A National HistoricMechanical EngineeringLandmark

Lombard SteamLog Hauler

August 14, 1982

Patten, Maine

The American Society ofMechanical Engineers

Lumbering in Maine, which beganalong the coast with cutting pine formasts for the Kings Navy, was limitedto the suitable timber growing nearenough to the water to permit itstransportation by oxen to water onwhich it could be floated to the ship.As new mills developed and lumber-ing moved up the rivers the cut wasstill limited to lumber that could behauled to water on which it could befloated to the mills.

The pine was hauled almost en-tirely by ox team. Six, sometimeseight oxen, made a team. A smalloperation was one team cutting per-haps 600,000 feet BM in a season.Larger opertors had two or threeteams, and the size of crew and thecut were increased correspondingly.

The tree was “topped off” to makeall of the marketable timber into onelog and this long log with the barkremoved from one end, was draggedon a “go devil” or bob sled to thelanding where it was sawed into shortlengths.

The horses of this period were notequal to this task while the oxen, theordinary beasts of burden of the time,

Early type ofLombard SteamLog Hauler withupright boiler andengine.

were availble and moreover could getthrough a winter on wild hay cut onthe meadows in the woods whilehorses required good hay and grain.

The oxen in many cases hauledpine long distances and the logs weredriven out of streams so small that itnow seems hardly possible that theyever floated a pine log. When it wasconsidered that the available pinewas exhausted there still remainedmany small areas with a good standof “pumpkin” pine.

One town in northern Maine wasknown as the dry town because in allits 36 square miles there is no streamlarge enough to float a log.

When the lumbermen turned tospruce and horses displaced theoxen, the situation was changed onlytemporarily. A logging road for horsesmust be entirely down grade or atleast generally level. A four turn roadwas considered about the limit forprofitable lumbering. Furthermore,the necessity of driving these logs tomarket limited the activities of thelumbermen to those varieties thatwould float, that is, spruce, fir, cedarand pine.

It was impractical to mix in a driveeven pine which floats nearly sub-merged with the smaller spruce whichfloats with a fourth of the log out ofwater. When a lumberman could notresist the temptation and put a finebig pine with his spruce, the logmade so much trouble that it wasusually pushed into a poke logan and

abandoned. Some attempts weremade to drive poplar pulpwood but itbecame waterlogged so quickly thatit usually sank in the pond in which itwas landed.

As a result of these limitations,there were at the turn of the centuryuncounted thousands of acres of finemaple, white and yellow birch, beech,and ash, which, with the equipmentavailable, could not be gotten to anymarket.

Thus the time was ripe for the de-velopment of a mechanical means ofhauling logs and the opportunity wasnot overlooked by the mechanics whohad built and repaired the lumberingequipment of the period.

In the 90’s when the internal com-bustion engine was being perfectedand the horseless carriage was be-coming commonplace, lumbermenreturning from visits to Bangorbrought reports of the progressJames and Ira Peavey were makingwith their log hauler.

Vehicles powered by gasoline en-gines were running successfully, butthese ran on wheels on the ground.But the log hauler must run on snowand a wheel with its very limited sur-face in contact with the surface of itsroadbed would certainly slip if the sur-face were snow and ice.

Peavey’s solution of this difficultywas to apply the power through twolarge screws. This worked on ice anda full scale model actually hauled logson a good hard road, but the screwchurned up the snow so much that itlost traction and in loose snow it waspretty nearly helpless. Peavey’s log

“He has known thecrash of the fallingspruce...has trodthe ruts to thecamps longago...boasted thescale of the heavyloads that crickedo’er the frozensnow...” The OldLumberman,Harold P. Andrews.

hauler never got beyond the experi-mental stage.

In this same decade a carpentermillwright and general handyman,Johnson Woodbury, who was some-thing of an inventor in his own right,and all his life had been familiar withlumbering and its problems had hismind at work on the log hauler. Almostany line of reasoning that he followedbrought him to the necessity of someform of track that would give thewheels the traction that snow couldnot provide. Railroads would do thisbut were obviously not the solutionof the problem. When he moveda house, beams were laid on theground for a short distance and thebuilding moved along on rollers run-ning on these tracks. As it pro-gressed, the beams in the rear weremoved forward so that there was al-ways a track in front of the movingbuilding. By repeating this processoften enough, the building could bemoved a considerable distance, butobviously this method was impracti-cal for hauling logs.

But Woodbury had in his barn a“horsepower,” a treadmill commonlyused to provide power for a thrashingmachine or a drag saw for sawingwood. The essential part of the tread-mill was an endless chain of woodenlags running over two pairs of trucksto which the lags were geared. Set atan angle the weight of the horseswalking on the lags tends to force thelags down hill, turning the wheels and

generating power which is transmittedthrough a drive wheel on the shaft ofthe upper pair of trucks. Woodburyenvisaged this assembly reversed,the track on the ground, the powerapplied to the trucks and the lagsmoved by the revolving wheels. Theweight of engine providing the powersupported by the trucks would holdthe lower half of the lags firmly to theroad bed, whatever its nature, thusproviding a track on which the trucksrolled forward. The rear truck pickedup the lag it had just passed over,while the forward truck laid down a lagto extend the track. He demonstratedthat this would work by rolling thetread of his horsepower up an inclineby turning the fly wheel.

Woodbury did not have the facilitiesor the funds to develop his plans for atractor that would run on snow, but ata town meeting in which the voterswere considering the construction ofan oversized roller to pack the snow tomake a hard road bed, he asked thetown to wait until the next year whenthere would be available a machinewhich would run on snow and wouldpush or pull a snowplow. The townbuilt the roller, which proved impracti-cal and was soon abandoned. Laterdevelopments proved that Wood-bury’s snow plow would have beensuccessful.

There is a story which relates ameeting of Woodbury and Alvin Lom-bard in the railroad station at Milli-nocket when they were leaving townafter working as millwrights in the newmills of the Great Northern PaperCompany. It is said that in the course

A Peavey LogHauler, Tractionwas obtained byrevolving screws.

of their friendly conversation, Wood-bury told Lombard about his plans fora log hauler. Woodbury went back tohis farm in Patten, where his dream ofa steam log hauler became only alocal tradition.

Alvin Lombard, back in his shop inWaterville, was a mechanic of morethan average ability who already hada number of inventions to his credit.Among these were a machine forbarking pulpwood, and a governor forwater driven turbines, which hadcome into general use.

The story, often told, of his start onthe log hauler relates that, goinghome from work one evening on thestreet car he fell in with an official ofone of the big lumber companies. Inthe course of the conversation aboutlumbering problems, this gentlemansaid that he was tired of wearing outhorses hauling logs and suggestedthat Lombard put his mind to workconstructing a machine that would re-place the horses. Lombard acted verypromptly on this suggestion, going atonce to his shop and applying himselfto the problem with such diligencethat in 24 hours he emerged with theanswer all set forth in a drawing and aworking model. Lombard arrangedwith Waterville Iron Works to build thefirst Lombard log hauler and his ap-plication for a patent was filed Nov. 9,1900. Patent No. 674,737 for a log-ging engine was issued May 4, 1901.

The description, claims and draw-ings of this patent are restricted to the

traction and method of support. It dis-closes a method of obtaining tractionin which the engine is supported ontwo pairs of geared wheels over whichruns a track made up of lags boltedtogether in a manner to make thetrack flexible and geared to mesh withthe wheels. The weight of the engineholds the lags on the ground (orsnow) firmly in place. The power isapplied to the forward pair of truckswhich, as they turn, move a lag for-ward and place it on the ground toextend the track forward. The rearwheels, as they move forward, pickthe last lag off the ground and move itforward. By this arrangement the en-gine rolls on a track held firmly on theground or loose snow by its ownweight with sections of the track laiddown in front of the drivewheels as itmoves forward. This, in brief, was thebasic invention which made possibleall the tractors, bulldozers, earthmovers, and the military tanks.

At the time Lombard began de-veloping his log hauler, two Californiacompanies, Benjamin Holt of Stock-ton and the Best Company of Oak-land, were making farm tractors. Holtbought out the Best Company. In thefollowing year Best’s son organizeda new company to make tractors.There was prolonged litigation be-tween the two companies, but even-tually they were combined as theCaterpillar Traction Company and thebusiness moved to Peoria, Illinoiswhere they began the manufacture of

A woodburning“Lombard” (c.1900-1910) built inWaterville, Maine.It was put intooperatingcondition February7, 1980 for a two-mile run—itsperformance wasdeemed “superb”.

tractors equipped with the track cov-ered by the Lombard patent. Thesewere wheel tractors made to run onthe ground, but when later the Holttractor ran on a track, the impressionwas created that this type of tractororiginated on the Pacific coast andthat Holt was the real inventor ofthe track.

In response to our inquiry for infor-mation on the relations of the Lom-bard Company and the Holts, Mr.Louis Lombard very kindly sent usvarious papers relating to the historyof the Lombard log hauler. Amongthese was a copy of a memorandumfound in the files of the Alvin O. Lom-bard Traction Co. In this memoran-dum Mr. Lombard states that the firstHolt tractor was built in 1907 but thathe does not think it was put on themarket until a later date. In regard tothe payment by Holt for Lombard’spatent rights the memorandumstates: “On February 21, 1910, Alvinand Samuel Lombard made a trip toCalifornia to see Benjamin Holt andadvised him that he was infringing theLombard patent and it was at that timethat Holt acknowledged that he wasinfringing and agreed to pay a royaltyto Lombard if Lombard would sendhim a contract agreement after hisreturn home. This Lombard did sendbut the agreement was never signedby Holt nor was any royalty ever paidLombard by him or by his company.”

There was also included a copy of apatent issued to Holt in 1912. Thiscovers a method of suspension andstabilization of the tracks and doesnot touch the fundamental principle of

traction through trucks running on amoveable track covered by the Lom-bard patent. There is no evidence thatHolt’s company had any patents onthe track, but the new companycopyrighted the name Caterpillar asapplied to this type of traction.

As a matter of fact there is in thePatent Office files Patent No. 23,853issued May 3, 1859, to Warren P. Mil-ler of Marysville, Calif., for a locomo-tive machine for propelling plows. Thespecifications and drawings of thispatent are a quite accurate descrip-tion of the traction system describedin Lombard’s patent and his claimstates briefly: “What I claim as myinvention and desire to secure by let-ters patent is: the combination of theendless chain or track with the lead-ing and driving wheels cc and thesupporting tracks ee wholly con-structed and operated substantiallyas and for the purpose set forth in saidspecifications.”

Miller did not design his tractor torun on snow but he states that itshould be especially suited to softand sandy soil where wheels wouldmake ruts. Miller’s patent was issuedand had expired long before Lom-bard, Woodbury or Holt had eventhought of tractors and was forgotteneven in the Patent Office. If Miller evertried to develop his invention he wasprobably classed as another of thecrackpots who were trying to build fly-ing machines.

Whoever had the idea first, it was

On an icy road“Lombards” couldpull a long string ofsleds loaded withlogs.

Lombard whose skill, ingenuity andperseverance built the idea into a ma-chine that worked. In 1900 the AlvinO. Lombard Traction Company beganin the Waterville Iron Works the con-struction of the Lombard steam loghauler, and on Thanksgiving Day ofthat year, the first machine made itstrial run. The trial was successful butthe machine developed a weaknessthat was to give serious trouble beforeit was overcome. On snow everythingran smoothly but when it hit frozenground the cast iron lags of the tracksbegan to break. This weakness wasfinally overcome by making the lagsof the hardest and toughest steel ob-tainable.

The first log hauler had an uprightboiler and two upright engines. Lom-bard attempted to avoid the use of adifferential to compensate for dif-ferences in speed of the tracks inmaking turns by using an engineworking independently for each track.This worked so far as compensatingdifferences in speed went, but whenthe two engines got in step, the vibra-tion became so great that this planwas abandoned and the conventionaldifferential was used. The forwardend was carried on a bob sled with aking pin to permit free movement ofthe runners. The first one was steeredby a pair of horses, but this primitivemethod was soon replaced by a steer-ing wheel with pinion on the staffwhich meshed into a 16-inch gearwheel. This, in turn, had a pinion on itsshaft which operated a quadrant at-tached to the bunk of the bob sled.This double reduction made steering

comparatively easy but required acomplete turn of the wheel to getmuch movement of the runners.

The upright boiler and engine weresoon replaced by a horizontal boilerand engine, and in its final form, thesteam log hauler was a railroad yardengine, known as a saddle back. Thesmall truck was replaced by a bobsled and the driver by two tracks. Thewater tank was draped over the boiler,giving this type of engine its name ofsaddle back. This arrangement ofboiler and water tank putting thegreater weight of the machine on thetracks, gave maximum traction andwas especially suited to the log haul-er. There was a cab in front for thesteersman, giving some protectionfrom the weather, and one at the rearfor the engineer and for the fuel.

In 1903 the first log hauler was soldto a Maine lumber firm and soon anumber were hauling logs on snowroads and they rapidly came into gen-eral use in Maine and New Hamp-shire. One was shipped to Montana,and a Wisconsin firm was licensed tobuild tractors under the Lombard pat-ent. The activities of the LombardTraction Co. were not limited to loghaulers, but tractors were built forspecial purposes such as a specialbody for hauling heavy blocks ofstone from quarries. One was built forcarrying mail and passengers over re-mote snow-covered roads.

There was one attempt to build alog hauler powered by electric mo-

A typical log haulercrew consisted ofan engineer,fireman, conductor,and the steerer.The conductor,riding close tothe rear,communicated withthe cab by a bellrope which ranalong the sledstakes.

tors. This involved the construction ofa dam, the installation of a generat-ing plant and of three miles of doubletrolley lines. This machine actuallyhauled logs three miles but on the firstfall of wet snow, so many short circuitsdeveloped that the machine was putout of commission and the projectwas abandoned.

It was soon found that where condi-tions made it possible to supply coalthat coal was a more economical fuelthan wood. Coolidge (History of theMaine Woods, p. 144) quotes the rec-ord of one operation in which a loghauler burning wood in hauling 3½million feet BM of logs used 350 cordsof wood. The preparation of this quan-tity of wood in advance to give it timeto dry would be quite a sizable opera-tion in itself. In the war period when itwas difficult to get coal some of thesteam log haulers burned wood, butfor the most part they were operatedon coal.

In its final form the Lombard wassatisfactory, but in the early modelsstructural defects developed and itsoperational breakdowns caused se-rious trouble. The strain and wear onthe tracks was especially heavy andwhen it became necessary to replacea track on a hauler stalled in the deepsnow with the thermometer register-ing zero or lower the maintenancecrew faced a major problem with allthe odds against them. But they al-ways managed and the haulers werestrengthened by making the partsheavier and of tougher steel.

The first Lombard gasoline enginemachine was built in 1909 by Lom-

bard for H. H. Linn and purchased byhim for running a tent dog show,which he conducted on the road atthat time. This is the same Linn wholater built gasoline tractors whichwere used in New York State for haul-ing logs. By 1917 Lombard seems tohave been making gasoline poweredengines exclusively.

The gasoline log hauler differedfrom the steam driven machine only inthe substitution of the steam boilerand engine by a gasoline engine.These did not have the power of thesteam driven engines and were notefficient for long hauls. On a roadwhere the steam driven engine wouldhaul 12 sleds, the gasoline engineswere limited to five sleds. However,the gasoline machines were very use-ful for yarding and spotting loadedsleds for the steam haulers on thelong hauls and were used quite exten-sively for shorter hauls. They wereoperated by one man from a cab inthe middle, doing the steering andrunning the engine.

In 1934 Lombard built a log haulerequipped with a diesel engine, in-creasing the power and reducing thecost of operations. But by that timethe development of the truck for haul-ing lumber had made the log haulerobsolete and the first diesel was thelast log hauler made by the Lombardcompany.

The operating crew of the steamlog hauler included the steersmanwho sat in the little cab in front behind

On largeoperations coalwas the usualfuel...but manyhaulers on thesmaller jobsburned wood.Though coal waseasier and sparedthe risk of rammingout a boiler plugwhile stuffing thefire box, woodburning among thepines made a loghauler trulyindependent.

the big wheel and kept the engine inthe road. He had a roof over his headand the end of the boiler at his back,but in front there was no windshieldand he took whatever the weatherbatted up. On the hills, which weresometimes long with sharp curves,they had no control of the speed ex-cept to reverse the engine and thesteersman was very busy spinninghis wheel to keep the runners pointedin the same direction as the road. Anengineer in the limited space in therear cab shoveled coal into the fur-nace, ran the engine and watched thesteam and water gauges. A conduc-tor was in charge of the train, combin-ing in one person the duties of theconductor and the brakeman of theconventional freight train.

An operation using four or five loghaulers found it necessary to have adispatcher with a board on which thepositions of the various trains couldbe plugged in and telephone connec-tions with the terminals and the “turnout.”

Lumber was hauled on bob sledswith bunks 9 feet long. A load for eachpair of these sleds was about 6,000board feet. To secure maximum effi-ciency special sleds were designed.These were built by the Lombardcompany or they sold the metal partsto those who preferred to build theirown sleds. The log hauler sleds wereidentical in design with the horsedrawn bob sleds but larger and ofvery much heavier construction. Thenine-foot-long bunks made the sledsa little wider than the tractor. Thismade the sled track outside the track

made by the tractor. No chains wereused to hold the load. Each bunk ofthe two sleds making a unit had arocker swinging on a king pin at thecenter of the bunk, and at each end ofthe rocker was a massive stakehinged at the end of the rocker so thatwhen it was dropped down it servedas a skid on which the logs rolleddown to the landing.

The number of loads in a train var-ied with the road. The steam enginesprobably averaged about 8 cars toa train, but on good roads in goodcondition trains of 10 or 12 cars werehauled.

The roads made for the log haulerswere wider than those made for thehorse drawn sleds, and stumps,rocks, and other obstructions were re-moved so that a few inches of snowwould pack down to make a smoothsurface. The tracks packing down thesnow made their own road and someof the Lombards had a scraper fixedbehind the runners which could beadjusted to smooth the road andthrow the snow to one side. A specialsnow plow was designed which cuttracks for the sleds, and at night thewater carts, big wooden tanks on bobsleds, went over the roads sprayingthe tracks with water to make themicy. Patrol men went over the roadsconstantly, repairing minor defectsand keeping them in good condition.The log haulers required snow tomake a road and while too much

A “Lombard” couldhaul 300 tons ofwood at a speedof 4-5 m.p.h.

snow was a handicap, not enoughsnow was a calamity.

The length of the road variedgreatly. In some cases it was five orsix miles from the yards to the water.In some cases where they went fromthe stump to a mill, there would be 10or even 20 miles. Lumber like spoolbars or birch bolts for spool bars washauled long distances over roads withquite heavy grades, both up anddown.

The Holt tractor came into quitegeneral use, especially in yardinglogs from the stump and in movingloaded sleds to the main road in mak-ing up loads for the log hauler. It wasused in some cases for hauling trainson the main road. The early Holt trac-tor had one feature which made it es-pecially adapted to rough ground.The tracks had a hinge in the middlewhich permitted it to fit itself to ine-qualities in the road, thus giving it ad-ditional traction.

While the log hauler had greatly ex-tended the distance that logs could beprofitably hauled, it was itself limitedin much the same way as were thehorses. For obvious reasons the loghauler could not be operated on pub-lic roads and they could haul lumberdirect to the mill or the railroad onlywhere a private road could be con-structed.

In some cases it was possible toeliminate driving the smaller streamsby hauling to deeper water, but for themost part driving the timber to themills was still necessary.

While the log hauler was takingover almost entirely the transport part

of the lumber industry, the trucks werebeing developed, made bigger,stronger, with improved tires andmore powerful engines, and werebeing used first for bringing suppliesinto the woods and finally for haulinglogs. At first they were used to towbob sleds, but they were soon madeto carry a large load of lumber on thetruck or trailer.

When the ground was frozen hardbefore the snow came, satisfactoryroads could be made by usingmotorized snow plows to keep thesnow covered roads smooth andhard. These roads were satisfactorybut available only in the wintermonths, and sometimes when anopen winter covered the swamps withsnow before they were frozen, theywere not usable at all.

An important factor in the transi-tion from log hauler to truck was thebulldozer, a tractor with a blade orscraper which could be adjusted toany level and angle. Even the smallerbulldozers could push their waythrough a dense woods, uprootingtrees and pushing them aside to leavea well graded road behind. The morepowerful machines which were de-veloped pushed through everything,leveling hills and brushing aside greatboulders.

With trucks equipped for haulinggravel and power shovels in thegravel pits a well graded dry truck

road could be made rapidly and atcomparatively Iow cost. Over theseroads heavily loaded trucks moved ata good speed taking long logs or pulp-wood from the stump out of the woodsand over public roads to the mills.This system eliminated much of theriver driving and materially reducedthe time required to get timber fromthe stump to the mill. In the ordinarycourse of events under the river driv-ing system, timber cut in the autumnand winter months would get to themills in the next July or perhaps Au-gust. In an extreme case, when logswere taken out of the Aroostook Riverand hauled overland to the Penob-scot, two years were required to getthe timber to market. Now it is quitepossible to deliver timber cut in thatregion in the morning to the mill on theday it was cut.

With this competition the log haul-ers soon faded out of the picture andthe Lombard business folded up. Thecompany had made 83 log haulers inall, most of which were used in Maineand New Hampshire. Three wereshipped to Russia.

Log haulers that were in town whentheir work was done were nearly allcut up and sold for junk. Most of themwere abandoned in the woods where-ever they happened to be and therethey still stand, forgotten and inac-cessible.

One of the very few of the steam en-gines that were preserved has beenrestored to its original running condi-tion and is on exhibition in the Patten,Maine, Lumberman’s Museum.

There were nobrakes on a loghauler or onits train ofsleds...nearlyevery road had itsdowngrade thatmade steerers praythat should they livethis once more thenthey would findsome other way tomake a living.”—Yankee Magazine,March 1965.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Northern New England Section of the American Society of MechanicalEngineers gratefully acknowledges the efforts of all who cooperated on thedesignation of the Lombard Steam Log Hauler as a National Historic Mechan-ical Engineering Landmark, particularly the officers and staff of theLumberman’s Museum.

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers

Dr. Serge Gratch, PresidentDr. Donald N. Zwiep, Past PresidentDr. Burke E. Nelson, Executive DirectorDr. Ernest B. Gardow, Vice President, Region IRobert F. Metcalf, Jr., Chairman, History & Heritage, Region I

The Northern New England Section

Russell L. Valentine, ChairmanJeffrey A. Schultz, Vice ChairmanCraig A. PeverlyWalter Cheever, Jr.Jack W. FosterJohn P. ZolloDonald Chamberlain, History & Heritage

The ASME National History & Heritage Committee

Dr. R. Carson Dalzell, SecretaryProf. R. S. HartenbergDr. J. Paul HartmanProf. Edwin T. Layton, Jr.Prof. Merritt Roe SmithRobert M. Vogel, Ex-officio, Smithsonian Institution

Lumberman’s Museum, Inc.

Donald Shorey, PresidentDarrell Jones, Vice PresidentMichael Robinson, TreasurerLenore Hanson, SecretaryRichard E. Elliott, CuratorEmily Elliott, Co-CuratorFrank Peltier, Honorary and Past President

A total of 78 landmarks—State, Na-tional and International—have beendesignated by ASME since the pro-gram began in 1973. For a completelist and information about the ASMEHistory and Heritage program,please contact the ASME Public In-formation Department, 345 E. 47thStreet, New York, N.Y. 10017 (212)705-7740.

The text of the commemorative bro-chure is a reprint of the article, “TheLog Haulers,” by Lore A. Rogers andCaleb W. Scribner, former curators ofthe Lumberman’s Museum. The arti-cle first appeared in the August, 1967issue of The Northern Logger.

NATIONAL HISTORIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LANDMARKLOMBARD STEAM LOG HAULER

c. 1910

THIS STEAM CRAWLER-TRACTOR EMANCIPATED HORSESFROM THE KILLING WORK OF HAULING TRAINS OF SLEDSOVER ICED ROADS IN THE WINTER WOODS OF THE UNITEDSTATES AND CANADA.

DESIGNED, PATENTED (1901)‚ AND BUILT BY ALVIN C. LOM-BARD (1856-1937) OF WATERVILLE, MAINE, EIGHTY-THREE“LOMBARDS” WERE THE FIRST PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF THEOFTEN-TRIED LAG OR CRAWLER TREAD THAT WOULD BE-COME THE MARK OF THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE-DRIVEN AGRICULTURAL AND CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTAND MILITARY TANKS IN CURRENT USE.

THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS—1982

American Society of Mechnical Engineers345 East 47th StreetNew York, N.Y. 10017

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