supply Project wasimplemented through a partnership of (a) SriSathya Sai Central Trust, a civil societyorganisation, as the funding and co-ordinatingagency of the project (b) Government of AndhraPradesh as the facilitator through administrativeand technical support of the project, (c) M/s.Larsen and Toubro Ltd., a private sectorprofessional organisation for actualimplementation and (d) the community and thepeople themselves who were beneficiaries of theproject for their involvement in project planning


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as well as its implementation with their overallpositive support and physical/in kindcontributions.

Sri Sathya Sai Central Trust established as a publiccharitable trust for serving the society in the area ofeducation, health and drinking water. The Trustadhered to all the procedures and practicesfollowed under the local and national laws. Theprovision of safe drinking water is the soleresponsibility of the Government. The Trust throughits Founder made several requests to theGovernment for provision of drinking water supplyto the millions of downtrodden in Rayalaseemaand Telengana districts of Andhra Pradesh. As theGovernment could not fulfill its commitment forwant of funds for providing safe drinking water, theTrust decided to launch the Sri Sathya Sai DrinkingWater Supply Project by mobilising the communityfunds through its global network.

The Trust requested for technical andadministrative assistance from the Departments ofState Government including preparation ofdetailed project report with all technical data. TheState Government agreed to be the partner of theTrust and entrusted the job of providing designsand specifications by its Panchayat Raj Departmentof the Government of Andhra Pradesh.

M/s Larsen and Toubro Ltd. (L&T) executed theproject as per designs and specifications providedby the Department of the State Government. L&Talso helped the Trust in designing all the Overheadservice reservoirs. Concurrent engineering, quickfield responses to critical problems, flexibility indecision making and institutionalisation of keydecision making powers led to its successfulcompletion. L&T�s construction machineryresounded through step terrain, barren land,unapproachable territory; and L&T�s high-poweredteam worked round the clock to implement theproject without time and cost overruns.

At the time of project planning, the communityleaders and select persons from the respectivesettlements were involved. The major areas ofinvolvement of the community comprising of bothwomen and men were meeting project goals,location of overhead tank and public taps. At thetime of the project survey and construction of watersupply facilities, the community was made awareabout the purpose of the Project and nature offacilities to be provided. The community, therefore,fully involved itself as a partner of the Project andplayed a very positive role.

During the execution of the project, the teams ofthe three major partners, viz. the Trust, thePanchayat Raj Department and the L&T worked

day and night tirelessly under the constantsupervision, monitoring and inspiration of theFounder of the Trust.

Results Achieved

The Sri Sathya Sai Water Supply Project (SSSWSP)was launched with a noble purpose by the SriSathya Sai Central Trust, a Charitable Trust (a non-governmental organisation), founded by Sri SathyaSai Baba, regarded as the Spiritual Leader bymany people in India and elsewhere in the world.

The Trust supplied safe drinking water to 731villages, covering 70 per cent of all the villages inthe Ananthapur District. Apart from making safedrinking water available and accessible with greatefficiency and effectiveness, the project stands as ahigh-water mark in the parched lives of thedrought hit villagers, for it has not only fulfilledtheir dreams but also holds a great promise ofimproved health and overall quality of life infuture. The provision of safe drinking water wastaken up by the Trust under the following twocategories:

Protected Water Supply Scheme (PWS) usesgroundwater facility through Borewells covering279 villages, wherever surface water not available.It was also called Individual Scheme as eachvillage is provided with one Borewell connectionwith a Cistern from where the villagers pickup thedrinking water. These were mostly maintained bythe individual Gram Panchayats and the Sri SathyaSai Central Trust itself with respect to some villagescloser to the Puttaparthi region, the seat of theTrust. Regarding maintenance by the GramPanchayats, there is, so far, no centralised systemat the district level responsible for monitoring therole of these Gram Panchayats. All GramPanchayats in the district were required to report tothe District Panchayat Officer at Ananthapur for itsactivities.

Comprehensive Protected Water Supply(CPWS), uses surface water facilities throughBalancing Reservoirs, Infiltration Wells andSummer Storage Tanks (SS Tank) covering 452villages. Of these villages, 264 villages werecovered by major CPWS scheme, under whichwater was being supplied to several villageseither through more than one Infiltration Well orSS Tanks or Balancing Reservoirs. For theremaining 288 villages, the water was beingprovided through minor CPWS wherein oneInfiltration Well provides drinking water to anumber of villages. However, under this scheme,some villages also do get water supply from SSTanks or Balancing Reservoirs directly dependingupon its location.

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The water was provided to the villagers throughpublic stand posts. There were as many as 1,700stand posts that were erected in these villages.

After the completion of the Project, theGovernment of Andhra Pradesh constituted a SriSathya Sai Water Supply Project Board foroperation and maintenance of the water supply to438 villages covered under CPWS. Of theremaining, 11 villages were maintained by thePanchayat Raj Department under its Rural WaterScheme and 3 centres in the Ananthapur town bythe Ananthapur Municipality, wherein the waterprovided through Sri Sathya Sai scheme throughHLC as well as through Borewells constructed bythe Municipality were mixed up and distributed tothe beneficiaries. However, the 438 villagesmaintained by the Board also include theInstitutions, viz. the Jawaharlal Nehru TechnicalUniversity (JNTU) and the Sri KrishnadevarayaUniversity (SK University) at Ananthapur, one centerin Dharmavaram Municipality and 5 centres ofKadiri Municipality, which were not in operation asthese centres possess alternate source of watersupply and hence stopped paying the O&M coststo the Board, as a result the Board disconnectedsupply of water to these centres. Thus, the Boardextended the O&M services to 430 villages.

Sustainability and Lessons Learned

The key to sustainability is the continuingcommitment of all partners after the completion ofthe project. The impact evaluation study revealed arare sense of commitment on the part of allpartners even after six years of operation of thewater supply scheme. The strong sense ofownership of the beneficiary communities with theproject remains a central factor of sustainability.The State Government ensured sustainability of thescheme through the creation of a Statutory Board(Sri Sathya Sai Water Supply Project Board) foroperation and maintenance of the water supply.The Board was entrusted with the responsibility ofcollecting O&M costs from institutional users whilethe cost of supplying drinking water to poor villagecommunities were supported through budgetaryallocation.

It was a unique experience by a non-governmentalorganisation, which implemented the projectthrough public-private-people-participation with aunity of purpose and harmony of thought. The Trustcharacterised the uniqueness of the project by:

� taking up this challenging task of vastmagnitude and completing it within a stringenttime frame at a minimal time and cost; whichcould not be possible by the Government in thenext 30 years at the cost of which the projectwas executed by the Trust; the project, if

completed by the Government with the normalprocedures would have costed 200% excessthan the actual expenditure made in the projectand would have taken 4 to 5 years for itscompletion;

� conceiving and concluding the Project andhanding it over to the State Government andthe community to own and maintain;

� implementing the project with excellentspecifications and quality materials forproviding sustainable and safe drinking watersupply;

� creating an environment of assurance andencouragement with comprehensive fundingarrangements, contingencies for meetinguncertainties in terms of time, cost and physicalrequirements of the project;

� bringing up remarkable professional disciplineright from the stage of formulation of theproject till its completion;

� the people�s total involvement for the spirit ofthe cause in providing all possible cooperation,even bearing the losses on their part (withminimal compensation, donating the land etc);

� creation of unique institutional mechanism byconstituting an autonomous Board, for theoperation and maintenance of the Project, andthe engagement of a private organisation forthe execution of O&M for the system;

� replicating the project in the other districts in theState of Andhra Pradesh with similar conditions.

The Uniqueness of the Project lies in every aspectof the Project Management starting from itsDesign, Planning, Engineering, Implementation,Cost effectiveness, Service delivery, Operation &Maintenance, Time & Cost management, itsreplicability and finally achieving the end goal ofsupplying fluoride free safe drinking water to amillion inhabitants of the district and therebyimproving their health conditions and ensure betterquality of life. A non-governmental organisation,led the way in showing that the success of theentire endeavour depends on Unity, Purity andDivinity.

Transferability

The Sri Sathya Sai Central Trust conceived andconcluded the project and after its completion,handed over to the State Government to own andmaintain. The replicability of this approach wasclearly demonstrated by the fact that since thecompletion of the Ananthapur project, Sri SathyaSai Central Trust had undertaken and implementeddrinking water supply projects in two other ariddistricts in Andhra Pradesh, viz. Medak andMahboobnagar and initiated similar process inChennai, Tamil Nadu and East and West Godavaridistricts of Andhra Pradesh. Similar projects areunder way in El Salvador and Mali.


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AHMEDABAD, INDIA

Infrastructure Financing Reforms toShape Up Public Sector

In India, as well as in many other countries, the urban infrastructure financing is the remit of public agencies,which often lack the skill, capacity, or funding to implement projects effectively. The Ahmedabad MunicipalCorporation (AMC), and other public corporations in other Indian cities that followed (including Bangalore,Ludhiana, Nasik, Nagpur, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, and Indore) � their switching towards modernised accountingand financial systems, reviewing sources of revenues to increase collections, and focusing on recruiting trainedand motivated staff � helped to increase investments in the water supply and sanitation sector using domesticfunds. In case of AMC, targeted and strategic support from USAID helped to catalyse finance, and create aninfrastructure for further domestic finance in the future. Ahmedabad was the first city to launch the MunicipalBonds. In 2002, Ahmedabad launched its second tax-exempt bond issue, to complete its water and sewerageinfrastructure plan.

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Background

Ahmedabad is the largest city in the State ofGujarat, India, as well as the commercial capital ofthe State. Despite economic growth in the city, ithas a high rate of poverty - in 2000, 41% of thecity�s population lived in slums and low-incomehousing.

The Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC)was created to provide infrastructure services in thecity, including water supply, sewerage, storm waterdrainage, road construction and maintenance,street lighting, and management of parks andgardens. By the mid-1990s, the AMC facedconsiderable financial deficits of the order of US$9.2 million and major improvements to services,particularly for water supply and sanitation, werehighly needed.

Infrastructure Reforms

In 1994, the AMC embarked on a reformprogramme that included improving accountingand financial management systems, revenuecollection, and its staff. For example, the AMC�smain revenue source (70-75%) was an octroi tax,levied on imports into the city. As part of reform,the AMC updated the tax rates to reflect currentmarket prices, worked with the police to identifyand catch defaulters, developed a wirelessnetwork for all check posts, and organisedseveral teams of inspectors to conduct spot

checks of vehicles. Strict accountability measureswere implemented to limit corruption. Inessence, public sector staff members wereprovided the means to do their jobs properly.These activities increased revenues by 60%. Thesecond major source of revenue (about 30%),property taxes, was also not performing - toaddress this, the AMC developed a computeriseddatabase of property owners, fined owners whodid not pay their taxes on time, publisheddefaulters names, disconnected water andsewerage services, and issued notices andwarrants to get defaulters to pay their taxarrears. The AMC also strengthened thecollections and enforcement staff. As a result,property tax collection increased by 55%.

Efforts to complement the Reforms

Complementing these reforms, AMC upgraded itsaccounting system from a cash-based single-entrysystem to a computerised double-entry system, andhired chartered accountants to introduce thesystem to the corporation, as well as assist with thefirst round of financial reports (in 1998). In 1997,40 chartered accountants and businessmanagement graduates were recruited to keyoperational and administrative positions, alongwith further recruitment of professional middle-level managers. This human resource reform wasmeant to change the work ethic that had stagnatedwithin the AMC, as well as upgrade its image as aresponsible organisation.

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Mobilisation of Resources and Launchof Municipal Bonds

In 1996, AMC developed US$150 million five-year capital investment programme, of whichUS$110 million was allocated for water supplyand sewerage infrastructure. Using its revenuestream - from octroi and property taxes - as astarting point of about 30% of the capitalinvestment programme�s cost, AMC sought toraise the remaining 70% of funds through loansand a municipal bond. The AMC receivedsupport through this process from USAID,particularly with the financial analysis andpreparation of the investment plan. USAID alsohelped to develop a methodology for assessingmunicipal credit ratings for the Credit Rating andInformation Services of India (CRISIL), anindependent agency. In 1998, Ahmedabad

became India�s first city to launch a municipalbond. It had a credit rating of A+ from CRISIL.The bond issue was supported through privateplacement (75%) to institutional investment, aswell as sale to the public (25%).

Raksha Project � an Emergency BulkWater Supply Programme

Using some of the cash raised through the bondissue, the AMC was able to develop an emergencybulk water supply scheme, the �Raksha Project�.Raksha supplies water to 60% of the city�spopulation, and provides treated water to residentsin the mornings and evenings. AMC has noted thatbecause of its financial standing, it was able toprocure private contractors to complete the projectunder very competitive terms. The Raksha projectwas also completed in record time of 130 days.


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BUTWAL, NEPAL

Capital Cost Recovery Approach for Urban Poor

This Local Action explains the water supply project implementation in the urban poor communities of ButwalMunicipality based on 80 per cent capital cost contribution by the communities. Poor communities are unableto benefit from the existing Municipality approach of 50 : 50 cost sharing, as they are unable to pay upfrontcash contribution of 50 per cent. In a 80 : 20 approach, the beneficiary will pay the upfront capital cost on aninstallment basis and immediately gain access to water supply services. This approach is the first of its kind inNepal, which constitutes loan for the poor to improve basic services in their own community and the recoveredfund is mobilised to replicate a similar programme in other poor communities.

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Introduction

The price of water is composed of many componentsthat include production (financial) costs, economiccosts, the economic value of the commodity, and theclients willingness to pay which is the economic valuefor the water user. The financial cost of water for anindividual includes operational costs and capitalcosts. The operational cost and capital cost of watersupply are recovered from users in differentproportions. In a Small Town Water Supply Project,50% of the capital cost is recovered from the users.The urban poor are unable to pay and cannot gainwater facilities.

The Concept

The main concept of the 80:20 capital costrecovery approach is that the users pay 80% of thetotal capital cost of the project and only 20% isprovided as grant to the users. Initially totalamount required for the project is borne by thesupporting agency/local government. Thecommunity has to pay back 80% of the total coston installment basis, over a certain period of time,fixed by the users themselves.

Salient Features of 80:20 Capital CostRecovery Approach

� Eighty percent of the total cost of the project isrecovered from the community over a certain period.

� Twenty percent is provided as a subsidy by theMunicipality.

� Creation of a revolving fund to replicate theprogramme in other needy communities.

� Making the Municipality policy pro-poor withrespect to providing basic services by helpingthem to create an Urban Housing andInfrastructure Fund (UHIF) at the Municipalitylevel where poor people have access to creditfacilities to fund basic infrastructure such aswater and sanitation.

Community�s acceptance forImplementation Process

The 80:20 cost recovery approach was firstimplemented in Ward no.4 of Danda Tole inButwal Municipality covering 116 households with640 population, who are mainly occupied as dailywage earners, blacksmiths, masons and fewservice providers.

Amount Amount(Nepali Currency - NRs) (US$)

* Total Construction/Capital Cost 428,466 6,121

* 20% grant on capital cost 85,693 1,244

* 80% cost recovery 342,773 4,877

* Loan repayment per month 60 0.86 (to be repaid in 49 months)

Cost Recovery Calculation

Exchange rate - US$ 1 = NRs 70

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Initially, the approach faced lots of skepticism.Though Butwal Municipality was sensitive towardsproviding basic services including water andsanitation to the poor, they were doubtful about the80:20 approach. The main concern of theMunicipality was that this approach would increasethe debt burden on the poor and will make themeven poorer. But to their disbelief when the ideawas proposed to the community of Danda Tole, thepeople were not only convinced but supported theidea wholeheartedly. They were really surprised todiscover that the people of Danda Tole were notonly positive but seemed totally committed to dosomething by themselves to improve their owncommunity.

Thus, this informal settlement of Danda Tole wasselected to pilot a Gravity Flow Water SupplySystem. The Municipality joined hands withLumanti, a local NGO, to implement the drinkingwater supply project based on the 80:20 costrecovery principle.

From Concept to Action

Once the community agreed the concept, followingsteps were undertaken to translate the concept intoaction.

� Creation: �Drinking Water Management Fund�was created at Municipality in which the loanrecovered from the community is deposited.

� Operation: A �Fund Management Committee�was set up comprising representatives fromButwal Municipality, Danda Tole community andLumanti for its operation.

� Management: The main responsibility of theFund Management Committee is to initiate,manage and monitor the collection of loanpayments on a monthly installment basis. Aseparate account was opened in the name of

Butwal Municipality where the recoveredamount was deposited. Then the Municipalitydecides in consultation with the community forthe reinvestment in the needy communities forimplementation of water and sanitationprojects.

� Transparency: For transparent accountingeach household was provided a �card� torecord the monthly installment paid as theproof of the payment.

This approach has successfully managed to givethe conventional trend a new dimension.

Results Achieved

The loan payback per month is NRs. 60/- at 80%cost recovery, to be repaid in 49 months. Loanrecovery was relatively good in the beginning, at60% in the first year. However, it gradually wentdown over the next few years. The real cause tothis downfall was surprisingly not because theinhabitants could not afford to pay but due to lackof transparency in fund management and lack ofcapacity to manage fund.

Key to Success and Sustainability ofthe Approach

� Community Acceptance� Proper accounting system� Transparency in all activities� Rotation of leadership of management

committee every two years� Follow-up support from Municipality for

capacity building� Periodic fund monitoring by the Municipality� Reward for compliance and punishment for

defaulters� Active community participation and preparation

Communities Views

* �We have committed to pay and will pay, but there should be transparency on fundmanagement� - said Rina Bishwakarma of moderate income household. Her husband works inan office and earns NRs. 2,000 (US$ 29) per month�.* �Paying the amount is not difficult for me. I have bought this house months back but I am asked topay the default of the previous house owner� said Shanti Sharma, wife of a teacher earning NRs.3,000 (US$ 43) per month. Therefore there should be clear policy on these issues�.


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Lessons Learned

The 80:20 concept is a creative approach inreaching to the needy people particularly the poor.However, as reported by the community, theprogramme needs continuous refinement in thefollowing areas:

� Level of transparency to be increased: Thecommunity members are very concerned aboutthe money they have paid back. Their regularpayment depends upon maintenance of a clearbook of accounts. Periodic disclosure of theaccounts in the meetings increases trust in themanagement committee, and therebyincreasing the payback by the consumers.

� Capacity of the community: A skilled personwithin the community to keep records of paymentsis vital for the success of the scheme. Many issuesthat arise need to be clarified. There should be aclear policy on how much a new householdshould pay as tariff. Should the new household beresponsible for the default made by his previoushouse-owner in case of sale of property? A lackof clear policy in this regard causes confusion andhampers the payback.

� Follow-up support from Municipality:Support of the Municipality and supportingorganisations are vital as a part of capacitybuilding of community organisations, especiallyin accounting management.

� Equitable cost recovery approach: Thecommunity comprises of different economicgroups have different abilities to pay. Therefore,the cost recovery should be customisedaccording to their ability to pay. This can bedone by a different proportion of capital costrecovery mechanism for different economicgroups.

Transferability

Based on the lessons learned from Danda Toleproject, this approach has further implemented inChisapani Water Supply Project to serve 541households of Shikhar Deurali squatter communitylocated in Ward no.1 and Narsingh Tole,Paakhapani Tole, Manakamana Tole and BhimsenTole situated in Ward no. 4 of Butwal Municipality.The community not only agreed to pay back 80%of the capital cost at a monthly installment of NRs.68/- to be recovered in 68 months, but also set upa fund for the maintenance of the project throughhousehold contribution of NRs. 500/- upfront feeto the fund. By learning lessons of cost recoveryapproach from Danda Tole, the Users Committeehave passed a rule that if a household fails to paythe loan, then they will have to pay double theamount in the following month as a penalty.Butwal Municipality has also decided to assign astaff member to build the capacity of Committee tokeep the accounting system properly.

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CAMBODIA AND VIETNAM

Financing Practices for Service Delivery inSmall Urban Centres

Despite possible challenges, it is possible to structure innovative financing practices suitable to the needs ofthe small urban centres for promoting an efficient service delivery in the water and sanitation sector. This LocalAction illustrates the practices adopted in Cambodia and Vietnam.

For small urban centres, the concept of using guarantees to support local utilities is quite useful as theydevelop and strengthen local sources of finance. Nevertheless, the practical application of guarantees in thesecentres may prove challenging. In Cambodia, the use of guarantees to local banks to support community-based water supply services has been proved successful.

More recently, innovations in the use of equity, combined with other finance mechanisms, may be applicablefor development in small urban centres. For example, locally focused design, build and operate contracts forwater supply and sanitation projects, which are funded with equity investments from a larger utility, have beendemonstrated to be viable as illustrated in the experience of Vietnam.

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Use of a Guarantee for small urbancentres in Cambodia

In Cambodia, credit is provided only on a short-term basis. An international NGO (INGO) and aprofessional solidarity and internationalcooperation association, viz. Group ResearchExchanges Technologies (GRET) has put in place aRural Infrastructure Fund (RIF) in a publicdevelopment bank with the following two-foldobjectives:

� To provide medium-term (3-5 years) loans tolocal commercial banks who wish to financeinvestors involved in financing piped watersystems; and

� To provide a guarantee (30%) on loans forthose commercial banks in case of default ofthe investor.

Due to this guarantee, the commercial bank canask less collateral and accept lower credit rate tothe concerned investors.

The programme run by this international NGO(INGO) supports rural private sector to invest andbuild piped-water-systems with technical andfinancial assistance. The investor connects thepeople with water-meters and collects the billsevery month. The INGO has helped the installationof 10 systems, with rate of coverage reachingmore than 85% in certain areas.

Use of Design-Build-Lease Contracts inVietnam

In Vietnam, small urban centres are differentiatedfrom �townlets�. Small urban centres� populationrange from about 4,000 to 30,000, while townletshave a minimum population of 2,000 (1,000 inmountain areas). Only 30% of small urban centresand 15% of townlets have piped water systems,with a range of connection rates, from 20-80%.The coverage of population, with 7% of thecountry�s total population (5 million) living in smallurban centres, and 15% (10 million) living intownlets, represents a considerable portion of thecountry�s gap in meeting the MillenniumDevelopment Goals on water and sanitation.

To address this service gap, the World Bank issupporting a design-build-lease project in twotowns, each with a population of about 10,000.Under the scheme, private contractors design,build, and operate the water system, borrowingfunds drawn from the water utility, which the utilityoffers as an equity investment. After a graceperiod, which allows the contractor to generatecash reserves in case of cash shortfall during thedesign and construction period, the contractorrepays the utility, including the debt service fees,out of its revenues.

In order to avoid delays, a stakeholderengagement is used to determine the feasibility of


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design and cost estimates, as well as agree ontariffs. Importantly for the contractor, while thetariff does not reflect full cost recovery, the localauthority (and users) must agree to a minimumconsumption of 5 m3 of water per billing period forthe scheme to be viable. To cover connection costs,users preferred a higher monthly tariff rather thanan upfront charge; likewise, they agreed to small,more frequent tariff increases over time rather thanlarger, infrequent increases. After addressing issuessuch as these, the local authority must vote onwhether the plans are viable, and whether theutility is allowed to assume the loan which kick-starts the investment.

The benefits of this approach are that thecontractor must operate the system it builds, whichcounters the inclination for design. As the revenuesare directly tied to tariffs, the operator has anincentive to connect customers and provide goodcustomer service, which includes billing andcollections. For the utility, the risk of fronting anequity investment under the scheme (15%) is

managed because the assets - which will grow invalue through the scheme - belong to the utility,providing an additional incentive to provideoversight over the private contractor. Likewise, thecontractor is bound by a performance bond incase the contractor does not meet its obligations.Importantly, there is a competitive market foroperators in Vietnam, which increases thelikelihood of success to the utility and localgovernment.

For small urban centres, there may be options forprovincial or regional utilities - or even a localutility in a nearby large town or urban center - toprovide equity investments to support pipedconnections while supporting local economicdevelopment. Preliminary findings from the schemesuggested that capacity building to understand thecontractual implications may be needed. However,small urban centres water supply can be profitablefor smaller operators, provided enough work isdone upstream to get the incentives right, andaddress different risks.

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SECTION VII

Human Values-basedWater, Sanitation andHygiene Education

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Human Values-based Water, Sanitation andHygiene Education

There has been growing recognition thatimprovement in water and sanitation managementcannot be accomplished only by technical andregulatory measures. It needs to be complementedby advocacy, awareness and educational initiatives.Education on water, sanitation and hygiene is astrategic point in bringing out positive attitudinalchanges among the utility service providers and theusers, and in the long run develop new ethics in thesociety. Women have a significant role to play. Aeducated woman means that the family is educatedand therefore the community. Children being thefuture citizens, shall become the ambassadors and�Agents of Change� in bringing such reform.

Human Values-based Water, Sanitation andHygiene Education (HVWSHE) is an innovativeapproach that not only imparts education on water,sanitation and hygiene but also inspires andmotivates learners to change their behaviour andpromote wise and sustainable use of water andsanitation facilities. WATSAN classrooms in schoolsis an innovative concept to educate children aboutthe values of water and sanitation in day-to-day lifeas well as promoting universal values of honesty,integrity, responsibility, etc, which would furtherfacilitate changes in attitude and behaviour withinthe community towards water, sanitation andhygiene issues. This needs developing capacities inschools, teacher training colleges and communitiesto optimise the human potential andempowerment.

This Section shares this new and innovative initiativeand the experiences of the values-based water andsanitation education in Madhya Pradesh, India andSoutheast Asia.

UN-HABITAT is implementing the HVWSHE projectunder the Water for Asian Cities Programme inMadhya Pradesh, which is aimed at formulatingstrategies for introducing HVWSHE in the schools ofthe project cities of Bhopal, Indore, Gwalior andJabalpur and in Savarkundla, Gujarat by putting up

WATSAN classrooms as well as build the capacityof the concerned schools and other educationalinstitutions on water and sanitation. Theprogramme focuses on educating the childrenabout the importance of water, sanitation andhygiene as well as motivates children to changetheir behaviour towards water and sanitationservices. WATSAN classrooms are developed in oneof the important government schools/water utilitiesin each of the project cities. The WATSANclassrooms are equipped with the exhibits,materials, equipments, interactive panels, modelsand small water testing-kits, highlighting theimportance of water in life, water conservation, safesanitary practices, disposal of domestic waste etc.They are aimed to promote listening and learningas well as learning-by-doing in a child-friendlyenvironment and facilitate changes in attitudes andbehaviour among the community towards water,sanitation and hygiene issues.

Southeast Asian Ministers of EducationOrganization (SEAMEO) in cooperation with UN-HABITAT initiated a project, that aims at promotinga new water use ethics among the southeastAsians. The project seeks to achieve its goal bydeveloping the capacities of the Ministries ofEducation in SEAMEO to integrate HVWSHE incurricular and co-curricular activities and sensitiseschool officials, teachers, students, communityleaders and parents to the value of water. HVWSHEis expected to become part of the various learningactivities in the classrooms and in the teachersharing and mentoring activities in schools.

These experiences not only benefit the countries inthe Asia-Pacific Region but also the other parts ofthe world. They encourage the spirit to excel andthe quest to make the world more humane andpracticable in achieving the MDG on water andsanitation, by deriving benefits from such practicesleading to create a new water use and sanitationfriendly ethic amongst water and sanitation serviceproviders and consumers and thereby scaling upwater and sanitation services to the society.

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Initiatives for Human Values-based Water,Sanitation and Hygiene Education

UN-HABITAT facilitated establishment of HVWSHE classrooms in one of the important government schools inthe cities of Bhopal, Indore, Jabalpur and Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh in India through the partnership of theState Government and the Centre for Environment Education. The basic objective of this initiative is to createa new water-use ethic through value-based water education by imparting knowledge and information onwater, sanitation and hygiene, and also inspiring and motivating learners to change their behaviour with aview to promote wise and sustainable use of water and sanitation practices. Resource teachers in these schoolshave been especially trained to make the students learn about the values of water, sanitation and hygiene intheir daily life through various innovative exercises. The Government of Madhya Pradesh facilitates visit ofstudents from other schools of the cities to the HVWSHE classrooms.

The importance of the initiative has been recognised by the State Government as well as other institutions. Inview of the vast number of the students of each city to be exposed to the HVWSHE, the State Governmentunder its ADB supported Urban Water Supply and Environmental Improvement Project has decided to create amobile replica of the HVWSHE classroom for exhibiting it to the various schools. The Environmental Planningand Coordination Organisation have included the HVWSHE classroom programme in their environmenteducational promotion programme.

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Section VIHuman Values-based Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Education

Situation before the initiative began

Rapid urbanization has put enormous pressure onthe urban basic service delivery system in India.Consequently while the urban local bodies find itdifficult to provide safe drinking water for thegrowing population, the waste goes on piling updue to inadequacy of waste disposal facilities,resulting in unhygienic living conditions. Irrespectiveof the disparity of access to water supply andsanitation facilities, the misuse and wastage ofwater due to profligate use, leakages from pipesduring distribution, malpractices to access watercontinues. But the concerted effort in bringingchanges in the attitude and behaviour and cultivatevalues towards sustainable use of water and bettersanitation facilities and practices were lacking.


There has been a growing recognition thatimprovements in water and sanitationmanagement cannot be accomplished alone bytechnical and regulatory measures and need to becomplemented by advocacy, awareness andeducation initiatives. Education on water, sanitationand hygiene is a strategic point in bringing outpositive attitudinal changes among the utilityservice providers and the users, and in long rundevelop new ethics in the society.

The priority was to take initiative for the promotionof Human Values-based Water, Sanitation andHygiene Education (HVWSHE) in school curriculumthrough orientation of the teachers on HVWSHE tobring or strengthen the values within each childand change the perspective of each child on waterusage, sanitation and hygiene and then establishHVWSHE classrooms in selected schools tofacilitate the resource teachers to make thestudents understand the values of HVWSHEthrough innovative and interactive programmes.

UN-HABITAT�s strategy for implementing theHVWSHE as part of the Water for Asian CitiesProgramme was to build capacities in the localinstitutions to conduct human values-based water,sanitation and hygiene education in the formaland non-formal education sector.

Specific objectives of the programme were:

� To optimize human potential by introducingpartnership with water and sanitation serviceproviders, value-based water, sanitation andhygiene education in schools.

� To facilitate changes in attitudes and behaviouramong community members towards water,sanitation and hygiene issues.

� Promote better understanding of the environmentin the context of water, sanitation and hygiene.

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� Develop a guide book for the impartingHVWSHE in school curriculum.


UN-HABITAT facilitated establishment of HVWSHEclassrooms in one of the important governmentschools in the cities of Bhopal, Indore, Jabalpurand Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh in India throughpartnership of the State Government and theCentre for Environment Education (CEE).

Funds for the programme were mobilized fromvarious sources, with UN-HABITAT contributing US$84,000. The contribution of CEE was US$ 70, 000.District Administration of Indore and Jabalpurcontributed from the Parent Teacher Association(PTA) fund, whereas Municipal Corporations ofBhopal and Gwalior contributed from their ownresources for the renovations of the classrooms inthe project cities. The combined contribution of theDistrict Administration and the urban local bodieswere approximately US$ 30, 000. Besides, therecurring cost for the maintenance of the HVWSHEclass rooms and conducting the regularprogramme and transportation of the students fromvarious schools to the HVWSHE classrooms arebeing borne by the Education Department of theState Government/ respective school authorities.

Process

Primarily, identification of hosts for classrooms inthe four cities, and identification of motivatedteachers in these schools for running the classroomwas one of the important activities conducted forimplementation of the programme. One of thecriteria for identifying teachers during thisprogramme was by their commitment to educatingstudents on Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH)issues. A pre-training meeting with teachers was

conducted for discussions for their approach andunderstanding of the issues, giving inputs in settingup and management of the classrooms, etc. Theselections of schools in the four cities were alsocarried out. A guidebook was prepared for thisprogramme in local language. Orientationprogramme on HVWSHE for the teachers wasconducted which involved information-sharing,discussing local water and sanitation issues, andtheir impact on overall health of the society, andthe precautions that can be taken to avoid thesame. An exposure visit of the teachers to AnandShala in Gujarat was conducted to orient them inconducting the programme in HVWSHE classrooms.

CEE helped the schools in developing local-specificeducation material for both teachers and children.The programme offered by the host school to otherschools in the city is on a cost-sharing basis. Theprogramme could be a full-day one for a batch ofstudents of any one class and school. A rotationalsystem is followed, with the batches being exposed todifferent activities, concepts and modules in each visit.

Results Achieved

HVWSHE classrooms at Hamidia Boy�s School inBhopal, Government Padma Vidyalaya in Gwalior,Bal Vinay Mandir in Indore and Model School inJabalpur have been established. Besides thetraining of resource teachers, OrientationWorkshops for teachers of other schools of the 4cities were organized. About 200 teachers fromvarious schools of the 4 project cities participatedin these programmes.

After the establishment of HVWSHE classrooms, acontinuous activity for the students of other schoolsare also being conducted regularly in the projectcities. Students of more than 50 schools have visitedthe HVWSHE classrooms in each city during 2006-07.

HVWSHE classrooms

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In the Bal Mela (Children�s Fair) organized inBhopal, a replica of HVWSHE classrooms wasdisplayed, which was visited by about 2000students.

Sustainability

Sustainability of the initiative largely depends onthe popularization of HVWSHE programmes andmobilisation of adequate resources for running theprogramme. Realizing the importance of HVWSHEclassroom programmes, the Government ofMadhya Pradesh has developed a programme fortraining of teachers to facilitate imparting HVWSHEin schools. A guidebook on HVWSHE has beendeveloped, which would further help teachers tomake the students understand the values of water,sanitation and hygiene in their daily life. The effortsare on to sustain the programme throughdeveloping linkages with other existingprogrammes like that of National Green Corp.(NGC) programme and National EnvironmentAwareness Campaign of the Ministry ofEnvironment & Forests, and Education for AllCampaign of Government of India.

Lessons Learned

� Importance of Water, Sanitation and Hygieneeducation must be disseminated at large. But isit is difficult to reach to vast number of studentsin a city through activities in a HVWSHEclassrooms. Various awareness generationactivities are also to be conductedsimultaneously. Taking the HVWSHE classroomprogrammes to the other schools would enablethe students to be exposed to the learningprogramme.

� A sustained source of fund is required foroperation and maintenance of the HVWSHEclassroom facility as well as organizing regularinnovative programmes.

� There is need for identification of dedicatedteachers as well as volunteers to run theprogramme in a sustained manner.

Transferability

The importance of the initiative has beenrecognized by the State Government as well asother institutions. In view of the vast number of thestudents of each city to be exposed to the HVWSHE,the State Government under its ADB supportedUrban Water Supply and EnvironmentalImprovement Project has decided to create amobile replica of the HVWSHE classroom forexhibiting it to the various schools. TheEnvironmental Planning and Coordinationorganization, under the Housing & EnvironmentDepartment, Government of Madhya Pradesh hasincluded the HVWSHE classroom programme intheir environment educational promotionprogramme. These activities would hopefully helpcreate greater awareness among the students aswell as in the community.

Children visiting HVWSHE Classroom Bhopal


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SOUTHEAST ASIA

Thrust for Value-based Water, Sanitation andHygiene Education

Human values-based water, sanitation and hygiene education (HVWSHE) is an innovative approach that notonly imparts knowledge and information on water, sanitation and hygiene but also inspires and motivateslearners to change their behaviour towards wise and sustainable use of water. A Consultative Workshop onvalue-based water education in December 2003 introduced HVWSHE among educators in the region, leadingto the adoption of the SEAMEO Declaration on HVWSHE during the 39th SEAMEO Council Conference inMarch 2004. The SEAMEO Council of Ministers recognised that improvements in water management cannotbe accomplished by technical and regulatory measures alone, and developing awareness, advocacy andeducation can help sustain these measures. SEAMEO (Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization) incooperation with UN-HABITAT aims to initiate a new water-use ethic among Southeast Asians. The projectseeks to achieve its goal by developing the capacities of the Ministries of Education in SEAMEO to integrateHVWSHE in curricular and co-curricular activities and sensitize school officials, teachers, students, communityleaders and parents to the value of water.

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Introduction

Southeast Asia is blessed with abundant waterresources. Water is one of the many factors thatspur economic growth in the region. Agriculture,industry, commerce and trade are all linked towater and communities. To nearly half a billionSoutheast Asians living in one of the most dynamiceconomic blocks, rapid economic growth,urbanization and changing consumption patternsput enormous pressure on water and other naturalresources. Increasing urbanization also putsgreater health risks among the urban poor due tolack of safe water, sanitation and hygiene. There isgrowing recognition that improvements in watermanagement cannot be accomplished by technicalor regulatory measures alone. Water, sanitationand hygiene education can play a strategic role forfundamental change in behaviour, personalattitudes and the underlying values. Children andyouth could be the best change agents towards asustainable water use ethic.


The Project focuses efforts on:

� Advocacy among policy makers and educationplanners to put a high priority to provision ofsafe water supply and improved sanitation inschools.

� Developing a common assessment protocol on thestate of water and sanitation facilities in schools.

� Developing a regional database on water andsanitation facilities in schools.

� Establishing knowledge resource centres inselected schools throughout the region.

� Packaging knowledge/information onintegrating HVWSHE for use by teachers inSoutheast Asia.

� Developing teachers� capabilities in integratingHVWSHE in lessons lead innovations foreffective learning.

� Documenting and packaging the experiences,lessons learned, key success factors onpromoting HVWSHE in Southeast Asia.

� Developing a toolkit on Southeast Asianexperiences in HVWSHE.

The project seeks to develop the capacity amongthe Ministries of Education of SEAMEO to promoteHVWSHE in Southeast Asian schools and ensureproper management of water and sanitation(WATSAN) facilities in schools.

Expected Accomplishments

� Developing competencies of teachers in selectedSoutheast Asian schools in integrating HVWSHEin their lessons, effective use of resourcematerials and in assessing knowledge, skills,attitude and behaviour change among students;

� Developing prototype teaching/learningmaterials, lesson plans, activity guides,among others, on HVWSHE appropriate in theSEA context;

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� Documenting experiences, lessons learned oneffective practices in introducing HVWSHE inschools;

� Developing a common WATSAN facilitiesassessment protocol for use by the MOEs;

� Developing a resource package/toolkit on HVWSHE.

Resources

The project brings together the technical andlogistic resources of several organisationsthroughout Southeast Asia.

� UN-HABITAT and SEAMEO, through the SEAMEOSecretariat, provide the technical, financial andmanagement inputs for the project.

� SEAMEO regional centres and network providethe technical expertise and organisationalsupport to the various project activities. AllSEAMEO units engage in training, materialsdevelopment, research and technical assistanceservices in their fields of expertise.

� The project activities will be done and field-tested through a regional network ofcooperating schools, which will serve as theknowledge resource centres on HVWSHE.Teachers, principals and students of the selectedschools, including the communities they serve,will be developed as knowledge resourcecentres on HVWSHE.

� The SEAMEO Ministries of Education are theprimary beneficiaries of the project activities; thein-country project activities, however, areundertaken with the cooperation and support ofthe MOEs.

Process

The project addresses core concerns dealing withwater and sanitation in Southeast Asian schools.On the supply side, there is limited information onthe state of water and sanitation in the schools.Often, investment programmes overlook suchbasic needs as water and sanitation amidst manycompeting needs.

On one track, the Development of an AssessmentProtocol on Water and Sanitation Facilities inSchools supports supply of safe water andimprovement of sanitation facilities. Theassessment is done to know the state of water andsanitation facilities in schools and highlight theneed for safe water supply and sanitation facilities.The other major concern in the project is to buildcapacity in the Ministries of Education of SEAMEOCountries to effectively integrate HVWSHE in

lessons, demonstrate practices and bringingattitudinal changes among learners. Amongstmany strategies and approaches of HVWSHE,integration offers a viable solution addressing thediversity of the curricula, the different needs andpriorities of the countries in the region and thediversity in their capabilities. Through integration,the human values and water lessons can beeffectively moved to the learners through thedifferent subject areas.

Selected schools in the 10 SEAMEO countries arebeing developed to serve as knowledge resourcecentres on HVWSHE. A resource package forSoutheast Asian teachers brings together theconcepts of HVWSHE, techniques of integratinghuman values in various lessons and model lessonplans and materials were developed (in English)for dissemination in schools.

The knowledge resources and lessons will beinitially tried out in schools that are part of theSEAMEO Regional Coalition of Quality and Equityin Education (QEE) Schools. The RegionalCoalition, launched in 2002, comprises some 30primary and secondary schools all over SoutheastAsia that embrace continuing improvementlearning quality and promoting equity of accessamong learners in the communities they serve.Having adopted a broader concept of quality ineducation, the schools will be strengthened toserve as the knowledge resource for HVWSHE andhelp promote the concept and practice in theirrespective countries.

The experiences gained, problems encounteredand the practices that worked in various contextswill be complied into a toolkit for promotingHVWSHE in Asia. This is meant to enrich thegrowing knowledge base on HVWSHE as appliedin various regions.

Results Achieved

Four regional activities have been organisedinvolving education workers at various levels ofoperation. The three-day regional planningworkshop reacquainted education officials with theconcept of HVWSHE, identified strategies foreffective dissemination and planned thesucceeding project activities.

Another regional workshop reviewed existingmaterials and developed exemplars integratingHVWSHE in core learning areas. This was followedby a review meeting that improved on the initial


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draft. Around 30 trainers representing 8 of theSoutheast Asian countries were trained on theconcept of HVWSHE, the techniques and processesfor integrating HVWSHE in lessons andassessment, during the Regional Training ofTrainers on Integration of Human Values inWater, Sanitation and Hygiene Education,organized by the SEAMEO Regional Centre forEducation in Science and Mathematics. Theseteacher-trainers will, in turn conduct nationaltraining courses in their respective schools andjurisdictions. A national training on integratingHVWSHE was done in Philippines and furtheractivities in Malaysia, Cambodia and BruneiDarussalam are due to follow.

The Assessment Protocol on School Water andSanitation Facilities had been field tested in 8 ofthe SEAMEO member countries. The SEAMEOMinisters of Education will be expected to adoptthe Assessment Protocol and encourage schools intheir respective countries to update information inthe regional database.

The Regional Database on Water andSanitation Facilities in Schools was developedfrom the initial field test data of the AssessmentProtocol. An online version of the AssessmentProtocol will be used for updating school data innational and regional databases.

Sustainability

By focusing on the development of the capabilitiesof the key players in education, HVWSHE isexpected to become part of the various learningactivities in the classrooms, and in the teachersharing and mentoring activities in schools. Thematerial developed not only provides timelyinformation and knowledge on various interestingtopics dealing with water. It is also being used as aresource in teaching cultures of other Southeast

Asian countries, appreciation of religious andcultural diversity, health, hygiene, sanitation inaddition to the common learning areas.

Further work on the project will seek to spreadHVWSHE among parents, leaders of communitiesand institutionalization into the teacher training/education programmes.

Lessons learned

The SEAMEO-UN-HABITAT cooperation to promoteHVWSHE in Southeast Asia has gone a long waysince its introduction in 2003. The advocacyreached out to practically several levels ofaudiences � the policy makers, those who makeinvestment decisions, the schools and their leaders,teachers, students and young people and thecommunities served by the schools.

The project highlights several following facets:

� As an education project, it highlights knowledgeand changing attitudes on water as a resourceand as an essential part of our environment.

� As a project that relates to water supply andsanitation in schools, it highlights the needs,policies and investment decisions that leadersneed to make to reach the goal of providingsafe water supply and improved sanitation forall. The project also helps focus the community�seffort in securing safe water supply andimproved sanitation.

� As a water project, it underlines the relationshipbetween the water utilities companies, thecommunities they serve and how they can worktogether towards efficiently using scarce waterresources and preserving the environment.

� As an effort involving human values, it reachesinto the human heart and mind in makingbetter choices on using water and enhancinghuman dignity.

Contacts:

Bert DiphoornDirector (Ag)Human Settlements Financing DivisionUnited Nations Human Settlements Programme(UN-HABITAT)P.O.Box 30030, Nairobi, KenyaTel : +254-20-7625420Fax : +254-20-7623588E-mail : [email protected]

Andre DzikusChiefWater and Sanitation Section IIWater, Sanitation and Infrastructure BranchUnited Nations Human Settlements Programme(UN-HABITAT)P.O.Box 30030, Nairobi, KenyaTel : +254-20-7623060, 7625082Fax : +254-20-7623588E-mail : [email protected]

Kulwant SinghChief Technical AdvisorWater for Asian Cities ProgrammeUnited Nations Human Settlements Programme(UN-HABITAT)EP 16/17, Chandragupta Marg,Chanakyapuri, New Delhi-110 021, IndiaTel : +91-11-42225019,42225022Fax : +91-11-24104961E-mail : [email protected]

Toshiyasu NodaDirectorRegional office for Asia and the PacificUnited Nations Human Settlements Programme(UN-HABITAT)ACROS Fukuoka Building, 8th Floor1-1-1 Tenjin, Chuo-ku,Fukuoka 810-0001, JapanTel : +81-92-724-7121/23E-mail : [email protected]

K.E. SeetharamPrincipal Water and Urban Development SpecialistAsian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City0401 MM P.O. Box 7890980 Manila, PhilippinesTel : +63-2-6325328Fax : +63-2-6362340E-mail : [email protected]

Asia-Pacific Water ForumE-mail : [email protected]