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Low-Income Padres de Familia Parent Participation for their Children’s Educational
Attainment: Diversifying Definitions
Yolanda Cataño
Thesis
Thesis Committee
Dr. Marisol Clark-Ibáñez, Chair
Dr. Alicia Gonzales, Committee Member
Dr. Christopher Bickel, Committee Member
Dr. Jeffrey Harlig, Committee Member
Master of Arts in Sociological Practice
California State University, San Marcos
April 2015
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ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ 4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................ 5
INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................... 7
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ...................................................................................................... 11 Latina/o Education in North County, San Diego ................................................................................. 12 Macro perspective of inequalities faced by Latinas/os.................................................................... 13 Parent Participation & Parent Involvement ........................................................................................ 14 Gaining Early Awareness of Readiness for Undergraduate Programs (GEAR UP) and Higher Education Act................................................................................................................................................... 15
LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................................ 17 Parent Involvement ...................................................................................................................................... 17 The American Dream ................................................................................................................................... 19 Debunking the Myth: Latinas/os do not Value Education ............................................................... 21 Parenting Styles and Cultural Capital: Annette Lareau’s Concerted Parenting and Natural Growth ............................................................................................................................................................... 23 Persisting inequalities in schooling for socioeconomically disadvantaged families ............ 25 Teacher-Latino Student Involvement and emphasis on Concerted Cultivation: .................... 26 Latina/o Parent Community Grassroots ............................................................................................... 28 Disparities in Education for Latina/o Communities ......................................................................... 29
THEORY .................................................................................................................................................. 31 Cultural Capital: .............................................................................................................................................. 31 Bourdieu’s Cultural Capital: ....................................................................................................................... 31 Latina/o Critical Race Theory: .................................................................................................................. 32 Cultural Capital and Latina/o Parent Participation .......................................................................... 34
METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................... 36 Method of Study .............................................................................................................................................. 36 Context for the Study .................................................................................................................................... 36 Recruitment ..................................................................................................................................................... 37 Sample ............................................................................................................................................................... 38 Interview Process .......................................................................................................................................... 40 Ethical Implications ...................................................................................................................................... 40 My Social Location as a Researcher ......................................................................................................... 41
FINDINGS ................................................................................................................................................ 44 How and When Latina/o Parents Participate ...................................................................................... 44 “Bien Educada/o”/ Be Respectful ............................................................................................................ 50 “Because I couldn’t go to school” .............................................................................................................. 52 The Role of the American Dream ............................................................................................................. 55 Language Barriers ......................................................................................................................................... 57 Finances/Jobs .................................................................................................................................................. 60 Hostile School Environments Towards Parents and Students ...................................................... 62
DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................................... 66
RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................................................... 69 Schools ............................................................................................................................................................... 69 Cultural Competence .................................................................................................................................... 70 Teachers ............................................................................................................................................................ 70
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English Learner Advisory Committee (ELAC). ..................................................................................... 71 PTO (Parent Teacher Organization) ....................................................................................................... 71 GEAR UP in more Schools ............................................................................................................................ 72 PIQE (Parent Institute for Quality Education)..................................................................................... 73 FAIR WAGES ..................................................................................................................................................... 73
SIGNIFICANCE ....................................................................................................................................... 75 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................................... 75
Appendix A ............................................................................................................................................ 76 Entrevista Estructurada .............................................................................................................................. 78
Appendix B ............................................................................................................................................ 80 INFORMED CONSENT FOR INTERVIEWS ................................................................................................ 81 Forma de Consentimiento: ......................................................................................................................... 82
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 84
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ABSTRACT
Latina/o parents have strong desires to participate in their children’s schooling, which are
thwarted by negative school climate and language barriers. The study takes place in Northern
San Diego County. This qualitative research study entailed interviewing the parents of the GEAR
UP Palomar Community College students to assess how Latina/o Spanish-speaking parents
participated in their children’s education, what challenged their participation, and to understand
non-traditional forms of parent participation often invisible to educators. We asked parents’
open-ended questions about their own education, the education of their children, and the diverse
forms of parent participation with school. In the sample, Latina/o parents had a desire to expand
their children's education, however it was shadowed by: language barriers, devaluation by school
personnel, and financial burdens that affected Latino parents’ participation in schools. This study
concludes that Spanish-speaking Latino/a parents employed a diverse array of traditional and
non-traditional forms of parent participation, however, it was not always effective in terms of the
teachers’ and school administrators’ receptivity to their efforts. This study illuminates Latino/a
parents’ concerns and hopes for their children’s educational attainment.
Keywords: Schools, Latinas/os, parent participation, GEAR UP, cultural capital, immigration,
Spanish-speaking, parent involvement, educational attainment, advocacy programs
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost I want to dedicate this thesis to my parents, Laura Minerva Cataño and Luis
Cataño. Ama, la quiero mucho y si no fuera por usted y mi Apa nunca hubiera llegado tan lejos.
Gracias por brindarme todo su amor y su apoyo. ¡Se se pudo mis gorditos chulos!
To my husband, Manuel Gutierrez. I cannot even begin to explain what you have done for me.
Without your support and your love I would not be here. We’ve made plenty of sacrifices, but I
believe it has made us better people for it. This is just the beginning of our journey and I look
forward for the future. You and I make a great team. Straight outta Compton and Mexicali! We
did it MORZ!
Dr. Clark-Ibañez: How can I even thank you for what you have done for me? You weren’t only
my mentor, but you were more than that. You made me understand the importance of education.
It wasn’t your job to listen to us and to give us advice beyond your position, but you always did
and as a result of that love and mentorship, I am here, a leader in my community and a better
person for it. You taught our little group (Matthew, Brian, Bettina, Omar, and Jeanette) to
respect and collaborate with each other. If we had more MCI’s, the world would be a better
place. I promise to make you proud and to continue your work.
Dr. Harlig: I have to say; I was a little intimidated by you. Not just because you were white, but
also because you really tested me. In a world where racial tensions are high, you reached out to
me. You were more than a writing director. You were a mentor. I respect you and I am glad we
have instructors like you on campus that look out for students of color like me. Thank you.
Dr. Gonzales and Dr. Bickel: I came to you in a time of need, but I am grateful I had you both on
my team. You were always supportive and were there if I needed you. Dr. Bickel I thank you for
respecting me as a student and for making me feel important. In our academic world that means
a lot. Dr. Gonzales you made me feel like I had the power to do anything I set my mind to. Those
power hugs went a long way. Thank you.
GEAR UP Palomar College: Cecilia Rocha, Jonathan Navarrete, Ariana, Nayeli, Blanca and the
Latina/o participants, without all of you this project would not have been possible. To the
Latina/o parents, thank you for trusting us, and as promised, we have carried your voices to an
academic forum.
A mi familia: Mi Paty Tano y mi Chicken Little (Luis Enrique Cataño) los quiero mucho. Son
todo para mi. A mi Tia Rosa y a mis primos Elena, Bodoque (Francisco), Carmina, y Kevin, que
diera yo porque ustedes estuvieran conmigo. A mi Suegra Maria Gutierrez y a mis hermanos
Angel y Jaime.
To my fellow comrades: Bettina Serna, Kyle Johnson, and Edwina Williams. Bettina it has been
such a journey. This past year has been incredibly challenging, but I was grateful to have you by
my side. You are one strong womyn and I love you for it. I wouldn’t be here without you. Kyle
you will always be my comrade. Edwina you are one powerful and intellectual womyn, it was a
privilege to work with you. Thank you for all of your support.
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My CFA team: Audrena, Dr. Engen, Dr. Besosa, Dr. Fiegen, and Dr. Redela
To my friends are my family: Brenda Cital, Laura Gonzales, Alma Añidez, Luis Celaya, y
Ladiani Montaño. Su apoyo incondicional hizo toda la diferencia. Mil gracias!
Samantha Prado: Thank you for being my mentor. I applied to this program and now because of
you I am graduating. I love you Esa.
Mr. Rene Agundez: I wanted to express my gratitude and to tell you that I know the enormous
task you have at hand. That I appreciate all that you do. We need more people like you. To the
AVID program and to the instructors who recruit, teach, and mentor students like me.
Lastly, I would like to dedicate this to my people, toda mi raza, y a mi Mexicali querido. Soy
Cachanilla y nunca lo voy a olvidar.
“!Si se Puede!” –Dolores Huerta
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INTRODUCTION
Latinas/os are less likely to graduate from high school compared to other racial/ethnic
groups (U.S. Department of Education 2010). Yet, Latinas/os are the fastest-growing ethnic
minority group in the country. Latinas/os account for the largest percentage of high school
dropouts than any other ethnic minority group. Depending on how high-school dropout is
defined, the rate for Latino students is two to three times higher than that of non-Latino Whites
(US. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics 2006). A lack of parental
involvement in education and appreciation of its importance is often cited as a major reason for
these existing outcomes (Ramirez 2003; Valencia and Black 2002). This study argues that the
concept of parental involvement needs to be discussed among educators and administrative
personnel in ways that include more diverse standpoints than traditionally recognized. The
concept of parent involvement needs to be discussed among educators and administrative
personnel in ways that include more diverse standpoints than traditionally recognized. The
expectation for low-income Latina/o parents, for example, needs to consider standpoints that
may exist within the Latina/o culture that might deter some visible presence in school settings.
Through my experiences as the daughter of Mexican-immigrant parents, I have
personally encountered the persisting inequalities in American education that disregarded any
understanding of cultural needs. We are faced with disadvantages (in some cases) from the
beginning due to the following: socioeconomic status (SES), racial composition, language
barriers, and immigrant status, to name a few (Sosa and Gomez 2012). Parent participation can
have an overwhelmingly positive effect for student academic success. However, the concept of
parent participation needs to be redefined to fully understand how Latinas/os parents’ are
involved with their children to reach their life goals. As a researcher I also wanted to understand
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how educational institutions take into consideration the social context many Latina/o parents face
everyday.
Educators and researchers have explored the persisting inequalities specific to Latinas/os
that demonstrate statistically the disproportions of negative outcomes in educational attainment
more so than any other minority groups. The combination of Latinos being the largest
racial/ethnic minority group and their also being among the least educated has serious
ramifications for political and economic representation, and overall quality of life (Mena 2011).
Other factors observed among Latinos include the following: economic, social, and language
proficiency disadvantages as well as cultural misunderstandings in their interacting with schools
(Hill and Torres 2010). That many Latina/o parents cannot navigate school settings, and this has
serious implications for the education of their children.
My own parents had little understanding of the educational system in this country. My
mother completed the equivalent of fifth grade in Mexico, and my father obtained his high
school diploma. The disparity in educational attainment of my father and mother affected how I
navigated school settings. My father worked constantly and as head of the household, I was left
to the care of my home and family with my mother who had little understanding of the education
system that could help advance my literacy at any point. The stressors I faced emotionally and
psychologically given the cultural shifts I underwent from Mexico to the United States in
language and my own socioeconomic status had, and to this day, continues to have an impact on
my own journey. My mother attended school meetings when she could due to my father’s work
schedule, yet. I was privileged because they were both my biggest advocates and supporters.
They attended presentations, plays, football games, and any activity they could. They did not
attend PTA (Parent Teacher Association) meetings or open houses because of my mother’s lack
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of understanding of the language and about the curriculum. My mother and father entrusted my
education to the hands of the teachers and administrative personnel which they believed had my
best interest at heart.
Part of discussion and main concept of educational success is the concept of parent
participation/parent involvement for Latina/o students. Researchers have found it difficult to
define parent participation or parent involvement because of the tendencies of representing the
research within a cultural European American educational model. Studies often model parent
participation to middle-class, white families’ parenting styles. This demonstrates a gap in the
solutions these studies can offer. European-Americans, being the dominant group in the United
States, are more likely to feel confident engaging in typical school-based parental involvement
(Okagaki and Frensch 1998). Most contemporary European American families have not had to
face cultural discontinuity, linguistic, and/or antisocial obstacles in mainstream educational
systems (Anguiano 2004). Family backgrounds variables tend to be more directly related to in
determining European American high school completion than determining Asian American,
Latino, and Native American high school completion (Rumberger 1995). Latino parent
participation is often conducted outside of what counts for as parent participation. The
comparison to European-American models is important to deconstruct and to credit for
inconsistencies in research. Debunking the myth that Latinas/os do not value education and that
they do not participate in their children’s education, is part of the long-term solution to the
problem of inequality within the educational system of the United States.
I was granted an opportunity to work with a program called GEAR UP as a research
assistant to interview Latina/o parents on parent participation. I was greatly inspired by this
opportunity to investigate how my own parents had successfully and effectively participated in
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my own educational attainment both invisible and visible ways. I was intrigued with the concept
of cultural capital and any such link to parent involvement. Research suggests accruement of
cultural capital through parent involvement has a direct effect on educational attainment for all
racial and ethnic categories in the United States. As a Mexican woman I was shocked to discover
that Latinas/os face dire circumstances that negatively impacted opportunity for cultural capital
and wanted to explore the impact of their existing cultural capital upon the educational stories of
their children.
This study explores the structural barriers Latina/o parents face regarding the issues
surrounding parent participation in school settings. I address the barriers for low-income and
language minority Latina/o families. I also explored the inequalities in education related to
parent participation and the ways this becomes a negative reflector on Latina/o parents overall. I
interviewed Latina/o parents to hear their voices and hear their personal stories first hand as well
as how they might reflect their own educational attainment and background, as well as, their
aspirations for their children’s educational attainment. I concentrated my efforts and worked
directly with GEAR UP to demonstrate how Latina/o parents participate and advocate for their
children’s educational attainment.
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STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Latina/o children have low educational attainment rates in the United States. According
to the U.S. Department of Education (2010), “Black and Hispanic students had higher event
dropout rates than White students in 2009.” National statistics recognize that Latinos low-
educational attainment rates accounts for socioeconomic status disadvantages. What further
explains the factors that affect high school completion for Latinas/os are: family background,
parental education, family income, and parental length of time in the United States (Reyhner
1992). Data from the 2000 U.S. Census poll reveal startling statistics: 38.8% of Hispanic families
are headed by single women and 30% of Hispanic children live in poverty. This is more than 3
times that of non-Hispanic White children. In addition, more than one fourth (27.3%) of
Hispanics who are over the age of 25 hold less than a ninth-grade education and only 10% have
completed college (Yzaguirre 2001 and Battle 2002). This is not to suggest that Latina single-
head of the household is the sole reason why Latina/o children have low-educational rates, but it
does describe the socioeconomic disposition of Latina women and many families. That is,
research finds that two working parents have a better economic disposition than single-parent
households and can provide better educational outcomes for their children.
The United States Census Bureau estimated that as of 2013 the U.S. population is
316,128,839 and of those 17% are of Hispanic or Latino descent. For example, the growth rate of
the Latina/o population in the United States and the increase of enrollment of Latina/o children
in public education has warranted a focus on Latina/Latino educational issues (Fernandez 2002).
Latinas/os continue to be overrepresented in samples of families at risk for poor behavioral and
mental health outcomes and Latino students evidence school dropout rates of about 2 to 3.5 times
the rate for White non-Latino students (National Center for Education Statistics 2000). Even
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though Latina/o population is one of the fastest growing minorities, it is underrepresented in
postsecondary education.
Latina/o Education in North County, San Diego This study took place in North County, San Diego. For the purpose of this study, we
traced the data concerning Latina/o education and present statistical data concerning educational
attainment. According to The National Latino Research Center, San Diego County is the third
largest county in California and sixth largest in the U.S. with an estimated population of over 3
million residents. Roughly 27% (810,878 of the County’s residents live in the northern part of
the region (defined as North County East and North County West Major Statistical Areas)
(National Latino Research Center 2005). Latinos comprise 24% of college students enrolled at
Palomar, Mira Costa, and California State University San Marcos, a slightly higher rate than
Latino enrollment at colleges and universities countywide. Yet, substantial ethnic disparities
exist in North County San Diego. The disparities in educational outcomes are as follows:
“minority students lag behind their White and Asian counterparts at all levels of education.
Latino and Black students, in particular, experience disparities in educational opportunities (e.g.
completion of college preparatory curriculums) and outcomes (e.g. graduation rates)” (National
Latino Research Center 2005:1).
In North County alone, there are large disparities for Latina/os in educational
opportunities and outcomes. The National Latino Research Center at California State University
San Marcos conducted a study that depicted ethnic disparities in education in North County San
Diego (specifically: Escondido, San Marcos, Vista, and Oceanside). One of the major revelations
depicted in the study was that Latina/o students received the lowest API (Academic Performance
Index) scores of any other ethnic minority group in North County. According to the NLRC
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(2005:1): “Latino high school students have high drop-out rates and the lowest graduation rates.”
There are 7 school districts in North County and out of those school districts Latino students
comprise (47%) of students in the 7 districts.
Macro perspective of inequalities faced by Latinas/os
It is important to note that Latina/o children’s journey through the educational pipeline is
tied to larger subsequent inequalities, such as mass incarceration rates that overrepresented the
Latina/o population. In addition the United States expenditure on correction facilities surpasses
education expenses. Between 1987 and 2007, states’ spending on corrections (127%) grew 6
times the rate of spending on higher education (21%) (Americans Behind Bars, Pew Center on
the States and the Public Safety Performance Project 2008). The money is going towards the
incarceration of youth and much less investment is made towards education. Nationally,
according to the U.S. Census, Hispanics comprise 16% of the U.S. population, and 19% of that
population is behind bars. The national incarceration rate for Latinas/os (Hispanics) is 831 per
100,000 (Sakala 2014). As the percentage of high school dropouts increases, so does the
percentage of incarceration for Latina/o youth. This study will not focus on the incarceration of
Latinas/os, but it provides a macro perspective on the consequences of educational inequality.
Research finds the degree of parent participation in part is reflective of parental education
and socio economic capital. Students with college-educated parents are more likely to attend and
complete school even when they are from low-income families (Ishitani 2006). The reason why
parental education is essential for their children is mainly due to knowledge that comes with
education. Navigating the educational pipeline alongside their children is an advantage that some
Latina/o parents do not possess. Of course there are other factors such as: social class, family
income, demographic characteristics, student achievement, educational expectations, and
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strategic planning that can help children navigate educational systems successfully (Rab and
Pfeffer 2009). Nevertheless, parent involvement (i.e., acadmemic support in school settings) is
an empirically validated predictor of school success (LeFever and Shaw 2011).
Parent Participation & Parent Involvement “Parent involvement” by definition models a European-American middle-class
framework. Parent involvement is an umbrella term for different types of activities that depict
the involvement of parents in nonacademic and academic activities that may contribute to their
children’s educational goals (Anguino 2004). Furthering this description of parent involvement
Epstein (1986) adds that parent educational involvement activities include: supporting student’s
learning at home, maintaining communication with school, assisting in school activities,
becoming involved in school governance, and advocacy. The main limitation reflected in
research is the failure to recognize parent participation in light of cultural differences. Latina/o
parents participate and are everyday advocates for their children’s academic success. The
inconsistencies in research have resulted in asserting that the lack of parent participation is
explained as simply not valuing education.
Parent participation is often related to the visible presence of the parents in school
settings. Parent participation and formal (i.e. visible) participation involves PTA meetings and/or
activities that are not only approved by educators and administrative personnel, but also that take
place at school. This study will deconstruct the myth that Latina/o parents do not value education
and provide an ample description explanation of at home and Latina/o parent participation in
school settings for their children’s educational attainment and academic success.
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Gaining Early Awareness of Readiness for Undergraduate Programs (GEAR UP) and Higher Education Act
Disparities in educational outcomes for socio-economically disadvantaged families led to
effective federal funding of programs that would allocate funds to bridge the gap for better
educational outcomes for underserved communities. Latinas/os had access to a legislation named
Higher Education Act, “This legislation authorizes student outreach and support programs such
as TRIO and GEAR UP run by the U.S. Department of Education” (Brown, Santiago, Lopez,
2003:43). Programs like GEAR UP were funded to help disadvantaged communities such as
Latinas/os to facilitate them with resources that would prepare them to gain access to institutions
of higher education. GEAR UP is a program that, as the title suggests, creates awareness and
readiness for students. It impacts a selected cohort of students and prepares students for
academic achievement.
Programs like GEAR UP help Latina/o parents become familiar with the processes of the
rigorous academic preparation for their children. GEAR UP also attempts to provide workshops
for parents to provide them with information regarding: finances, academic preparation, tutoring
for students, and much more. GEAR UP grants were created to target schools that had relatively
high dropout rate and whose graduates were generally underrepresented in higher education
(Zimmerman 2005). Consequently, GEAR UP has had to also restructure its program to serve
these communities by reaching out to those parents whose children participate in GEAR UP. The
amount of success that GEAR UP has had, according to research, has been difficult to document
and is different within each location, but it has provided academic and financial support for
Latina/o student-parent participants.
Previous research states: “GEAR UP is offered to students in middle school and high
school in cooperation with businesses, the program sponsors college and career expos, college
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preparation training, tutoring, job shadowing opportunities and internships” (News Journal of
North County 2004:10). It currently serves about 7,000 students and is planning to serve more
depending on the federal funding. The program seeks excellence and is interested in community
building and GEAR UP maintains contact with students in other ways than just tutoring and
workshops. Its goal is to help the students prepare for the rigorous academic curriculum, and
offers many opportunities for networking as well.
Parent participation is often related to the visible presence of the parents in school
settings. Parent participation and formal (i.e. visible) participation involves PTA meetings and/or
activities that are not only approved by educators and administrative personnel, but also that take
place at school. This study deconstructed the myth that Latina/o parents do not value education
and provides an ample explanation of Latina/o parent participation in school settings for their
children’s educational attainment and academic success. My research question is: What are the
participation experiences and strategies of low-income Latina/o parents, both at home and at
school, to improve better educational outcomes for their children? My research explores the
notions of parent participation through interviews with madres (mothers) and padres (fathers)
who live in North County, San Diego and whose children are active participants in one GEAR
UP program. We explored the ways GEAR UP has been supportive of low-income Latino
parents and has helped their children gain admittance to post-secondary education.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
My analysis of the literature concentrates on past research of low-income, Latina/o parent
participation for their children’s educational attainment. The literature review began by exploring
previous research on parent involvement, followed by Annette Lareau’s interpretation of
concerted cultivation and natural growth to further explain the differences in parenting styles of
middle-class families to low-income and poor families. One of the major topics concerning
Latinas/os in general is the condition of persisting inequalities in education. In addition, we
analyzed how teachers and administrative personnel favored concerted cultivation and practiced
it themselves. They also have a positive perception of the American Dream and they aspire for
better educational outcomes for their children. We will explore how Latinas/os resist against
education inequalities and will end my literature review with a positive reflection demonstrating
how they manage to build within their communities to help their children reach educational goals
and highlight the presence of GEAR UP educational outcomes of low-income families.
Parent Involvement
“Mainstream educational systems were initially developed and shaped by middle-class European
American values” (Viramontes-Anguiano:64).
Educational systems were established to model and fit standards of middle-class
European American values as Viramontes-Anguiano previously established. With that said,
educational systems cater to middle-class American families that prefer formal parent
involvement that encourages parents involvement in school settings. Formal parent involvement
typically includes visible participation in the schools, such as volunteering in the classroom or
school building or helping with school field trips or parent-teacher meetings (De Gaetano 2007).
In contrast to formal parent involvement, we examine how informal parent involvement
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“includes behaviors, activities, and emotional support that occur in the home” (LeFevre & Shaw
2011:44). Informal parent involvement is often the type of parent involvement Latino parents
engage to. Conversely, Lee and Bowen (2006) studied the relationship between formal parent
involvement and early academic achievement in a sample of elementary school students to
determine differences by race/ethnicity; formal parent involvement predicted academic
achievement. This sample of formal parent involvement only outlines the ways we conceptualize
parent involvement to fit European-American models.
Research demonstrates that parent involvement during early childhood is a robust
predictor of a child’s academic and social-emotional development during the school years, and
beyond (Barnard 2004). The various approaches to parent and community participation in
schools and the search for more equitable partnerships among them are generally seen as
complex phenomena that are affected by a variety of factors involving issues of pedagogy,
socioeconomic status, power, and ideology (Auerback 2007). These complex phenomena for
parent participation in schools in many cases only legitimize the already dominant voices of
parents who can physically be present and participate. Recent studies have challenged prevailing
views of parental participation as uniform, all-encompassing voice toward school improvement.
Often the voices of the parents who attend those Parent-Teacher Associations (PTA) meetings or
any type of activities involving the presence of the parents often do not represent the diversity of
the parent-student population. PTA meetings should be inclusive of Latina/o parents.
Epstein (2001) organized the variety of parent-involvement measures that have been used
into six categories: parenting, learning at home, school-home communication, volunteering at
school, involvement in school decision making, and community collaboration. Indeed, some
have argued that the emphasis on parent as opposed to others’ involvement reflects a White
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American cultural belief that parents, but not siblings, extended family members, child-care
providers, or neighbors, bear the responsibility for the well-being of children (Desimone 1999).
Going off on Lareaus’ “complex phenomenon” of parent involvement, this reflects that
administrative personnel and educators measure the efficacy of parent involvement and favor
concerted cultivation to parents whose cultural belief extends to more than feeding their children.
That White American cultural belief that parents are obligated to participate and prioritize their
children’s education has a lot to do with the ways parent involvement is measured in school
settings and the positive outcomes and benefits those provide for their children. Consequently,
for those who are socio-economically disadvantaged and do not share that White American
cultural beliefs face dire consequences regarding their children’s academic achievement. In the
next section the literature on the American Dream in terms of upward mobility through
educational attainment.
The American Dream “The experiences of Latino children in U.S. schools, the incongruence between the cultural
worldviews of U.S. schools and Latino families, and the interactions and expectations for
partnerships between families and schools are integrated and applied to the question of why
Latino students are not reaching their potential, despite goals of achievement and significant
parental sacrifice and investment” (Hill and Torres 2010:95).
Latinas/os immigrate to the United States in hopes of achieving upward mobility, the
American Dream. Yet, despite all of the challenges they face, they truly believe in the American
Dream. A major role of upward mobility is the role of education that is part of the ‘opportunity’
package of the American Dream. This belief system is strong and they have major expectations
of the endless possibilities it provides and, “Latino immigrants arrive in the United States with a
strong belief in the American Dream, a strong work ethic, and high aspirations for their children.
However, after a generation or more in the United States, the possibility of achieving the Dream
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and the sure path pathway of education becomes elusive” (Hill & Torres 2010:106). The promise
of opportunities in education is the expectation that the United States is welcoming of all races
and ethnicities. The United States is like a big melting pot. But more often than not, they
discover the racial tensions that exist in U.S. schools. Schools have had to implement policies
that are culturally inclusive and that target low-income and poor communities.
As Latinas/os immigrate to the United States, they have little understanding of how to
navigate the educational systems. The promise of the American Dream is an expectation that
they will be awarded with opportunities, especially opportunities in education that they might not
have had in their own countries. This belief is reflexive of the experiences of immigrants in the
United States as: “Some immigrants, who regard their situation in the United States as more
favorable than their experience in their country of origin, feel privileged about being in the
United States, which results in striving to succeed academically and economically to compensate
for the suffering of those who are less fortunate in their families” (Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-
Orozco, 1995:5). As generations of Latinas/os pass, they begin to understand the discrepancies of
the American Dream.
The belief in the American Dream is still held by many Latinas/os. They immigrate to the
United States in hopes for upward mobility. Their willingness to leave their countries illustrates
the power of the American Dream. They come into the United States with a strong work ethic
and they strive to succeed. The opportunities in education are one of the main reasons why they
believe in the American Dream. A belief in the promise that an education will provide them with
stability and economic relief, something that many Latinas/os experience a lack of in their
countries.
21
Debunking the Myth: Latinas/os do not Value Education
There have been many debates about the proper ways to decipher this emerging problem,
but very little research has focused on the depth of stressors that Latinas/os face in this country.
Most often, research regarding the dearth Latino/a participation in higher
education focuses on providing general statistical portraits or one-size-fits-all
policy recommendations without adequately addressing the lived realities of
Latino/a youth navigating school in a harsh sociopolitical climate characterized by
racism, linguicism, and xenophobia, as evidenced recent anti-immigrant
legislation and efforts to ban ethnic studies in public high schools and colleges,
the elimination of bilingual education in several states with large Spanish-
speaking populations, and a general escalating assault on Latino/a youth (Irizarry
2012:292).
There have been attempts for government to take drastic measures like implementing the No
Child Behind Act, and others, but have once again failed to realize the disparities that are
particular to certain groups, in this case what Latinas/os face.
Despite all of the issues concerning Latinas/os in education, we have research that details
the practices and shared beliefs about the value of education from Latina/o parents’ point of
view. Latinas/os also have a number of strengths, such as a strong sense of community, religion,
optimism, family supports, and high value of education (Pumariega 2009). Latinas/os maintain a
sense of optimism and are resilient despite their adversity. The development of children’s home
language may be associated with strengthening of family cohesion and intimacy, establishing
parental authority, and transmitting cultural norms, all of which can lead to healthy adjustment
and a strong identification and internalization of the social values of the family (Fishman 1991;
22
Fuligni 2000). Latinas/os value family above all, and this connection to family is termed
familismo. “Latino parents frequently share the goal of having their children develop
instrumental competences and of preserving values related to the intrapersonal (personalismo),
the interpersonal (respeto), connections to the family (familismo), the expression of affection
(carinos) and the worth of education (educacion)” (Suarez-Orozco 2002:8).
The socioeconomic status of Latina/o families bear the responsibilities of providing
sustenance for their children as their primary obligation and opt for a more natural growth type
of parenting style. Latina/o parents express “not feeling welcome in the schools, some parents
may not have access to transportation, childcare, and/or they may have jobs that offer little or no
flexibility in their work schedule” (Mena 2011:492). So contrary to those families that are
middle and upper-middle class that engage in concerted cultivation parenting styles, the
disadvantages for Latina/o parents to make it to PTA meetings and be present in school does not
mean that they do not value education. Recent studies that have been conducted determine that
Latina/o parents entrust their children’s education to educators and administrative personnel.
Many do not feel equipped or their lack of familiarity with the language and their knowledge of
what education requires in the United States is foreign to them. Latinas/os highly respect
teachers and trust the American education system, and it is commonly believed that contacting a
teacher is disrespectful because it challenges the teacher’s authority (Diaz and Sanchez 2003).
Latina/o parenting style resembles natural growth. Latina/o children are taught to respect
their elders; they prioritize and favor family values over everything. When Latina/o parents do
respect and trust educators, it is part of their cultural beliefs. This is something that most
educators do not understand or comprehend. Latino parents at times caution their children
against quitting school, and some explicitly connect academic success with college and later
23
adult economic security (De Gaetano 2007). But, if Latina/o parents understood the language of
higher education, the requisites, familiarity with financial aid, there is a higher probability that
their own children would be able to embark on that educational journey.
Parenting Styles and Cultural Capital: Annette Lareau’s Concerted Parenting and Natural Growth
Annette Lareau identified the difference in parenting styles between middle-class and
working-class and poor families, and the ways they accrue cultural capital and in turn create
advantages for their children’s educational journey. Lareau created two concepts that define the
types of parenting styles between middle-class parents and working-class/poor parents: concerted
cultivation and natural growth. Concerted cultivation is a style of parenting that fosters and
nurtures a child’s talents by creating a system of organization of activities in the child’s life.
Concerted cultivation is a parenting style that is consistent among middle-class families. Natural
growth is a parenting style that most working-class and poor families adopt when raising their
children. This type of parenting relies on the parent allowing the child ample time to play and
develop their own sense of self. Lareau discusses that both parenting styles produce favorable
outcomes, but remains certain that the dominant class gives preference to concerted cultivation
and in turn creates disadvantages and inequalities in educational opportunities for children whose
parents are from working-class and/or poor backgrounds.
In her book Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race, and Family Life Lareau explains further
why class status matters when it comes to the differences in parenting styles. For example:
“Middle-class parents who comply with current professional standards and engage in a pattern of
concerted cultivation deliberately try to stimulate their children’s development and foster their
cognitive and social skills” (Lareau, 2003:5). Due to the parents’ economic and educational
24
attainments, they can provide the language that helps foster their children’s cognitive and social
skills and a somewhat stable economic support that is privy to middle-class parents. The
priorities for working-class and poor families differ in terms of sustenance and shelter.
According to Lareau: “The commitment among working-class and poor families to provide
comfort, food, shelter, and other basic support requires ongoing effort, given economic
challenges and the formidable demands of child rearing” (Lareau 2003:5). Economic stability
and the parent’s own educational backgrounds provide differential advantages to their children.
There is an impact of concerted cultivation as opposed to natural growth to the child’s
social competence and accruement of cultural capital. Educational institution’s administrative
personnel and educators often favor children whose parents engage in concerted cultivation.
Lareau refers that teachers in her study “generally supported practices of concerted cultivation,
with an emphasis on the development of the child through organized activities, development of
vocabulary through reasoning and reading, and active parent involvement in schooling and other
institutions outside of the home” (Lareau 2003:14). So what happens when parents are not
visible in terms of parent involvement through organized schooling activities in terms of helping
their children with their own educational development? It means that parents are often seen as
uncaring and not devoted to their children’s education.
The differences do not stop there. Also in terms of children’s own development, the
differences are substantial. Lareau informs the reader about the sense of entitlement that children
from middle-class families obtain through organized activities and sense of equal positioning to
their adult counterparts. Their sense of responsibility and capabilities to develop skills that are
obtained through sports, or other organized activities. Working-class and poor families economic
instability may deter the parent’s to financially support and help foster their children’s interests
25
and talents. They do not develop a sense of entitlement that middle-class children develop, but
they in turn have more leisure time and are more respectful towards their elders as they are not
treated as equals to adults. Concerted cultivation is favored in school settings. Administrative
personnel and educators favor concerted cultivation and most practice such parenting style with
their children often favor and engage more with children whose parents are involved.
To summarize, I argue that social class (independent of ability) does affect schooling.
Teachers ask for parent involvement; social class shapes the resources, which parents have at
their disposal to comply with teachers’ requests for assistance. Although, Annette Lareau’s take
on cultural capital best describes and notes the experiences Black and whites in educational
settings, we can apply her concepts of concerted cultivation and natural growth to Latina/o
communities and parenting styles. She captures the socioeconomic status in relation to parent
involvement and also challenges the roles that teachers and personnel play in educational
settings. For the purpose of this study, I will use Annette Lareau’s work of cultural capital to
explain the importance of class in educational settings and the processes of parenting styles of
low-income Latina/o parents who champion for their children’s academic success.
Persisting inequalities in schooling for socioeconomically disadvantaged families
The persisting inequalities that socio-economically disadvantaged children face are grim
in their decision-making for attending institutions of higher education. One of the major
disadvantages for poor families and working families is the lack of awareness about academic
preparation. Chen and Kaplan (1999:48) concluded that “growing up in intact families was
associated with a better financial situation in the parental home..which led to a later entry into
adult roles of labor force participation and…to continuation of postsecondary education. The
biggest predictor for educational attainment is the socio-economic disposition of the parents. The
26
level of awareness of the language and familiarity with the educational system means that most
middle-class parents can help their children follow in their footsteps. Also, the children can view
their parents as examples because they can relate to them. According to Bourdieu, cultural
capital is a scarce resource that equips individuals with knowledge, practical skills, and a sense
of “the rules of the game” in the educational system that is recognized and rewarded by
institutional gatekeepers and peers (Jeager 2011:83). This is where the inequalities begin and
persist for parents who are socio-economically disadvantaged.
According to Lareau (2011:28) parents’ social class position predicts children’s school
success and thus their ultimate life chances. Although socioeconomic status (SES) no longer
limits access to high school, research shows that socioeconomic inequality in high schools
persists (Lucas 2001). Lucas (2001:1652) posits that although social class inequality in high
schools is no longer maximally maintained because public education (K-12) is accessible to all.
Just because the doors of education are available to all, does not mean we all experience it the
same, and that there are no differences in each high school. The experiences that high school
presents for young men and women reflect the social class position of their parents. The
disadvantages are not made up and are maintained by the same gatekeepers of education that
create the inequalities socioeconomically disadvantaged groups face.
Teacher-Latino Student Involvement and emphasis on Concerted Cultivation:
Teacher involvement also plays a key role in determining the success of a child in school
settings. Latino parent involvement is crucial for Latina/o students, but just as important is the
ways educators’ involvement with their students has positive and long lasting effects. Previous
work supports the notion that teachers’ opinions and perceptions of minority students can be a
predictor in determining the amount of time and emphasis placed on teaching them. There is
27
something to be said of teachers who take responsibility for student learning rather than placing
the blame for failure of students. When teachers and staff cooperate and support student learning,
students not only learn more, there is also a less considerable gap, with respect to differences in
student learning among students with diverse backgrounds. Teacher expectations for students in
education remain the same in all spectrums: that students are responsible for learning and the
teachers for educating the students.
The negative impact on a student that does not meet teacher-learning expectations
because of previous associations and beliefs about a particular group is an issue that many
researchers have tapped into. Annette Lareau’s most recent work on Home Advantage: Social
Class and Parental Intervention in Elementary Education, recognizes what teachers expect from
working-class and upper-class families. Teachers expect upper-middle class parenting styles to
reflect concerted cultivation and working-class parenting styles to be different. Annette Lareau
shares in her book, that most teachers engage in concerted cultivation themselves with their
children. Teachers wanted parent involvement, but their actions strongly challenge the dominant
view that teachers want a ‘partnership’ with parents (Seeley 1984). If teachers do not feel the
support from the parents, their expectations for the children diminish. This affects the outcome of
the education the child will receive overall. Also, this idea will strengthen and reinforce
stereotypes and beliefs about certain groups (e.g., Latinos, African-Americans, working-class,
middle-class, etc.) that have been documented.
What educators need to comprehend is the influence they have with Latina/o
communities. When Latina/o youth do not find sufficient emotional support in their families they
often seek support from their peers and teachers. Latina/o parents respect the authority of the
teacher and respect their expertise. Most Latina/o parents believe that they should not interfere
28
with the instruction of the teacher. Most of the times the teachers are their only support system
and authority figures. Latina/o students are taught to respect their elders. Also, educators need to
be cautious about their own prejudices about Latina/o communities in order to create better
relationships with the Latina/o students and parents alike.
Latina/o Parent Community Grassroots
Even though Latinas/os have what seem insurmountable disadvantages within the
educational system, they have managed to fight back by community building and creating venues
where they could exercise their cultural values. Pablo M. Jasis and Rosario Ordonez-Jasis
(2011:69) explored “La Familia Initiative, a parent organizing effort started by a small group of
Latino immigrant mothers at a large middle school in Northern California. The school had
experienced a recent significant increase in the number of Latino immigrant students, who in 2
years had jumped from single digits to a solid 26% of a student population of more than 900
students.” Followed by the notion of tequio, or a collective dedication as well as strong feelings
of immigrant solidarity and a shared urgency to resist unequal practices, figured prominently as
forces behind their engagement of advocacy and activism. (De la Fuente 1989:47) La Familia
Initiative formed solidarity among the Latina/o parents and student population. “In this project,
and according to the participants’ own project artifacts and testimonials, the parents’ intent was
to organize and mobilize families independently to establish an active partnership with the
school with the goals of supporting student achievement through an improved dialogue with
school personnel, enhancing student safety and participation, promoting cultural pride, and
increasing family engagement at all levels of school life (Jasis and Ordonez-Jasis 2005:71). La
Familia Initiative and tequio is an example of the ways Latina/o parents’ and schools can come
together to advocate for a child’s academic success.
29
The voices and testimonies of Latina/o parent recall the ways that they believe they
engage with their children. Latino parents engage with their children in various ways not visible
to the school system such as encouraging positive school behaviors, tutoring until the students’
academic knowledge exceeds their own, as well as telling their children that they want them to
have a better life than they have had and that this may be achieved via education (Arellano and
Padilla 1996). This is a very important point because it resonates with the Latina/o community as
a whole. Latina/o parents encourage their children by setting themselves as examples, and it can
be very difficult for Latina/o parents to present themselves to their children in this manner, but
they do so because they believe in the power of education. They want their children to be
educated.
As Latina/o parents grow more knowledgeable about their children’s education
administrative personnel and educators need to be prepared to answer and acknowledge their
concerns. As Latino parents “begin to grow more knowledgeable about their children’s
educational rights and their rights as parents (through workshops, trainings, personal experience,
etc.), they may become more assertive in demanding them from school” (Olivos 2004:11). This
causes a tension for school personnel who are often accustomed to having a compliant Latino
parent population that follows the dictates of the school without question (Nuniz 1994).
Educators and administrative personnel should work together and allow the voices of Latina/o
parents to be heard. They can create a forum by which the parent can engage directly with the
teacher without the tensions.
Disparities in Education for Latina/o Communities There are disparities in education for Latina/o communities. Previous research highlights
the importance of parent participation as a predictor for a child’s educational attainment. Even
30
though our government has attempted to provide funds to programs such as GEAR UP, there are
several issues that need to be addressed. There are socio-political factors that influence the ways
education is experienced by Latina/o communities. Research backs up the notion that Latina/o
parents do value education and in many ways encourage their children to attend institutions of
higher education. In order for us to promote more diversity in institutions of higher education, it
is important to understand the ways Latina/o communities’ function, acknowledge their cultural
beliefs and also provide information to educators and administrative personnel to be more
culturally sensitive.
31
THEORY
Cultural Capital: I will be using Annette Lareau’s concept of cultural capital that she derives from Pierre
Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital. This will emphasize the intricate ways in which class
matters but how also given a persons class status, she/he accrues cultural capital that paves the
way to privileges in education. I will provide an overview of the concept and then continue to
expand on Lareau’s take on cultural capital and what she felt was missing with Bourdieu’s
concept of cultural capital in terms of parent involvement in schooling. This will reflect well
with my research to the ways middle-class parents capitalize on cultural capital in schooling and
how they do so in comparison to low-income and poor families. Ultimately, this provides major
insight into the disparities in education.
Bourdieu’s Cultural Capital: “One of Bourdieu’s major insights on educational inequality is that students with more valuable
social and cultural capital fare better in school than do their otherwise-comparable peers with
less valuable social and cultural capital. The social reproduction perspective has proved
especially useful in attempts to gain a better understanding how race and class influence the
transmission of educational inequality” (Lareau and Horvat 1999:37).
In championing the virtues of parent involvement in schooling, and promoting techniques
for increasing it, researchers have neglected the more basic question of why social class affects
parent involvement (Lareau 2011). Annette Lareau shares that majority of American people
claim a middle-class status. Also, she extends to argue that American’s are very individualistic.
Therefore, concluding that if Latinas/os lack any form of cultural capital that it is fault of their
own. Skewed from Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of cultural capital, Annette Lareau further argues
“Bordieu does not examine the question of parental participation in schooling, but his analysis
32
points to the importance of class and class cultures in facilitating or impeding children’s (or
parents’) negotiation of the process of schooling.” (Lareau 2011)
Cultural capital is a concept developed by Boudieu and Passeron (1977), “who suggested
that knowledge of certain cultural forms, such as classical music, drama, literature, history, or
fine art, as well as certain forms of speech are privileged in a society” (Battle 2002:437).
Bourdieu also recalls, “experiences in the home facilitate children’s adjustment to school and
academic achievement, thereby transforming cultural resources into what he calls cultural
capital” (Bourdieu 1977 and Lareau 1987:423). The only thing that Bourdieu seemed to not
examine and develop well in theorizing cultural capital is the actual parent participation in
schooling and acknowledging how the process of parenting styles differ within the confinement
of class statuses of families. What it means for parents whose educational backgrounds are a
circumstance of their class and economic advantages open doors for their children and in turn
recreate disadvantages to those who do not share the same circumstances.
Latina/o Critical Race Theory:
As more and more research concerning the inequalities faced by Latinas/os in educational
attainment are obtained, there is still a concern over the lack of understanding of the dimensions
of the Latina/o cultural experience and representation in research. For example, while Annette
Lareau creates a venue by which Latinas/os could study inequalities in education through
accruement of cultural capital from parent involvement in schooling, this comes from a white
woman whose focus relies heavily on class as the target. She argues clearly that while race and
gender are important, they are not central to the problem faced by parents and children in
educational settings. Also, the studies conducted are designed in a Black/White paradigm that
while opening a door for Latina/o studies to emerge, Latinas/os use Latino Critical Race (or
33
LatCrit) theory to confront issues that center their experiences and promote their stories to
emerge as a way to resist dominant ideologies that reinforce and institutionalize disadvantages in
academic settings.
LatCrit has been defined as “the emerging field of legal scholarship that examines
critically the social and legal positioning of Latinas/Latinos, especially Latinas/Latinos in the
United States, to help rectify the shortcomings of existing social and legal conditions” (Valdes
1996:3). The advancement of LatCrit as a method of storytelling as a form of resistant and
encourages Latina/os to gain knowledge of the existence of racism and other forms of oppression
that allows them to reflect and divulge their experiences. Delgado Dolores Bernal prioritizes the
importance of Critical Raced-Gendered Epistemologies that recognize students as holders and
creators of knowledge. (Delgado Bernal 2002:105). For example, Lat Crit theorizes issues such
as language, immigration, ethnicity, culture, identity, phenotype, and sexuality (Martinez 1994).
The importance of LatCrit in educational institutions is to outline and portray the issues faced by
Latinas/os in this country that are central to their racial composition and culture.
LatCrit is supplementary to Critical Race Theory in terms of prioritizing the experiences
of people of color in this country. These frameworks challenge dominant liberal ideas such as
colorblindness and meritocracy and show how these ideas operate to disadvantage people of
color and further advantage Whites (Delgado and Stefancic 1994). Whites are misinformed and
often revert to their colorblindness to negotiate these disadvantages that people of color face
from an individualistic mindset that believes in the myth of meritocracy.
Daniel Solorzano (1998) identified five tenets of CRT that can and should inform theory,
research, pedagogy, curriculum and policy:
the interethnicity of race and racism;
34
the challenge to dominant ideology;
the commitment to social justice;
the centrality of experiential knowledge; and
the utilization of interdisciplinary approaches (Yosso, 2005:73).
Also, Yosso uses CRT as a way to argue against the assumption that students of color
arrive to classrooms with cultural deficiencies. She challenges traditional notions like
Bourdieu’s cultural capital and attempts to put it on its head by challenging that the
knowledge and experiences that students of color bring to the table should be recognized
as assets and not deficiencies.
The problem with the so called “deficiencies” that Latina/os often face in this
country like devaluing Spanish language, is that the reproducers of knowledge and those
who accrue cultural capital are determined by those who are in positions of power like
upper and middle classes. The educational system needs to identify the issues concerning
the barriers faced by Latinas/os in this country based on their race, class, gender, and
sexuality to name a few. There needs to be a consideration how these issues of identity
paly an important role in academic settings. The fact that Latina/os in the United States
represent the largest minority group with the lowest levels of educational attainment
really says something about the ways these issues matter. We need to identify the
importance that each Latina/o brings to this country as an asset and not a problem for
American schooling.
Cultural Capital and Latina/o Parent Participation
Annette Lareau’s work regarding parent involvement is crucial for my research. Through
the concept of cultural capital we are able to grasp the ways teachers actively reward those
35
students who possess this form of capital more than those who do not. In turn, teachers often
associate this negative light to the parents as well. Lareau and Lamont (1988:156) define cultural
capital as “institutionalized, i.e., widely shared, high-status cultural signals (attitudes,
preferences, formal knowledge, behaviors, goods and credentials) used for social and cultural
exclusion.” Bourdieu (1984) similarly argued that members of the upper class use culture to
distinguish themselves from and maintain social distance between themselves and those beneath
them on the class hierarchy. Given that Latinas/os are part of the subgroup, that automatically
excludes them from obtaining cultural capital. Discriminatory policies that are effective in
educational settings produce structural barriers for Latina/o youth and their parents.
The most talked about issues Latina/o parents’ faces are: language, immigration status,
and lower economic status. This is not to suggest that all Latinas/os face these issues, but
research suggests that most Latina/o parents do. The high proportion of school failure of
Latinas/os is not an accident. At an individual level Latinas/os are similar to those other groups;
low achievement, dissatisfaction with school, a need to begin work early, and (for girls) early
pregnancy all contribute to dropping out (Fashola and Slavin 1997). At a group level, high
poverty, language issues, and recent immigrant status have been shown to relate to higher
dropout rates for Latinos (Martinez 2004). Latinas/os also face problems with acculturation that
have been previously linked to mental health. These are some barriers that have found to be
linked to the non-visibility of parent in school settings.
36
METHODOLOGY
Method of Study
For this study, I conducted structured, open-ended qualitative interviews, one-on-one with low-
income Latina/o parents. The structured interview was needed because this project was
conducted by a team of researchers who I co-supervised. Therefore, structured questions helped
keep the integrity of the research question and helped maintain consistency across interviews. In
order to fully understand parent participation of Latina/o parents in North County, we asked open
ended questions to the parents about their personal experiences throughout their educational
journeys, their children’s experiences in school, and their aspirations for the future of their
children. We interviewed twenty-four parents whose children attend high schools in the North
County of San Diego. The qualitative data allowed me to analyze the ways parents participate
and engage with their children for their educational goals. Qualitative interviews allowed
Latina/o parents to express their own stories about schooling and dreams for the future. (See
Appendix A for the interview questions in Spanish and English.)
Context for the Study
I was hired by GEAR UP Palomar College with a project, qualitative oriented, and
evaluating GEAR UP program in terms of advocating for more Latina/o parent participation in
North County. We agreed that I could structure the interviews to focus on related themes to use
in my thesis. My colleague Bettina Serna and I were hired as research assistants who would
oversee the entirety of the evaluation project. GEAR UP Palomar College also hired three
additional assistants to help with the translation of the Spanish-English portion of the interviews.
Palomar GEAR UP program had previously conducted a quantitative evaluation survey with the
37
parents and have asked general questions about their ethnicity, primary language, gender, etc.
For the purpose of my thesis, I focused on how they participated in their children’s education;
personal stories about past experiences in their education; and, their aspirations for their
children’s future.
All Latina/o parents who participated in this study had at least one child in GEAR UP and
lived in Escondido, California. As of 2012, the estimated median household income for
Escondido was $45,466. My focus is on low-income Latina/o parent participation. According to
the San Diego Regional Planning, the population characteristics have changed dramatically from
2000-2010. In 2000, the Hispanic population was estimated at 51,693 and in 2010 the Hispanic
population is now more than 70,326. In comparison to Whites who were estimated 69,305 in
2000, and in 2010 there was a decline of White residents in Escondido who totaled 58,142. I
draw upon these demographics to explain the shift of Hispanics residing in Escondido and how
this affects parent participation in the Escondido district as the Latina/o population grows and if
schools become more culturally sensitive to cater to the parents.
Recruitment
Palomar GEAR UP program asked GEAR UP coordinators from each high school from
the Escondido district to contact the parents and ask them if they would volunteer their time for
an interview. GEAR UP coordinators recruited and publicized interview project to the parents.
The students’ parents who were interviewed were students who are now attending high school
and are part of the GEAR UP. Their contact information was released to me and I kept them in a
password-protected database. I then proceed to call the parents myself to set up an appointment
for the interviews in Spanish.
38
Sample
We interviewed twenty-four parents. Three fathers and twenty-one mothers participated
in this study. In Table 1, below, I present each parent’s name, country of origin, number of
children, level of education, and which researcher interviewed them. All but one came from
Mexico. The average number of children was 3.25. The mode of parent’s level of education was
grade school equivalent. Of the twenty-four parents interviewed, only one received a form of
higher education. He received his degree in Medicine in Mexico, but could not practice in the
United States. (In the thesis, I use pseudonyms to protect their identity. Following our local
cultural of respect in this region, the participants are referenced to as Señora/Señor. This is how
we addressed them in the interviews.)
Table 1: Participant Demographics
Parent
Pseudonyms
Race/
Ethnicity
Number
of
Children
Parents' Level of
Education
Interviewer
Señora Adelina Mexican 3 12th Grade/ San Diego,
California
Yolanda & Nayeli
Señora Eugenia Mexican 3 Middle School/
Michoacan, Mexico
Yolanda
Señora Brenda Mexican 3 Middle School/ Mexico
City
Yolanda & Blanca
Señora
Guadalupe
Mexican 4 Middle School/Mexico Bettina & Ariana
Señor Miguel Mexican 2 Trade School/Mexico City Yolanda & Nayeli
Señora Estela Mexican 2 High School/San Diego,
California
Yolanda
Señor Juan Mexican 6 6th Grade, Mexico City Bettina & Yolanda
Señora
Alejandra
Mexican 5 Middle
School/Guanajuato,
Mexico
Yolanda
Señora Patricia Mexican 3 Middle School/Mexico
City
Yolanda
Señora Joseline Mexican 2 Some High School/San
Diego, California
Yolanda & Nayeli
39
Señora Amparo Mexican 3 Some High School/
Mexico City
Yolanda & Blanca
Señora Linda Guatemalan 3 and
Pregnant
3rd Grade, Guatemala Yolanda
Señora Laura Mexican 2 Grade School Bettina
Señora Alma Mexican 2 Middle School/ Tijuana,
Mexico
Yolanda & Blanca
Señora
Esmeralda
Mexican 5 5th Grade/Mexico Yolanda & Ariana
Señora Angelica Mexican 1 High School/ San Diego,
California
Yolanda & Bettina
Señora Helena Mexican 4 High School/ Tijuana,
Mexico
Yolanda
Señora Deysi Mexican 2 5th Grade, Mexico City Bettina & Blanca
Señora Rosa Mexican 3 5th Grade/ San Quintin,
Mexico
Bettina & Yolanda
Señora
Valentina
Mexican 4 6th Grade/ Queretaro,
Mexico
Yolanda & Ariana
Señora Minerva Mexican 2 and 1
Adopted
Some High School/
Queretaro, Mexico
Yolanda
Señor Paul Mexican 3 Career in Medicine/
Mexico
Yolanda & Nayeli
Señora Glenda Mexican 4 6th Grade/Oaxaca,
Mexico
Bettina & Ariana
Señora Antonia Mexican 5 Middle School/Puebla,
Mexico
Yolanda
In addition, all but two parents spoke Spanish; some attended church and most were
working class. Six of the parents attended church regularly and self-identified as Catholic or
Christian in faith. The parents were mostly working class, even though we did not ask them
directly, their job descriptions indicated that they were working class. They were mostly blue
collard jobs that involved manual labor jobs like construction. They were often paid minimum
wages, and one of the parents who worked in construction and was undocumented reported he
was sometimes paid less than other construction workers in the same site. The parent’s level of
education varied so their ability to speak and write in Spanish varied. The parents spoke different
regional dialects of Spanish, reflecting their varying places of origin.
40
Because the parents were recruited from the GEAR UP database and school site
coordinators, there may be a sample bias in terms of being known to the GEAR UP staff and/or
feeling comfortable volunteering for the study. However, in this group of GEAR UP connected
parents, their were uneven levels knowledge about GEAR UP and intriguing diversity of parent
participation strategies.
Interview Process
Parents were assured that their information would be confidential. In order to provide a
safe space for the participants, we conducted all interviews at the Palomar College’s Escondido
campus, which is located in a high density, Latina/o community. We were cautious and sensitive
to the needs of the interviewees. To our knowledge, no parent expressed that they felt anxiety or
any form of discomfort. We reassured the parents that they were not obligated to stay and
reminded them that their participation was voluntary. We were sensitive to their perspectives and
conducted ourselves appropriately.
Ethical Implications
I began each interview with the release of the consent form explaining to each participant
the nature of the project. The informed consent forms were offered in Spanish and English for
the participants before each interview. We carefully reviewed verbally each section before the
interviews. Given their educational levels, we asked the participants if they wanted us to read
them the consent forms or if they preferred to read them on their own. The consent forms
explained to the participants that the interviews would be audio-recorded. The participants were
given as much time needed to read and sign the consent forms, and we highlighted that for their
protection their identities would not be disclosed. Their names will not be released at any time
41
Because we interviewed low-income Latina/o parents, we were aware that some of the parents
might disclose information such as their immigrant status. I informed them that I would be
extremely careful about the ways we utilized this information and disclosed their identity with
this research. It was important to convey the sensitive nature of the data to the research
assistants, however, as one of the primary supervisors of this research, I had primary access to
this information. Bettina and I made sure that the assistants erased all information once they
analyzed and transcribed all interviews. The recorded interviews were then transcribed onto my
own personal computer for my own personal use. I made sure their confidentiality was not
compromised and took the necessary steps to do so. I used a personal flash drive that I kept in a
secure place that only I had access to. After all the data was analyzed, I proceeded to erase all
recordings and permanently deleted from my personal computer and flash drive. (See Appendix
B for the consent form in Spanish and English.)
My Social Location as a Researcher
Within the Sociological Practice and as a researcher relying on LatCrit, I strive to be
reflexive at all times about my social location. I was born in Mexicali, Baja California Mexico. I
grew up in a border town and that had a major impact on my identity. I self-identify as a:
heterosexual, able-bodied, educated, Mexican and American citizen, and a woman. I am the
oldest of three children. My parents, like many immigrants, came to the United States and
worked hard to provide a better life for my siblings and me. I was privileged enough to obtain
derived citizenship status from my father and that allowed me to obtain an education and live in
this country. I grew up low-income for vast majority of my life until my dad was employed by
the state as a correctional officer. His position helped us gain middle-class status. Yet, it did not
make it any easier for us to adjust to this country. My social location continues to shape and
42
impact my identity. I am still a Mexican woman of color that is struggling to navigate the
educational system as a graduate student.
I intended on using my social location as a power tool and through sociological lens help
contribute to a larger agenda that challenges systemic issues of oppression. While my experience
is not singular, it is a struggle shared by many as they navigate the educational system. I am one
of many. Yet, I do not speak for all of Latinas/os in this country and do not intend to do so. What
I do presume to do is focus on the issues pertaining to the inequalities faced by minorities,
specifically Latinas/os in this country. I was tired of listening to various people blame the poor,
people of color, women, etc., for the educational disproportions between whites and minorities.
My mother to this day cannot read or write but she continues to show her love and support and
that has made a world of difference with me. My parents raised me in a natural growth parenting
style because we grew up low-income. Yet, that is an asset and has been important for my
educational journey and educational attainment. This also seemed to be representative of what
most of the interviewees in this study exemplified.
Certainly, my closeness to the research topic could influence my interpretation of the
data. Conversely, the same could be said of someone removed from the particular lived
experiences. “To understand the collection of data by interviewing people as social interaction
draws the attention to the fact that there is no such thing like a neutral, non-interviewing and
non-existent interviewer” (Diefenbach 2008:880). I was fully aware of my social location and
what this could bring to the study.
In the interviews, I was able to demonstrate authentic empathy and acceptance. I believe
this was a reason why one of the women interviewed disclosed a very personal experience of
being undocumented and how depressed her son had become after her husband had been
43
deported. I had made a connection with her. I hoped that she viewed me as I was a non-judging
woman who spoke Spanish and was Mexican. She seemed to feel comfortable enough to disclose
information that perhaps she would not have otherwise. This insider perspective allowed for a
unique style of interviewing that qualitative studies advocate for. They seemed to trust me. Some
of the parents said that they hoped their children would aspire to become individuals like us; as
GEAR UP Research supervisors and assistants we were all Chicanas.
On the other hand, my position as a graduate student and a researcher also made me an
outsider or may have imposed a power hierarchy. I have accrued a certain amount of cultural
capital. The simple fact that I am formally educated indicates a power dynamic. My social class
and my economic disposition are different than those of the parents we interviewed. I do not
have children or an extended family to support therefore, even though I am not wealthy, I do not
experience the same stress levels regarding finances, jobs, and educational constrains they face
everyday. While it’s impossible to know for sure, participants may have felt badly based on the
questions I asked regarding parenting, their own educational attainment, and/or may have felt
pressured to speak to me in a certain way.
There were certainly limitations to this study, but those do not exceed the positive ones.
For the most part, it seemed like they trusted us enough to share their experiences with us. My
social location and the research topic of Latina/o parent participation for their children’s
educational attainment is a topic that is very personal to me. This certainly guided my interest
and passion for completing this thesis but I feel that I focused on honoring the parents’ interview
data and allowed their words, dreams, and challenges to guide the findings.
44
FINDINGS
My findings, based on the interviews I conducted with Latina/o parents from North
County highlighted the many dimensions of Latina/o parent participation in their children’s
education. I found that Latina/o parents care about their children’s education and have high
regards of the American educational system. Yet, they face inter-locking challenges that may
interfere with their participation in school, such as poverty, job constraints, language, and their
own educational attainment. The findings described in this section positively reflect Latina/o
parents’ individual motivations to guide their children to pursue higher education as well as
highlight common goals. In the analytical discussion that concludes this section, I explain the
theoretical implications of how Latina/o parents face structural issues, which ultimately prevent
them from participating in traditionally thought of ways.
How and When Latina/o Parents Participate
Latina/o parents’ diverse participation in schools occurs in many forms, traditional, non-
traditional, and formal. The parents participated in programs like GEAR UP, Upward Bound,
Talent Search, Encuentros, and many more. The parents often sought programs that could help
their children with tutoring, financial aid, scholarship opportunities, and information more
accessible and important to them that could help their kids attend institutions of higher
education. Señora Joseline said:
Para que sigan sus sueños o los motivan por ejemplo ahí me toco ver una muchacha [en un taller
de GEAR UP] y espero que así sea mi hija que dice que ella tampoco quería participar en nada.
Que su mama siempre andaba buscando todos los programas posibles [y] que ella le decía, “mira
esto y que mira el otro.”
English translation: To follow their dreams. They [GEAR UP] motivate them. For example, I was
able to meet a young woman [at a GEAR UP workshop] and I hope that my daughter becomes like
her. She didn’t want to participate in anything. Her mom was always looking for all the programs
possible and told her to, ‘look at this and look at that.”
45
Señor Paul attended workshops to get more information regarding financial aid and
scholarship opportunities. This is what he said,
Nosotros nos hemos involucrado mucho porque queremos ver de esto, de las becas que hay, de las
ayudas para los muchachos que es muy importante porque a veces no es tanto que sean buenos si
no es agarrarles las ayudas adecuadas.
English Translation: We have very involved [with the children] because we want to see the help
they [schools] offer, like scholarships for the kids. It is very important because sometimes it’s not
so much that they are good [students] but it is important to find adequate help.
Señora Valentina participated in more traditional ways by attending basic meetings:
No he podido participar en muchas cosas por mi trabajo. No puedo ir a las juntas de mi niña, la
chiquita, porque son en las mañanas. Pero si he tratado de ir a juntas de la escuela, los eventos
cuando regresan a la escuela.
English Translation: I have not been able to participate in a lot of things because of my job. I can’t
attend my daughter’s (the youngest) meetings because they are in the morning. I have tried to
attend the meetings at school and events when they go back to school.
Also, their experiences vary given their level of participation with their children’s
schools. Latina/o parents were also involved in PTO’s or head of Club de Padres
organization in their children’s schools. Señora Minerva and Señora Eugenia were both
active members of PTO and Club de Padres. They both shared similar stories about their
duties within those parent clubs and organizations. When I asked Señora Eugenia about
what her duties were as head of PTO, she responded:
Para ayudarle a las maestras a cortar papeles a sacar copias, por ejemplo ahora para antes de que
fuera el día de Thanksgiving.
English Translation: To help the teachers cut paper and make copies, for example, before
Thanksgiving Day.
Señora Eugenia also disclosed that the meetings were held to keep count of the
number of parents who annually participate in the organizations. Señora Eugenia noted
that as head of the school’s PTO she was never asked for her participation in choosing the
location of the children’s school field trips. Instead, the school made those executive
decisions amongst administrative personnel and teachers. Señora Minerva’s duties were
46
similar to those of Señora Eugenia’s as members of PTO. The only difference was that
Señora Minerva was a more active participant at Club de Padres because she felt more
comfortable speaking Spanish and felt at ease with other Latina/o parents.
Latina/o parents also participate by attending their children’s schools to address
problems that may occur with their children. Whether it may be attending a meeting with
a school director or teacher, they make sure to be present with their children. Latina/o
parents recall taking time to talk to teachers about their children misbehaving in class.
The parents were aware of their child’s behaviors at times, but in most situations, the
parents had trouble communicating effectively with the teachers about ways to address
the behavior of the child. For example, some of the parents discussed having trouble
talking about behavioral issues when teachers were adamant to speak to them without
attacking them directly and blaming the parents for their lack of discipline with their
children. Señora Estela, a mother of three and a full-time worker at a hardware store,
discussed the problems she encountered with a teacher:
With one of her teachers, a couple of years back I did have problems with one. I pretty much had
to ask him to stop calling me. Cause he would just call and complain and I just told him, “If you
don’t like her in your class, then you need to change her.” I told him, “If you need to talk to the
principal then you go and talk to the principal, make an appointment and I will be there.” Nothing
came back, again after that. It was her behavior, yes.
Señora Estela felt attacked and harassed by that teacher. It was not until she mentioned
speaking to the principal that the teacher stopped.
Latina/o parent participation is in fact happening in schools. Often, they engage in school
events, workshops, and become part of school organizations. They try to be advocates for their
children in response to teacher complaints. They are in a position to help, and they do the best
they can with the resources that are given to them. The lack of time and the language barriers can
be an issue, but they strive to work with the schools in order to help their children. For example,
47
Señora Glenda is aware of the language barrier, but she remains positive and hopeful that the
school will provide an interpreter and pamphlets in Spanish that can help her participate in her
daughters’ school:
Pues en realidad estoy muy apartada por el idioma. No me puedo comunicar bien y en el tiempo
en que mi niña estudio en el kínder a quinto grado me mantuve en contacto con los maestros. Pero
cuando mi hija estudio en la high school cuando llegamos siempre íbamos a las reuniones. Y
ahorita estamos tratando de no perdernos las reuniones. A mi me gusta cuando hay alguien que
interpreta y que den las hojas en español. [Lo] entiendo bien.
English Translation: In reality I am very isolated because of the language, I can’t communicate
well and during the time my daughter was in kinder to fifth grade I was in contact with all of her
teachers. When my daughter was in high school, at the beginning we would always attend the
meetings. We are trying not to miss any meetings. I like it when there is an interpreter or someone
who hands out pamphlets in Spanish. I can understand [the information] well.
As I have previously stated in the literature review, traditional and
non-traditional participation has been previously discussed through formal and informal
parent involvement. “Formal (i.e., visible) parent involvement in schools refers to:
attendance at a Parent Teacher Association (PTA) meetings, chaperoning, field trips, or
volunteering in a classroom” (Quicoho and Daoud 2006). Informal (and often invisible to
educators) parent involvement with Latina/o families is to provide: support for their
children, such as helping with homework, encouraging scholastic endeavors, providing a
quiet homework setting, or discussing future plans with child” (Auerbach 2007 and
Zarate 2007). In our findings, Latina/o parents’ informal participation included attending
GEAR UP and PIQE (Parents for Quality Education) workshops. Many of them shared
that they also participated in church events or outside workshops that would keep their
kids interested in school and staying out of trouble. There were many outside programs
that many of the interviewees benefitted from. Even though this was unknown to the
children’s teachers or school staff, they advocated for their children’s education in many
ways that were invisible to the school.
48
In Table 2, I demonstrate some of the diverse ways in which the parents participation
which include attending school meetings, members of PTO and other parents groups,
participating in other programs at the school sites such as GEAR UP, and attending community
events to strengthen their children’s chances of doing well life. I also clarified the distinction
between formal/traditional parent participation and informal/non-traditional parent participation.
I make the distinction between formal parent participation (visible) and informal (invisible)
Latina/o parent participation in school settings.
49
Name Traditional Forms of
Parent Participation
Non-Traditional Forms of
Parent Participation
Señora Joseline Teacher Meetings
Counselor Meetings
Chaperoned Field Trips
GEAR UP Workshops
Support Goals
Motivates her Kids
Emphasis on Education
Señor Paul Teacher Meetings
Attends Science Fairs
GEAR UP Workshops
Supports Goals
Attends Education
Workshops outside of
School Events
Received his degree in
Medicine from Mexico
and shares this with his
daughter
Helping with Homework
Emphasis on Education
Señora Valentina Teacher Meetings
Counselor Meetings
GEAR UP Workshops
Supports Goals
Motivates her Kids
Emphasis on Education
Señora Eugenia Teacher
Meetings
PTO President
Club de Padres
Volunteers with
Teachers
Attends District
Meetings
PIQE
GEAR UP
Workshops
Supports Goals
Motivates her
kids
Emphasis on Education
Señora Minerva Teacher
Meetings
Member of
PTO
Member of Club de
Padres
PIQE
GEAR UP
Workshops
Church Support
Groups
Attends
Workshops
from
Motivational
Speakers like
Dra. Beatriz
Villareal
Attends
Workshops on
Gangs,
Violence, and
Self-Esteem
Emphasis on Education
50
Many of the parents in this study did participate in their children’s schools but
revealed the difficult task of making time to meet teachers or attend school workshops.
Señora Joseline attended workshops when she had time, to show support to their children
and also to participate in programs that would help them. Below is a chart that describes
the type of parent participation amongst the participants in the study. All of the
participants in the study are not reflected in the chart, but it is a diverse representation of
parent participation amongst Latina/o parents. In the next section I will discuss the
strengths of cultural upbringings of bien educada/o/be respectful.
“Bien Educada/o”/ Be Respectful
The findings in this study reveal Latina/o parents’ social realities and highlighted the
strengths of their cultural values, educational values, and familismo. Latina/o parents like Señor
Juan and Señora Valentina teach their children to uphold traditional cultural values that deem
respect to be one of the most important values they can convey to their children. They call it:
“bien educado” (respectful), and this means that they raise their children to respect others,
especially to respect elders, and to love and respect their family members. This literally translates
as “well-educated” but actually embodies being respectful. These are their words:
Señor Juan: “Yo lo que quiero, son niños que me tengan respeto y amor… Yo prefiero tener unos
niños [pues] no espero que ellos tan inteligentes pero prefiero que sean unas personas ciudadanas
respetuosos.
Señora Glenda Teacher Meetings Supports Goals
Motivates her
Kids
Shares her Life
Story as
Example
Emphasis on Education
Señora Estela Calls with
Teacher
Meetings
Supports Goals
Motivates her
Kids
Emphasis on Education
51
English Translation: What I want is for my kids to love and respect me… I prefer to have kids, I
don’t expect them to be that intelligent, but I prefer them to be good people who are respectful.
Señora Valentina: “Si, y pues estoy muy contenta con mis hijos, la verdad son feliz y en cuestión
académica van por muy buen camino. Cuando trabajas en casa con ellos, cuando les das una
educación, les hablas de los valores y de que hay que respetar. Se siente tan bonito.”
English Translation: Yes, I am very happy with my children. I am happy with their academic
work, they are on the right path. When you work at home with them, when you give them an
education, you teach them about values and about how they need to respect (people). It’s a great
feeling.
Señora Eugenia a mother of four from Michoacán, Mexico also shared:
Pues yo pienso que la buena educación yo pienso que le he dado a mi hijo de enseñarle buenos
modales y decirle que, osea siempre se lo digo, que de lo mejor de el. Que respete a los maestros,
que respete a las personas, y pienso que eso ha funcionado.
English Translation: Well I think I have provided them with a good education and I think that I
have taught my son proper manners. I tell him to always give the best of himself. I tell him to
respect his teachers, to respect all people and I think that has worked [in our family].
Respect in Latina/o culture is not something to be taken lightly. Latinas/os abide
by these morals and they transfer these ideologies to latter generations. Some parents like
Señora Amparo pride themselves in raising well-educated and obedient children. They
present this moral compass of a respectful person that is obedient and respectful to others
and this is not to be misinterpreted of reading “obedient” as a form of submission, but
rather an expression of love and respect that builds community and familismo. Señora
Amparo shared:
Como ellos se portan bien, que si les hablamos son niños muy obedientes y muy responsables, [y]
estudiosos. Entonces es lo que yo creo que tiene que ver. Y respetuosos sobre todo con los
maestros. Entonces ninguno de ellos ha tenido ningún problema.
English: They [the children] are well behaved. If we call them, they are obedient kids, very
responsible, and studious. That is what I think has all to do with it, they are respectful with all of
their teachers. They have never had any problems [in school].
Latina/o parents value familismo because it builds community and it teaches
children about preserving values of self-respect and the emphasis of the worth of
education. Familismo also caters to Latinas/os of lower socioeconomic status because it
52
preserves family relationships. When Latinas/os face overbearing obstacles but they
manage to rely heavily on each other for support and they build familial ties in order to
strengthen the relationships. They raise their children with the hope that the education
that they provide will help their children in future endeavors. Part of Familismo is that
Latina/o families develop a connection with the family and that is instrumental to their
development. As previously discussed in the literature, Latinas/os connect with their
children to give them a sense of community and family support because it is a matter of
health for the children. To them, this positive reinforcement of community building and
familial ties strengthen the child by establishing a strong sense of identification.
“Because I couldn’t go to school”
The diverse experiences of parents who participated in this study expressed an undoubted
interest to support and advocate for their children’s educational attainment. Latina/o parents
communicate effectively with their children and push them to continue their education. Many of
them did not have the opportunity to continue their schooling due to their own parent’s lack of
educational attainment, economic standing, and immigrant statuses. They continuously expressed
to their children the importance of education, the educational opportunities available for them in
this country, and also the economic relief an education can bring to them. The parents set
themselves up as examples of “what not do” and often share their stories to their children in
hopes of getting through to them and help them pursue a different lifestyle.
Señora Laura, a mother of two shares her painful journey growing up and the hardships
she has endured. She is hopeful that her children will lead a different life than hers:
Yo no fui a la escuela. Todo lo que aprendí, lo aprendí ya de adulta. Por eso es que me enfoco
tanto en la educación de mis hijos porque no quiero que sean igual que yo. Por eso es que siempre
los estoy pushando [empujando]. Siempre estoy por lo mismo porque yo no tuve esa oportunidad.
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Mis padres no me la dieron y ahora que yo puedo… hacer la diferencia, quiero que sea la
diferencia para mis hijos.
English Translation: I didn’t go to school. All that I learned, I learned as an adult. That is why I
focus so much on the education of my children because I don’t want them to be just like me. That
is why I am always pushando [pushing] them. I am always the same because I never had that
opportunity [to go to school]. My parents didn’t give me that and now I can…make a difference, I
want that to be the difference for my children.
Señora Glenda, a mother of four, spoke about her career objectives that she could not
fulfill:
Yo pienso, que ellos sean algo que yo no fui. Yo pienso verme en ellos. Por eso me dio mucho
gusto que mi hija tiene su carrera. Yo tenia muchos deseos de ser profesora pero no se pudo.
English Translation: I think, they should be what I couldn’t be [have a career]. I plan to see myself
through them. That is why I am so happy that my daughter has her career. I had a dream of
becoming a teacher but I could not [fulfill that dream].
Señora Glenda had her mind set on becoming a teacher but she became a mother. Her
priority became her children and providing for them. She continues to do so everyday.
She hopes her children will have the opportunities she did not have and also hopes they
will have their dream jobs.
Latina/o parents often work in laborious jobs that have devastating physical
effects. Señora Eugenia and Señora Joseline both constantly spoke to their children about
those jobs in hopes that they do not endure the same hardships. They communicate to
their children the need for an education in order to be protected and guarantee them a
professional career. This is what they had to say:
Señora Eugenia: “Le digo, le pongo el ejemplo de mi esposo que trabaja en el roofing. Es muy
cansado ese trabajo y entonces yo le digo a mi hijo, ‘Yo no quiero que trabajes, que tu [no] sufras
como nosotros hemos sufrido de hacer trabajos pesados. Por eso quiero que tu estudies y llegues a
la universidad para que tu tengas un mejor futuro.”
English Translation: I tell him, I set his father as an example and his work in roofing. He is very
tired of that job and then I tell my son, “I don’t want you to work, that you suffer like we have. Of
having to do that heavy work, that is why we want you to study and to attend a university so that
you have a better future.”
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Señora Joseline wanted her children to have a protection; in this case, she wanted them to
have stability in their jobs. Also, she wanted her children not to have to work jobs that
were hazardous to their health.
Señora Joseline: “Yo espero que se reciban de una protección. [Que sean] profesionales pues para
que puedan tener un mejor trabajo, mejor futuro que tuve yo. Yo siempre le digo a mi hija, “Mira
mis quemadas yo trabajaba en un restaurante, mira mis quemadas. Mira esto. Me duelen los pies
[y] me duele la cabeza [y] no tenemos dinero para esto… ” Le digo que ella tiene que ser mejor
porque tiene muchas mas oportunidades que las que tuve yo.
English Translation: I hope that they are protected [financially]. That they become professionals
because they can have better jobs. They have a better future than I. I always tell my daughter,
“Look at my burns I worked at a restaurant. Look at my burns. Look at this. My feet hurt and my
head hurts and we don’t have money for this…” I tell her that she needs to be better because she
has a lot of opportunities that I didn’t have.
Señora Adelina, a mother of three, communicated to her children all of the benefits and
advantages the children have at school:
Yo le digo que aproveche todos los beneficio que hay en la escuela. [Todas] las ayudas que
vengan o que si hay paseos que el quiere ir que esta interesado y toda la ayuda que le puedan dar
que la agarre porque yo batalle mucho. Por lo mismo que no agarre, nunca casi.
English Translation: I tell him to take advantage of all of the benefits that come from school. All
the help that can come or if there are any field trips he wants to go or if he is interested in all of the
help they [school] can give to take it because I struggled a lot. For the same reason, that I never
had that.
Latina/o parents all conveyed the same message: the importance of education.
They communicated this to their children often by setting themselves as examples of the
consequences: lack of educational subjects a person to a particular lifestyle that they do
not wish their children to have. Latina/o parents participate often by communicating and
narrating their own experiences to their children. The power in the message of the parents
is that they set themselves as examples, but they do so in an empowering way where they
want their children to succeed. The power of their knowledge their diverse experiences of
educational attainment are part of that cultural capital that Yosso explains that Latina/o
families possess.
55
The Role of the American Dream
Señora Rosa, a mother of four from San Quentin, Baja California came to United
States with the hopes of achieving the American Dream.
Porque el país es muy grande. Es un país de oportunidades. Y el que la sabe aprovechar, la va
aprovechar. Y el que no, no. Y eso es lo que me e valido desde que llegue aquí.
English Translation: Because this country is big. It is a country of opportunities. The one, who
knows how to take advantage of the opportunity, will. And the one, who does not, won’t. That is
what I have valued since I came here.”
The role of the American Dream was a prominent discussion amongst the parents. Some
of them compared the differences in opportunities from their native countries of origin to the
states. The most noted opportunity the American Dream provided for the Latina/os were the
educational opportunities. Señora Eugenia, a mother of three, shared her belief in the American
Dream and noted the differences of educational opportunities between American students and
Mexico.
Es muy diferente aquí [en los Estados Unidos], porque pienso que aquí los estudiantes tienen mas
oportunidades y mas. Los maestros les ayudan mas. Las escuelas ofrecen mas como programas
para ayudarles a ellos. Y allá no, en México no hay tantos programas como para ayudar a los
estudiantes como aquí.”
English Translation: It is very different here [in the United States], I think that here the students
have more opportunities and the teachers help them more. The schools offer more programs to
help them. Over there it’s not the case. In Mexico there aren’t that many programs that help the
students like here.
Señora Alma believed that if a person works hard in this country, the
opportunities are endless. In the following discussion, she explained that by working hard
she has been able to afford several material possessions that have helped her and her
family. She also referenced the way other people, who are immigrants like her, worked
for twenty years and did not obtain the same results.
Ver que la unión hace la fuerza y nosotros venimos de México hace cinco años, bueno de Tijuana.
Hace cinco años, y a los dos años gracias a Dios compramos nuestra casa. Tenemos nuestro carro,
osea hemos hecho muchas cosas que a veces para la gente, pues conozco gente que tiene veinte
años aquí y la verdad no tiene nada.
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English Translation: In unity there is strength and we came from Mexico five years ago, well from
Tijuana. Five years ago, and in two years, thanks to God we bought a house, we have our car, we
have don’t a lot of things that sometimes for people, we know people who have lived here for
twenty years and they have nothing [to show for it].
Señora Deysi, also conveyed the same message and held the same belief system:
Todo con esfuerzo es posible. Y yo siempre a veces cuando mis niños llegan con tarea que es
difícil, lea leemos una vez, no entendimos, otra vez y hasta que lo logramos. Con paciencia, con
esfuerzo todo es posible, no hay nada imposible.
English Translation: All is possible with effort. I always, sometimes my children come [home]
with homework that is difficult, we read it once, [if] we don’t understand, we go at it again until
we make it. With patience, and effort anything is possible. There is no impossible.
I did not ask direct questions on the topic of the American Dream, so I had very little
knowledge about the degree to which the parents compared and contrasted the educational
system to the ones of Latin America. The conversations lent themselves for the discussion of the
American Dream and it happened to be a topic of interest to the parents. What I can deduce from
those findings was that the role of the American Dream is an important finding for this study.
The vast majority of the parents in this study worked hard and they came to the United States
with the dream and hope that those opportunities the American Dream promised would help
them achieve better educational outcomes for their families.
They were hopeful of the opportunities and the system. It motivated them to push their
kids towards better educational opportunities and economic relief. Latina/o parents’ informal
participation with the American Dream means they were buying into the system. They may or
may have not been aware about what opportunities the American Dream would bring. But,
ultimately, they succumbed themselves to this ideology that has ultimately failed them in terms
of the opportunities it promised for their families. The American Dream fails them by fault of the
structuring within the American educational system; “Latino students are currently the most
segregated racial or ethnic group in the United States in terms of school enrollment (DeBlassie
and DeBlassie 1996). They attend the most poorly equipped schools in the most impoverished
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school districts (Peske and Haycock 2006) and are most likely to have inadequate instructional
materials and teachers with less experience.” The American Dream presents a double-edge
sword for Latinas/os in that they believe in it and that motivates them and that is positive, it is the
distorted facts regarding the realities of inequalities lived by Latina/os in the United States
educational system that needs to be addressed.
Language Barriers
Language was the biggest barrier to Latina/o parent participation in schools. All but two
parents in our study discussed their challenges regarding:
Helping their children with their homework
Learning English as a second language
Using their children as language brokers
Communicating effectively with teachers and staff
Attending night schools at community colleges to learn English
Finding time and money to learn English while having a family
For example Señora Esmeralda voiced her concern over her inability to help her daughter
with her homework:
Es un poco batalloso con la primera niña porque ella salió y esta saliendo adelante por ella misma
porque para nosotros, mi esposo y yo no sabemos mucho el ingles y a veces nos decía: “Mama me
ayuda” o cualquier cosa. Y le decía: “Pues en la escuela pide ayuda. Hay personas que te pueden
ayudar, busca porque nosotros no podemos.
English Translation: It’s a little hard, because with my eldest daughter, she is moving forward by
herself because for us, my husband and I don’t know much English and at times she would ask:
“Mom help me” or any other thing. I would reply: “Well ask for help at school. There are people
who can help you there, look because we can’t (help).”
Señora Glenda experienced the same problem with her daughter, except she had a little
bit of help from her oldest daughter who could help her sister. Children work as language
and knowledge brokers, not only for the parents, but for other family members as well.
Señora Glenda said:
Lo único que batallo es el idioma y a veces no la puedo ayudar [con la tarea]. Pera a mis otras
hijas les exigía, ellas siempre tuvieron buenas calificaciones.
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English Translation: The only struggle is the language and I sometimes; I can’t help her [with her
homework]. I required my other daughters they always had good grades.
Schools at times provided resources to Latina/o parents. Señora Laura expressed gratitude when
she received help from a proactive teacher who helped her translate her child’s homework. She
was able to help her daughter with her homework. This is what she had to say:
Hubo una maestra me la traducía [la tarea] en español y para mi eso fue una gran ayuda porque no
le entendía y fue muy difícil para mi. Ella me apoyo todo ese tiempo. Y fue para mi una de las
mejores maestras que e tenido de mis hijas.
English Translation: There was a teacher who translated the homework to Spanish and that was of
great help to me because I could not understand and it was very difficult for me. She helped me all
of that time. That was, for me, one of the best teachers my daughters have had.
Some Latina/o parents who came to the United States at a relative younger age.
Their own parents did not know English. Some of the parents came to the United States
while in high school and were placed in ESL and ELD classes. They had no one to help
them with their homework or help them with the language, so it became difficult for them
to finish school as well. As time progressed, they had more familiarity with the language,
but they did not speak or write in English.
Señora Eugenia said:
Pues al principio como uno no sabe mucho la verdad, es un poco difícil para aprender el idioma
ingles. Pero, bueno creo que ahorita le entiendo mas
English Translation: Well at the beginning because one doesn’t know a lot, it is a bit difficult to
learn English. Well, I think I can understand more now.
Señora Joseline and Señora Adelina were part of the group of parents who were
placed in ESL and ELD classes during high school. Señora Joseline was placed in ESL
and ELD classes in her freshman year of high school. She had a really hard time
adjusting to the American school system because her family had little knowledge about
the system and this was what she had to say.
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Yo cuando llegue aquí [a los Estados Unidos] empecé en el grado nueve. Aquí entonces yo no
sabia ingles, era difícil. Y yo pues, si había programas yo no me enteraba. Mi tía nunca estudio
entonces no supieron como guiarme, como ayudarme.
English Translation: When I came here [to the United States] I started in ninth grade. I did not
know English then, it was difficult. Well, I, there were programs but I didn’t know. My aunt never
[went to school] so they did not know how to guide me, how to help me.
Señora Adelina had a similar experience to that of Señora Joseline. In her particular case,
her parents did not speak English and her family moved to several places before staying
in San Diego. Her father was a construction worker and this made it difficult for her and
her siblings to live in one place. Señora Adelina continually stayed in ESL classes. She
said:
Para mi fue difícil porque mis papas no hablaban ingles, so yo no participaba casi en la escuela y
siempre me ponían en programas de ESL porque nos cambiábamos mucho de ciudad.
English Translation: It was difficult for me because my parents didn’t speak English, so I didn’t
participate much in school. They always placed me in ESL programs because we moved a lot.
Other parents had schooling in Mexico. The parents had limited knowledge about
the academic curriculum in the United States. Vast majority of them compared the United
States and countries like Mexico and Guatemala in terms of funding for education,
opportunities (programs), and government support. Latina/o parents talked about their
unfamiliarity with American schooling and requirements. They seemed eager for their
children to take advantage of the opportunities programs like GEAR UP offer in hopes
that those programs will guide their children to navigate the school’s systems and
requirements. And they felt it was their job to motivate their children to attend such
programs. Señora Alma further explains:
Pues lo único que yo pienso, que bueno a mi se me hace que esta muy bien este tipo de programas
[GEAR UP] porque, como a veces nosotros que venimos de otro país, que no sabemos el idioma,
no sabemos como esta bien el funcionamiento de la escuela y todo.
English Translation: Well the only thing I think about, I think it is good, these type of programs
[GEAR UP] because sometimes [when] we come from other countries, we do not understand the
language. Sometimes we don’t know how the school functions and everything.
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To conclude, language is the biggest barrier for Latina/o parent participation in
schools. Learning English for some Latina/o parents is indispensible in this country.
Señora Valentina described:
Trabajo mucho, limpio casas y batalla uno mucho cuando no se sabe el ingles. El ingles la verdad
es indispensable en este país.
English Translation: I work a lot. I clean houses and when one does not speak English, we
struggle. English is indispensable in this country.
The language barrier is the most important finding for this study. It is important to
understand the variety of challenges that language presents for Latina/o parents in terms
of participation in schools. Schools need to recognize that language barreirs continue to
be a subject of discussion. Rather than viewing Spanish language as a cultural deficiency,
schools could promote bilingual education. Educationally, it is a great advantage to the
children to be exposed to two languages. In the next section, the findings will reveal the
challenges low-income Latina/o parents face in terms of money and employment
opportunities.
Finances/Jobs
The parents who participated in this study were low-income Latina/o parents. Almost all
the parents mentioned finances as a challenge that prevented their participation or as a possible
barrier to their child’s entry to college. While most of the parents had high hopes for their
children’s academic success they worried about the possibility of their lack of finances affecting
their children. Statewide increases in tuition and housing have become a topic of discussion in
education. According to studentdebt.org, the stu1dent debt surpasses a trillion dollars and the
average student loan debt is $35,200. Student loan debt has skyrocketed and while Latina/o
1 http://www.debt.org/students/
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parents may or not know of this, they have an idea about the cost of housing and tuition and
spoke of this.
For instance, Señor Juan worried about the cost of tuition and whether or not he would be
able to financially support his children with their decision to attend college. With a family of
seven to support, he emphasized that he would do anything to make sure he could provide them
with money to attend college. He said:
I know it’s very expensive to go to college. That’s why I’m worried about that…I don’t have the
money or the money to support her. But I know we will find the money. We will find a way.
Señora Adelina did not have enough money saved to help pay for tuition cost for her
child. This was what she shared.
No se estábamos pensando en esa manera ayudarle nosotros si el decide agarrar una carrera. Que
el pague una cantidad y nosotros pagar otra porque realmente no les hemos ahorrado para ir a la
universidad.
English Translation: I don’t know, we were thinking of helping him that way if he decides to get a
career. He would pay a certain amount and we would help pay the rest because in reality we have
not saved [money] for him to attend a university.
The stress to financially support their children was palpable. Señora Glenda
offered support, but told her daughter that she would not be able to provide her with
money. She expected her daughter to fend for herself and pressured her to do well in
school because she knew that was the only way her child would attend a university. She
said:
Pues, porque nosotros no le vamos a poder ofrecer ayuda, ni económica y ni de otra manera
porque ya estamos mayores [y no tenemos educación]. Por eso necesitamos que ella se
desenvuelva y salga adelante por si misma.
English Translation: Well, because we won’t be able to offer help, not economic or any other way
because we are older [and we don’t have an education]. That is why we need her to unfold and to
move forward by herself.
Several parents come from large families. They come from families who also had
financial burdens that stumped their educational development. The parents reminisced
about their dreams of becoming professionals in respectable careers such as teachers,
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engineers, or law enforcement agents. Señora Alejandra had dreams of becoming a
dentist. She was the seventh child of a family of twelve and could not continue her
education because her family couldn’t afford to pay for her school. Señora Alejandra
wants her children to fulfill her dreams.
Yo les digo yo quería ser dentista, pero pues, por cause de económicamente, pues la familia no
tenia entonces yo, pues se puede decir que yo nomas me conforme con una carrera allí pequeña.
English Translation: I tell them [her children] that I wanted to be a dentist, that is why, for
economic reasons, well the family that I had [a family of ten children], you could say I settled for
a small career.
To summarize, Latina/o parents faced economic challenges that prevented their
participation in school settings. The vast majority of the parents worked to afford their
children sustenance. Their priorities were geared towards providing a child a home and
nourishment. They do not have savings accounts for college tuition or other expenses.
They have very limited knowledge about tuition costs and housing, but yet they continue
to be optimistic and they motivate their children to continue their education.
Hostile School Environments Towards Parents and Students
Despite their belief in education and the American Dream, all parents recognized that
there were several ways teachers and other school staffs were hostile and disrespectful towards
their children. I previously hinted at the inequalities faced by many Latinas/os. From a macro
perspective the school to prison pipeline is indicative of a system that has failed Latinas/os.
Instances of discrimination experienced by their children demonstrate the ways parents
participate in school settings to demand fair treatment for their children.
Señora Laura, a single mother, confronted her son’s teacher at school because he
was making fun of her son’s appearance. This is what she had to say:
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Una (profesora) porque se burlaba de sus estudiantes. Eso es algo que ningún maestro debe de
hacer. Y contestaba mal la pregunta y el maestro se burlaba. Y sacaba un billete de cien dólares y
decía, “El que me conteste correctamente esta pregunta se la doy, se lo doy.” Yo digo que eso no
se debe hacer. Un maestro no lo debe hacer. Y si la contestaban, yo no digo que se lo diera pero
simplemente no lo tenia que hacer. Y si la contestaba mal se burlaba de ellos.
English Translation: [I had a problem with] one teacher because he would make fun of the
students. I don’t think that is something a teacher should do. He [her son] would answer the
question wrong and the teacher would poke fun. He would take a one hundred bill out and say,
“To the person who answers this question right I am going to give it to he/she.” I think that is not
something that should be done. A teacher should not do that. If they answered (correctly), I am not
saying to give it to them but simply there was no need for it. If they answered the question wrong,
he would make fun of them.
There are power dynamics between parents and teachers or parents with
administrative personnel that need to be addressed. Miguel had a physical altercation
with an assistant coach of his child’s football team. While this experience is singular, it
nevertheless demonstrates the fears that parents have to address discrimination they have
faced for fear of repercussions the system within school districts might uphold. Miguel
shared:
Luis [mi hijo] me dijo que no quería tener problemas, yo tenia un amigo que es abogado super
agresivo y me dijo, “Mira dos cosas: Puedes demandar al distrito lo puedes hacer pero te digo una
cosa no le vas a ganar al distrito escolar….” Si Dr. _____ es el principal de la escuela ya despidió
al ayudante del coach es porque ellos muy bien saben es que si los despiden están (gesto de
limpiarse las manos).
English Translation: Luis [my son] told me that he did not want any problems. I had a friend that
is a lawyer who is super aggressive, he told me, “Look two things: you can sue the district, you
can do it but I will tell you, you won’t win against the school district…” Yes Dr. ____ is the
principal of the school he fired the assistant coach and they know well that if they fire him they are
(gesture: clearing his hands).
There were several stories from the parents where they expressed concerns over
the teacher’s behavior towards the students. Señora Esmeralda and Señora Amparo both
had children whose teachers yelled at their children as a way to discipline them and get
their attention in class. They felt that the teachers were disrespectful. Señora Esmeralda
said:
A veces he tenido la experiencia que no quiere ir a la escuela por la maestra porque le grita… Dice
que quiere que la cambien de lugar porque los que se sientan con ella hablan y su maestra piensa
que ella también esta hablando.
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English Translation: I have had the experience that she does not want to go to school because the
teacher yells at her… She [her daughter] says that she wants to change seats because those who sit
next to her talk and the teacher thinks she is talking as well.
Señora Amparo said that the teachers do not respect the students. Again, Latina/o parents
pride themselves in having obedient and respectful children that respect authority figures.
In this case, Señora Amparo was very perturbed and worried about the future of the
school if the teachers continue to disrespect the students. She expressed:
_______ (nombre de la escuela) es la única que ha sido necesario ir a la oficina porque
desgraciadamente últimamente… Y la verdad es que yo siento que cada vez esta peor la escuela, y
hay maestras, no todas, que osea de verdad hay buenas maestras, e igual otras maestras que no
respetan a los alumnos. Y este esa persona todo el tiempo les grita muy feo a los niños, pero si
precisamente la semana pasada este, creo que fue el jueves, la verdad que si me molesto porque les
grito horrible, de una manera bien fea e irrespetuosa. Yo fui a la oficina a hablar de eso
precisamente.
English Translation: ________ (Name of the school) was the only one that was necessary to go to
their office because unfortunately lately… The truth is I feel that that schools is worse every time,
that there are teachers, not all, but truthfully there are some good teachers, equally other teachers
who do not respect the students. This person was always yelling at the children. That is why last
week, I think it was Thursday, I was very upset because she yelled at them, she was very
disrespectful. I went to the office to talk about this.
Some Latina/os experience overt discrimination based on appearances. Señora
Guadalupe’s son experienced discrimination in school and this was her story:
Con mi hijo estaba en la escuela y el maestro lo insulto a mi hijo, le dijo que tenia una cara muy
fea para estarlo mirando y mi hijo iba llorando para la casa y le dije ‘¿Qué tienes?’ y me dijo que
el maestro lo había insultado y que le azoto la mano al escritorio.
English Translation: When my son was at school, the teacher insulted my son, he told him he had
an ugly face to be looking at him and my son started crying and when he came home I told him,
“What’s wrong?” he told me the teacher had insulted him and that he slammed his hand on the
desk.
Some Latina/o parents’ children experienced hostile school environments.
Behavior and discipline tactics by teachers and school staff indicate that there is
discrimination towards Latinas/os in education. Latina/o parents attend meetings with
teachers and school staff to address behavior issues or mistreatment of their children.
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They continue to advocate for their children’s academic success in traditional ways by
participating in their children’s educational development in schools.
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DISCUSSION
Several factors limit Latina/o parent participation: 1) a lack of cultural understanding of
Latina/o diverse experiences by school personnel; 2) schools’ lack of aptitude and insensitivity
to; language barriers, socio-economic dispositions, immigrant statuses, and Latina/o parents own
lack of educational attainment from other countries; 3) the manner in which the teachers and
administrative personnel unintentionally or intentionally discriminate against Latinas/os based on
racial misconceptions; 4) the lack of allocated funds from schools and the state legislature to
pursue the diverse needs of Latina/o parent participation that differ from traditional parent
involvement practices.
Many immigrants come to the United States in hopes of achieving the American
Dream. According to Hill & Torres (2010:95), “The American Dream is the premise that
one can achieve success and prosperity through determination, hard work, and courage—
an open system for mobility”. Latinos from all over Latin America come to the United
States seeking to prosper by leaving their homelands and migrating to the United States.
What the Latina/o parents and the American schools fail to recognize is the disadvantages
that Latinos encounter. They do not have an equal playing field, especially concerning
educational attainment.
Laureau’s interpretation of Bourdieus’ theory of cultural capital is relevant to the findings
of this study. Social class affects parent involvement (Lareau 2011). Low-income Latina/o
parents favored natural growth as a parenting style. This was empowering to Latina/o students
because they learned to become resilient and be self-sufficient. LatCrit theory supplemented this
study by validating the experiences of inequality and discrimination faced by Latinas/os in
education. LatCrit theory explains community cultural wealth, which explains the strength and
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resilience Latinas/os possess when navigating educational systems in the United States.
Community cultural wealth identifies aspirations, family, social, navigational, resistant, and
linguistic accruement of capital by Latinas/os (Yosso 2005). Instead of looking at language as a
deficiency, for example, it is capital that Latinas/os possess. Also, navigational capital speaks
volumes of the skills Latinas/os have when navigating social institutions. Their ability to
successfully navigate educational settings under stressful conditions is capital (Alva 1991). By
prioritizing and validating their experiences in this form, I was able to document Latina/o
experiences in education from North County, San Diego.
Critical examinations of people and families of color support the macro perspective of
inequalities faced by Latina/os. For example, Marylin Frye’s article Oppression shares an
allegory of a birdcage resembling the structure of oppression.
Consider a birdcage. If you look very closely at just one wire in the cage, you
cannot see the other wires. If your conception of what is before you is determined
by this myopic focus, you could look at that one wire, up and down the length of
it, and be unable to see why a bird would not just fly around the wire any time it
wanted to go somewhere. Furthermore, even if, one day at a time, you myopically
inspected each wire, you still could not see why a bird would gave trouble going
past the wires to get anywhere. There is no physical property of any one wire,
nothing that the closest scrutiny could discover, that will reveal how a bird could
be inhibited or harmed by it except in the most accidental way. It is only when
you step back, stop looking at the wires one by one, microscopically, and take a
macroscopic view of the whole cage, that you can see why the bird does not go
anywhere; and then you will see it in a moment. It will require no great subtlety of
mental powers. It is perfectly obvious that the bird is surrounded by a network of
systematically related barriers, no one of which would be the least hindrance to its
flight, but which, by their relations to each other, are as confining as the solid
walls of a dungeon.
Latina/o parents are often blamed for their children’s lack of educational attainment, yet our lack
of understanding of how systems of oppression, like a birdcage, surround Latinas/os.
As suggested in the literature review, there is still major concern about Latina/o parent
educational values and questionable cultural values. For example, Latinos are the least educated
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in the country, yes, but the numbers do not necessarily reflect the obstacles that many Latina/o
parents tackle every single day. There is a sense that Latina/o parents do not value education,
because they may not engage in school activities, or are “active” participants with their
children’s schooling. Low-income, poor Latina/o parent’s style of parenting overwhelmingly
showed high regards of education and a connection to family values of: familismo, respeto,
cariños, and educación. Again, despite their challenges with adversity, they continue to
overcome and strive for a better life. Latina/o parents believe that the only way that they can
have a chance at a better life is through education.
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RECOMMENDATIONS
The voices of these Latina/o parents show us that there are many ways in which we can
improve the communication between the schools’ staff and teachers with parents to increase
Latina/o parent participation in schools. Incorporating more relevant parent participation
practices in schools will not only benefit the schools, but also the students. There is no refuting
that Latina/o parents want to participate in traditional forms, but they face many challenges that
may interfere with traditional forms of participation. The schools need to address the needs of the
communities that they serve and the government needs to continue allocating funds for schools
that increase partnerships with Latina/o parents. To increase Latina/o parent participation, we
will recommend the following:
Schools
For the students to thrive in school, they need to be able to have a good support team in
school as well as outside of school. Parent participation is vital in a student’s educational career.
As we have shown in this study, Latina/o parents want more educational opportunities for their
children. Having parents who are educated in the ins and outs of the school system is important
because it allows them to help their children navigate schools and therefore achieve their
educational goals. In addition, educational policies need to be tailored to local communities
rather than modeled at national level where stereotypical attitudes towards Latinas/os factor into
shaping educational policy. This study suggests the importance of schools taking more
responsibility to assist already willing parents to navigating this system effectively.
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Cultural Competence
Schools need to create a culture within the school that recognizes and invites different
forms of parent participation. As was noted in the interviews with parents, traditional forms of
parent participation were difficult for Latina/o parents to ensue – parent contact with school,
attendance at PTO meetings, parent participation with school activities. The schools need to
understnad that working parents might not be able to come to every parent meeting. This does
not mean that the parent does not care about how their child is doing in school but time
management for them is different than what the school expects of them. While this may describe
working class parents in general, Latino parents have higher proportions of such parents, and can
also require additional unique considerations related to a marginalized status. Calling the parent
on the phone to respectfully have a two way discussion of the student’s progress or even giving
information about certain programs that would help the student would go a long way. Also,
schools need to value the education parents do have, even if it is not a formal education.
Teachers Foster an atmosphere of support and collaboration among schools and the parents. We
need to realize that parents want the best for their children in school, teachers want the best for
their students at school, and school administrators want the best for the students, teachers, and
parents. To educate and raise a child takes a whole village. Which means everyone has to be on
the same page. Parent participation needs to be about collaborating and not just about making
certain parents do jobs that “fit” them and it cannot be presented as a number for statistics. Their
cultural knowledge must be valued.
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English Learner Advisory Committee (ELAC)2.
According to the California Department of Education, ELAC is a committee designated
to advise school officials on English Learner programs. ELAC committee is responsible for
overseeing school programs that cater to the needs of specific communities who face challenges
as English learners. Its responsibility lies in allocating funds and creating partnerships with
schools and parents in order to develop strategies and funding the release of materials that allows
collaboration with: parents, schools, and community members English learning programs. It is
advisable that the collaboration should be representative. ELAC focuses on the English language
skills of the students but they also help the parents who are English learners as well. The training
that ELAC provides for parents and students is beneficial.
PTO (Parent Teacher Organization)
Parent Teacher Organizations remind us that parent involvement in schools proves to be
positive for students. Also, they are an organization that transforms the schools and provides a
better environment for the parents, school administrators, and staff. PTO organizations’ motto is
“What does your school need from you now?” and parents can become leaders with their
communities by participating as PTO members and becoming involved in their children’s
schools. The website provides some information regarding the active participation of PTO’s to
advocate for funding of English as second 3language learner programs. Yet, they don’t seem to
strategize the ways they can come together to do so. Teachers and administrative staff need to
2 A committee comprised of parents, staff, and community members specifically designated to advise school officials on English
Learner program services.
http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/cr/elac.asp
California Education Code, sections 35147 (c), 52176 (b), and (c), 62002.5, and 64001 (a)
California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Section 11308 (b), (c), and (d)
3 Parent Teacher Organizations developed to increase more parent involvement and leadership in schools. http://www.ptotoday.com/pto-today-articles/article/928-defining-the-role-of-a-pto
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invite the leadership of Latina/o parents more seriously and regard Latina/o parent’s involvement
in PTO’s membership as central to the goals of any educational system. Simply put, PTO
membership needs to be announced in schools. This would help Latina/o parents become more
acquainted with the school systems, finances, allocation of funds for programs, and more
leadership roles on behalf of the parents.
GEAR UP in more Schools
GEAR UP partnerships with low-income parents are an working example to follow. All
but one parent was satisfied with the services provided by GEAR UP. GEAR UP is not only a
mentoring program for the students, but also a fountain of information for the parents. They fund
travel expenses to universities that many parents take advantage of. In addition, GEAR UP
parents also acknowledge that the information that they receive is offered in Spanish. Some
GEAR UP site coordinators are bilingual and they help students and parents with language
barriers. GEAR UP does not require a proof of citizenship status. The only pre-requisite is that
the student participates. It is a program that was designed to target schools with high levels of
poverty and language minorities.
GEAR UP workshops offer information on finances, preparation for applications to
public and private universities, time management, FAFSA, and information for undocumented
students. The goal is to recruit students in cohorts and provide them with necessary resources in
order to gain admittance to colleges and/or universities. Areas for improvement tend to be the
issue at large is the allocation of funds for programs like GEAR UP. GEAR UP programs do not
offer their services to all students. This means that not all students are offered the opportunity to
join the program and are unable take advantage of the services they provide. The educational
need of low-income Latina/o students is immense.
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As recommended, educational policies need to be tailored to local communities, and the
same could be said of GEAR UP. Latina/o parents from North County have specific needs, like
language barriers that extend to language barriers in their native language. For example, the
diverse experiences of educational attainment of the parents in our study vary. Some of the
parents cannot read or write in Spanish. How can GEAR UP coordinators and staff reach the
parents effectively when they know these issues? GEAR UP is to be mindful of the needs
specific of the communities it serves.
PIQE (Parent Institute for Quality Education)
Given that this program was initially launched in the San Diego area, we recommend that
this program continue its partnership with GEAR UP in order to further provide the adequate
support for Latina/o parents. PIQE4 is a program that is offered for the parents. They offer their
services to provide all types of information to parents about their children’s education. PIQE is a
nine-week program that informs the parent, in their primary language, preparing them to aide
their children for their educational attainment. PIQE is in partnership with the California State
University (CSU) system to receive funding and training for low-income families. They work
with parent’s schedules and maintain contact with them. PIQE is inclusive of parents who face
language barriers by accommodating and facilitating their informational session in their chosen
languages.
FAIR WAGES One of the barriers reported by parents for Latina/o parent participation is a financial
issue. President Obama has proposed to increase the federal minimum wage to $10.10. Yet, that
still is an insufficient amount of money for a family to survive. This amount still places a family
4 http://www.piqe.org/about_corevalues.php
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of three at a poverty level and it does not account for the rise of inflation. Congress might realize
that such drastic changes in minimum wage can have a powerful impact on parents’ participation
and children’s educational successes. As Dolores Huerta, a recognized Latina/o Civil Rights
activist said while addressing a school audience, “We should not ask for $15.00, we should ask
for $30.00 an hour.” What has the government really done for Latina/o communities? Has it
served them as it has promised to? Rising wages would not only help the economy, but also it
would alleviate some financial stresses as well as strengthen Latina/o families.
If the parents have more time available to spend with the children, they would participate
in more diverse ways in schools. This study finds parents are worried about making ends meet
and they do not have time to participate. If the schools were better funded, they might be able to
fund more relevant and inviting parent programs that could help raise awareness and provide
necessary information to parents. Also, there is still much discussion to be had about the ways
schools can help Latina/o parents participate as primary advocates for their children. Aside from
implementing programs that allocate funds to offer more bilingual services for Latina/o parents,
there is a need to further discuss the pending issue of the traditional school and teacher
expectations of parent involvement that can and does exclude many Latina/o parents.
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SIGNIFICANCE
Parent participation has mainly been defined by a Euro-American, middle-class model
that does not include the experiences of Latina/o parents in this country. The research often notes
over and over again how educators and administrative personnel lack cultural sensitivity towards
Latinas/os. There is very limited research oriented in parent participation. Most research is
conducted through lens of parent involvement that does little to integrate the ways Latina/o
parents participate for their children’s educational attainment. My contribution to research is to
bring to light racial and socioeconomic dispositions of low-income Latinas/os in light of the
inequalities in education. The emphasis on parent participation is inclusive to the types of non-
traditional (invisible) parent participation of Latina/o communities. Also, the recommendations
found in this research are important for school staff, administrators, and teachers in order to
bridge the educational gap that currently exists in education with Latinas/os.
CONCLUSION Research previously collected, utilizes statistical data through surveys and databases that
do not capture the full experience of Latina/o parents. In addition, it is important to hear the
voices of low-income Latina/o parents in order to challenge any misconceived notions that
parent involvement in research continues to demonstrate. At large, this research is significant
because this will assist educators, and administrative personnel to look at the barriers that low-
income Latina/o parents face and in what ways we can build a community through a collective
effort for every child’s educational benefit. We cannot overlook the importance of the fact that
racial, and socioeconomic, and cultural factors can be barriers for low-income Latina/o parents
that may impede their parent participation in institutions of education.
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Appendix A Structured Open-Ended Interviews
PERSONAL:
1. How many children do you have? Tell me about your children?
2. Which child is participant with GEAR UP? Oldest, youngest?
EXPERIENCES
Parents:
1. Tell me a bit about your own experiences in your own education?
What was it like for you going to school?
Where?
What type of teachers did you have? How were your relationships with them?
What was your first school like?
How far did you complete your education?
What other types of activities did you have going on while in school (or after school)?
i. Give examples like church, work, etc.
Children:
1. What has schooling been like for your children here in Escondido?
2. Have your children always gone to school in Escondido or have they gone somewhere else?
Teachers you have liked?
Which ones? What made you like them?
Has there been any problems at school? Administration? Teachers? Other students? Other
parents? (all possible prompts)
2. Tell me what a typical day is like on a school day for you and your children?
ASPIRATIONS
1. What do you hope for when you think of your child’s education?
How has it been to work toward that dream?
2. What have been things that have helped you and your family reach these dreams?
3. Do you and your children agree on what their educational goals look like?
4. What do you think your children feel about finishing high school?
5. What do you think about your child going to college?
Have they ever mentioned it?
Have teachers or counselors mentioned it?
What do you know about college?
What have you heard? Costs?
What have friends or neighbors told you about college?
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THE ROLE OF GEAR UP
Say to interviewee…”Let’s change focus and discuss GEAR UP”
1. In your mind, what does GEARUP do for your child?
For you?
2. Have you ever gone to any activities or program that GEARUP has organized?
3. What is your parent participation with GEAR UP? If any? Why so?
CONCLUDING QUESTION<< Leave this kind of open. Have any ideas?
1. Is there anything else you would like to say?
2. Is there anything you would like GEARUP to know that would better help serve you?
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Entrevista Estructurada
PERSONAL:
1. ¿Cuantos hijos tiene usted? Cuénteme sobre sus hijos.
2. ¿Cual de sus hijos participa en GEAR UP? ¿El menor o el mayor?
3. ¿Alguno de sus hijos/as participa en el programa Upward Bound o Educational Talent
Search (ETS)?
EXPERIENCIA
Padres:
1. ¿Cuénteme un poco sobre su experiencia escolar?
¿Cual fue su experiencia en la escuela?
¿Donde?
¿Que tipo de maestros tuvo? ¿Como era su relacion con ellos?
¿Como fue su primera escuela?
¿Hasta que nivel de educacion completo?
¿En que otras actividades participaba mientras asistia a clases (o despues de clases)?
i. Dé ejemplos, tales como asistir a la iglesia, trabajar, etc.
Hijos:
1. ¿Cómo ha sido la educación en las escuelas de aquí en Escondido para sus hijos/as?
2. ¿Sus hijos/as han asistido siempre a las escuelas en Escondido o han asistido en otro lugar?
¿Hay maestros que les hayan caido bien?
¿Quienes? ¿Que hicieron para que les cayeran bien?
¿Han tenido algun problema en la escuela? ¿Con la administracion, maestros, otro estudiante u
otro padre?
2. Cuénteme cómo es un día típico escolar para usted y sus hijos.
ASPIRACIONES:
1. ¿Qué espera cuando piensa en la educación de sus hijos/as?
1. ¿Qué beneficios espera que sus hijos obtengan de su educación?
2. ¿Por qué es importante que sus hijos/as continuen su educación?
¿Cómo ha sido trabajar para lograr sus metas?
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2. ¿Hay algo que les haya ayudado a usted y a su familia a alcanzar estas metas (aspiraciones)?
3. ¿Usted y sus hijos/as estan de acuerdo con cuales metas educativas deben lograr?
4. ¿Qué cree usted que sienten sus hijos/as con respecto a terminar la preparatoria?
5. ¿Qué cree usted que sus hijos/as piensan con respecto a asistir a colegio?
¿Sus hijos/as lo han mencionado alguna vez?
¿Los maestros o consejeros han mencionado el colegio?
¿Que sabe usted acerca del colegio?
¿Que sabe usted acerca del costo de matriculacion y de ayuda financiera? ¿Que le han
dicho sus amigo/as o vecinos acerca del colegio?
LA PARTICIPACION DE GEAR UP:
Dile al entrevistado...”Cambiemos de tema y hablemos de GEAR UP”
1. En su opinión, ¿qué es lo que GEAR UP hace por o provee para sus hijos/as? ¿Han
recibido sus hijos/as alguna ayuda directa de GEAR UP? ¿Ha recibido ayuda para
usted?
2. ¿Ha participado en algunas de las actividades o talleres que ha organizado GEAR UP?
3. ¿Cual ha sido su participación con GEAR UP como padre? Explique.
ULTIMAS PREGUNTAS
1. ¿Tiene algun otro comentario?
2. ¿Tiene alguna otra sugerencia para que GEAR UP pueda darles mejor asistencia a usted o a
sus hijos/as?
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Appendix B Informed Consent
Palomar College GEAR UP Partnership
760-744-1150 x3680
Project Description:
The Palomar College GEAR UP Partnership Program is conducting interviews of parents of
GEAR UP students. Parents will be asked about their child’s educational experience for program
improvement. Collecting information on students’ and parents’ educational experiences will help
us better serve the needs of our students, parents, and school staff. Your participation is
voluntary and all information is confidential.
Procedure and Risks:
GEAR UP would like to record the interview, and use the recordings to write our materials and
reports. We will record the interview only with your written consent, and will ask that no
personal identifiers be used during the interview. Please feel free to say as much or as little as
you like. You can decide not to answer any question, or to stop the interview at any time. The
tapes and transcripts will become the property of GEAR UP.
If you choose to participate, the recordings as well as the recording-transcripts (or copy
of notes taken) will be confidential, without any reference to your identity, and your name will
be kept out from any reports written from the interviews.
There are no known risks associated with participation in the study.
Benefits:
It is the goal of this study to benefit the GEAR UP program’s student and parent services, the
Escondido Union High School District and community by providing greater insight to the culture
and experiences of parents and students at our schools.
Cost Compensation:
Participation in this study will involve no costs or payments to you.
Confidentiality:
All information collected during the study period will be kept strictly confidential until such a
time as you decide to sign a release waiver. No publications or reports from this project will
include identifying information on any participant without signed permission. If you agree to join
this study, please sign your name on the following page.
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INFORMED CONSENT FOR INTERVIEWS
I, _____________________________________, agree to be interviewed by the PC
GEAR UP Partnership Program’s interns.
I certify that I have been told of the confidentiality of information collected for this
project and for my participation; that I have been given satisfactory answers to my
inquiries concerning project procedures and other matters; and that I have been advised
that I am free to withdraw my consent and to discontinue my participation in the project
or activity at any time without prejudice.
I agree to participate in one or more electronically audio recorded interviews for this
project. I understand that such interviews and related materials will be confidential, and
that the results of this study may be published by the GEAR UP program, and its interns,
in an academic journal or book, and presented at stakeholder meetings and conferences.
I agree that any information obtained from this research may be used in any way thought
best for this study.
____________________________________________
Date:__________________________
Signature of Interviewee
____________________________________________
Date:__________________________
Signature of Interviewer
If you cannot obtain satisfactory answers to your questions or have comments or
complaints about your treatment in this study, contact the PC GEAR UP office, or
Supervisor:
760-744-1150 x3680
Cecilia Rocha,
GEAR UP Supervisor
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Forma de Consentimiento:
Palomar College GEAR UP Partnership
760-744-1150 x3680
Descripción del Proyecto:
El programa de Palomar College GEAR UP Partnership, esta conduciendo entrevistas a
padres de estudiantes que participan en el programa GEAR UP. Los padres serán
cuestionados sobre la experiencia educativa para promover el programa. La colección de
información sobre las experiencias de los padres e hijos ayudara a servir a los estudiantes,
plantilla administrativa, y a los padres de familia. Su participación es voluntaria y es
confidencial.
Procedimientos y Riesgos:
GEAR UP quisiera la oportunidad de grabar la entrevista con el propósito de escribir el
material y crear reportes. Solo grabaremos la entrevista con su consentimiento. Siéntase
con la seguridad de expresar lo que usted guste. Si usted decide en algún momento no
contestar alguna pregunta o si quiere parar la entrevista esta en su derecho. Cualquier
grabación de la entrevista es propiedad de el programa de GEAR UP.
Si decide participar, las grabaciones y las notas tomadas en la entrevista serán usadas sin
referencia alguna directa de usted. Su nombre y su identidad serán confidencial y estarán
fuera de los reportes escritos.
No hay ningún tipo de riesgo con la participación de este estudio.
Beneficios:
El propósito de este estudio es mejorar los servicios a los padres y estudiantes del
programa GEAR UP. El distrito de el Escondido High School Union esta para servir a la
comunidad y proveer mas información sobre la cultura y experiencia de padres y
estudiantes en nuestras escuelas.
Costo de Compensación:
Cualquier participación de este estudio no involucra ninguna recompensa monetaria.
Confidencial:
Toda información coleccionada durante el periodo de el estudio será estrictamente
confidencial hasta el momento que firmes la publicación. Cualquier publicación o reporte
final de este estudio será incluido con la firma de consentimiento de el/la participante. Si
decide participar, por favor firme la siguiente pagina donde le es indicado.
La forma con el acuerdo de el participante:
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Consentimiento informado para la entrevista:
Yo, ________________________________________________, acepto ser
entrevistado/a por el programa PC GEAR UP Partnership Program’s interns.
Yo accedo que la información colectada para este proyecto será confidencial y con mi
consentimiento de participación. Que las preguntas que tuve sobre este proyecto fueron
contestadas de manera adecuada. Entiendo que soy libre de no contestar preguntas en
cualquier momento y de removerme de la entrevista sin prejuicio alguno.
Estoy de acuerdo en participar en una entrevista o mas que sea grabada de forma
electrónica. Entiendo que la entrevista y el material producido serán publicados por el
programa de GEAR UP, sus asistentes, en un libro académico, y serán presentadas en
conferencias publicas.
Estoy de acuerdo que cualquier información obtenida será usada de manera adecuada
para este estudio.
____________________________________________
Date:__________________________
Firma del Entrevistado
____________________________________________
Date:__________________________
Firma del Entrevistador
Para mas información sobre preguntas, comentarios, o quejas sobre la entrevista y el
tratamiento de usted en este estudio, por favor de comunicarse con la oficina de PC
GEAR UP o llamar a la Supervisora:
760-744-1150 x3680
Cecilia Rocha,
GEAR UP Supervisor
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