Lowland

erience in Ethiopia

tc of Agricultural Research

Getinet Alemaw eremew Terefe

Kassahun Zewdieand ^

Bulcha Weyessa

[L®wtandOilcropsA three-decade research experience in Ethiopia

Getinet Alemaw Geremew Terefe

Kassahun Zewdie an d

Bulcha Weyessa

Research Report No. 31

Ethi<$>ia Agricalteraj"

• ■> i,: tJK

Institute of Agricultural Research

Language i-d'tor: Design ana layout:

Abcbe Kiiub

Abebe Kirub and Kidanemariam Hagos

Published 1997Institute of Agricultural Research P.O. Box 2003 Fax: 251-1-611222 e-mail: iar@telecom.net.et (Internet) Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

Citation:

Getinet Alemaw, Geremew Terefe, Kassahun Zewdie and Bulcha Weyessa. 1997. Lowland oilcrops: a three-decade research experience in Ethiopia. Research Report No. 31. Institute of Agriculture, Addis Ateba. Ethiopia.

Contents

Acknowledgements

Introduction

Groundnut

Sesame

Safflower

References

Acknowledgments

We sincerely acknowledge various contributors in various conference proceedings, progress reports and newsletter articles. We are in indebted to the late Ababu Demissie, Alemayehu Refera, Abbas Omran, Adugna Wakjra, Armugum Kandia, AsfaW Tullu, Biru' Abebe, Elias Urage, Fantaw Abegaz, Geremew Eticha, Gurmu Dabi, Hiruy Belayneh, Jack Saunders, K.W. Riley, Mesfin Tessera, Tadesse Eshetu, Telahun Hordofa and several technicial and field assistants who were involved on groundnut, sesame and safflower research in different disciplines.

Groundnut, sesame and safflower are important oilseeds both for local consumption and export in Ethiopia. These oilseeds are cultivated the lowlands (500—1500 m) and are classified as lowland oilseeds. Lowland oilseeds research was started in 1966 by the Institute of Agricultural Research at Melka Werer, Bako, Gode, Setit Humera and Gambella Research Centers. Since then research has been conducted at irrigated areas such as the Awash Valley and Gode, high rain fall in the western lowlands and eastern lowlands with marginal rainfall. Groundnut and sesame are excellent rotation crops for cotton and sorghum. Groundnut is cultivated particularly in Babile and Bisidimo areas of Eastern Ethiopia. It is also a highly productive crop in high rainfall western lowlands such as Abobo, Dedessa, Beles and Fincha and irrigated areas of the Awash Valley. Harvesting groundnut is a labor intensive activity, therefore, it requires a small scale groundnut Sheller and Lifter. Sesame farms at Humera were established by a Greek farmer Mr. Markos Sideris in 1950s. Sesame has been once the major export commodity of Ethiopia. Even today, sesame, particularly the white seeded one could be a attractive business.

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Groundnut

Distribution

Groundnut belongs to the Leguminaceae family but is unique in' bearing the pod below the surface of the soil. It originated in south America and was probably domesticated around Peru, Brazil and Paraguay. It is now grown widely in warmer climates around the World. Large quantities of groundnut are consumed locally in areas of production. The world trade depends on the European demand for groundnut oil. Although groundnut is primarily produced for its oil, its demand is also high for confectionery. Groundnut grows extensively in Eastern Ethiopia. Awash valley is ideally situated for local market and export. Other potential producing areas of production include; Gambella (IAR 1975), Gibe basin, Fincha, Birr, Assosa, Dedessa, and Beles (IAR 1984, 1986) (Figure 1). Harvesting is a difficult operation in large scale production, however lifting and combining machines can solve a problem.

Ecological adaptability

Groundnut requires abundant sunshine and warmth and minimum of 165 frost free days during its growing period. Because of its preference for high temperature, it is a crop of lower elevations. The

upper altitudes for good yields is cbout 1399 m, although local landraces adapted to higher altitudes of up to 1700 m are known. The best growth takes place at average temperature of 24 to 30 °C (Table 1). For good yield, precipitation during the growing season should be preferably between 400 and ±000 mm, but a crop can be produced on z.s little is 300 mm. However, the rainfall should be evenly distributed since moisture stress at any stage of plant development reduces yield significantly. Dry conditions must prevail at ripening and harvest. In the hot lowlands where the precipitation is low, good yields can be achieved under irrigation.

iGroundnut is well adapted to friable light and well drained sandy loam soils. It can grow on heavier clay soils but for peg penetration and harvesting operations, well aerated light soil is desirable. The crop can grow on acidic and alkaline soils. The optimum pH range is between 5.5 and 7.3

Crop Management and Performance

Groundnut is cultivated largely by small holders in Harerge, Gamo Gofa and Illubabor (Fig 1). The major growing areas are concentrater in the eastern and north western parts of Ethiopia where the production factors like ample precipitation (500-1200 mrn), warm temperature and friable soils are prevalent. The major groundnut producing areas have average rainfall of 500-700 mm. Higlter seed yields are obtained under irrigation than unde, rainfed conditions (Table 2). Groundnut is often grown in rotation with cotton, maize, sorghum and other cereals. Groundnut is ofien intercropped witl other crops. Intercoppving sorghum is wide:y practice in the eastern region. Two years of peanu ic; succeeded b-r two years ' f without it.

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Table 1. Environmental requirements for groundnut

Range of suitability

Parameter land

characteristics Highly Moderately Marginally

Altitude (m)

Temperature (°C)

maximum

Length of grow ing

period (days)

Soils

texture

type

color

pH

Rain fall (mm)

50 0 -1 3 0 0 3 5 0 -500

13 00 -17 00

16.0-22.0 13.0-16.0

32 .0 -35 .0 26 .0 -32 .0

35 .0 -39 .0

24 .0 -28 .5 20 .0 -24 .0

28 .531 .0

145 -180

Sandy loam

light, friable

brown, red

5.5-73

500 -700

125-145

4.9-5.5

7.3-8.0

4 0 0 -5 0 0

70 0 -100 0

0-350

17 00 -19 00

22.0 -23 .0

31 .0 -33 .0

90 -125

30 0 -4 0 0

1000-1200

Source: Hiruy and Getinet 1989.

Clean, undamaged and viable seed is required for uniform crop emergence and good stand establishment. Groundnut is usually planted on hills, ridges of about 5 cm depth and in rows on rain fed areas. After planting covering with soil is important to protect the seeds from picking by pests. Application of irrigation immediately after planting is also essential.

Mid-May to mid-June are the optimum planting times for groundnut in the Middle Awash. For the marginal rainfall areas like Babile and Bisidimo, planting at the onset of rainfall is optimum. Early sowing will be associated with higher seed yield (Bulcha 1987).

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Seed rate is dependent on the seed size of varieties, For large-seeded varieties 110 kg ha1 is required, whereas, for small-seeded varieties about 60 kg ha'1 is enough for a plant population ranging from 160,000 to 180,000 ha*1 (Bulcha 1987, Kassahun et a l.K 1992).

1Planting on a 60 cm wide ridge 10 cm inter row spacing^and one seed per hole is recommended. The optimum irrigation is 12.5 cm applied at two weeks of interval (Geremew and Fantaw 1992). Groundnut has* no response to NP fertilizers. i

Groundnut is not a good competitor with weeds, mainly because of its slow growth. Weeding groundnut not later than four weeks after emergence and with another hand weeding at seven weeks is increases yield economically (Kassahun Tadesse 1988). Herbicides such as Metolachlor-960 EC as pre-emergence at the rate 2.5 et ha1 applied 2-3 days after first irrigation is effective to control broad-leaf and grass weeds. Also post emergence application of Fluazifop-butyl (2.0 et ha1) is effective against grass weeds such as especially Sorghum arrundinaceae and Echinocloa colona. Both herbicides need to be supplemented with cultivation and/or slashing as needed, depending on the weed flora and persistence of the herbicide 1997.

Maturity in groundnut is manifested by the yellowing of leaves, besides it can be confirmed by pulling two to three plants and* carefully observing whether the seed has reached its full size and the inner surface of the shell is smooth and brown usually with darkened veins (Bulcha 1987).

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Pods can be stored using sacks or in rooms of dry condition and careshould be taken not to exceed the moisture content 8%.

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Tar ie Sum m ary of seed yield Kg ha '1 jfxw o varieties (N C-4X *nd Shulamith)

in the groundnut in National yield trials grew at ten locations

Area Site Seed yield (kg ha ’)

Irrigated Melka Werer (3) 5 8 2 7

Gode (1) 15 50

Marginal Bisidimo (1) 2 3 63

Babile (2) 2335

M e isso (2) 93 4

Setit Humera (1) 26 9 0

Mean 20 8 0

High rainfall Fincha (3) 34 82

A sso s sa (1) 1994

Dedessa (2) 4 2 2 9

Abobo (3) 2 7 39

Beles (3) 24 1 4

Mean 2 9 62

Source: IAR 1973. 1975, 1984 1986, 19661980a.

VarietiesFive varieties of groundnut have been released since 1976 (Table 3). Of these varieties Sedi is the earliest and least yielder. varieties NC- 4X and Roba are well adapted to irrigated farming, NC-343 and NC- 4X are high yieldes in high rainfall areas. The oil content of these varieties 47 to 52% of the moisture free seed.

Table 3. Pod yield, oil content, botanical type, days to maturity and year of release of groundnut varieties in Ethiopia

Variety Origin Pod yield (Kg ha"1) Oil Botanical Days to Year ofIrrigated High Marginal % type mature release

Shulamit Israel 3 8 0 0 2 9 0 0 1700 47 V B 148 1976N C -4X U S A 6 0 0 0 3 1 00 2 0 0 0 47 V B 147 1986

N C -343 U SA 5 3 0 0 2 5 0 0 2 0 0 0 48 V R 140 1986

,~!oba IC R ISA T 6 8 0 0 33 0 0 1864 48 V B 147 19 89

Sedi IC R ISA T 3 2 0 0 - 1200 52 SB 100 1993

Source: Adugna 10 3 IAR 1997b

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Diseases and insects control

DiseasesLeaf spot (Cercospora arachidicold) Cercosporidiumpersonatum (late) are the most serious diseases of groundnut in Ethiopia. At Didessa for instance, yield loss due to leaf spot reached 65% (Mesfin unpublished date). Crop rotation, removal of volunteer plants and infected crop debris is can reduce the primary sources of inoculum. Application of chlorothalonil @ 1 kg a.i. ha'1 is effective in controlling leaf spots.

Rust caused by Puccinia arachidis is a destructive disease in all groundnut growing areas. Yield losses due to rust is substantial, particularly if the crop is attacked by rust and leaf spots. Control methods include removal of volunteer plants, strict quarantine, and removal of crop debris. Also, application of fungicides such as, Daconil, Mancozeb, Bordeaux mixture, Copper oxychloride and Chlorothalonil against leaf spots are effective.

Groundnut is susceptible to a number of storage fungi (Rhizopus sp., Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergllus parasiticus, Pencillium sp. and Botrytis cinerae) (Geremew and Asfaw 1992). Among these fungi, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus are most important and cause heavy economic losses. Aflatoxin cased by A. flavus is hazardous to human and animals and can causes carcinogenic hepatitis, which in severe cases may cause death. Control methods include: avoiding stress during plant development, damage to the crop during cultivation, harvesting, drying, decorticating and shelling. Harvesting should be at proper time of maturity and when the weather is dry. The harvested plants should be dried in inverted windrows for at least 7 days. Prevention from re-wetting during or after harvest, removal of damaged and molded pods before storage, drying to a moisture level of 8% and storing at low temperature and humidity cold reduce aflatoxin. In addition seed for sowing purpose should be stored unshelled. Also, Aspergillus spp. could be better

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controlled by Orthocide and Difolatan. Rhizopus sp. control can be achieved by treating the seeds with 10 g kg'1 of Brassicol.

InsectsTermites are the most important and widely distributed pests of groundnut in Ethiopia. Termites attack on the tap-root by penetrating and hallowing the tap-root and cause wilting and premature death of the plant. Some termites bore into the pod and feed on the seed, while others feed on shell and scarifies the pod externally. This predisposes the seed to invasion by soil bom fungi like Aspergillus spp. Repeated deep cultivation may reduce termite population. Harvesting as soon as the crop matures ad removing the produce from the field also reduce the chances of termite damage. Whenever appropriate digging up termite mounds and destruct the colonies of termites and killing the queen is essential. Seed dressing (50 gram of the above insecticides with 10 kg seed) with Aldrin or Dieldrin, Chlordane, Heptachlor and Lindane reduce termite damage to seedlings. During crop development if the infestation is high; Aldrin, Dieldrin or Heptachlor solution could be applied to hills of termites at equivalent rates (IAR 1978). Bait can be prepared by mixing 100 gram of Aldrin 40% WP with 25 kg of wheat bran. Under furrow or flood irrigated condition 10 kg of Aldrin could be mixed with irrigation water to cover one hectare of land. The irrigation water should over-top the soil at least by 5 cm depth and stand in the field until percolation. The army worm (Spodoptera litoralis and Spodoptera exigua) cotton leaf worm or the Tobacco caterpillar (spodoptera litoralis) African boll worm (Helicoverpa armigera) and Spodoptera exigua are sporadic pests of groundnut in Ethiopia. Groundnut aphid (Aphis craccivora) is also sporadic in the western and eastern parts of the country and it is frequent in early seasons of crop development (Alemayehu and Ababu 1992). Several species of thrips, jassids (Empoasca spp.) and whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) infest groundnut but are not economically important in terms of direct yield reduction to the crop, though transmit viral diseases to groundnut crops. Rust-red flour-beetle (Tribolium confusum) feed inside the kernel and they are economically important

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in Ethiopia. The pest can be controlled by treating the seed with 2% Aactelic dust @ 3 g kg'1, Fenitrothion 3% Dust @ 30 g 100 kg'1 or Baythion 1% DP @100 g 100 kg'1 seed. Rice moth (Corcyra cephalonica) is the most important storage pest f groundnut. Losses are substantial if shelled kernels are stored for long periods. The bins or store house should be cleaned and sprayed with Malathion EC @ 225 g 100'1 m2. Fenitrothion 66 g of 25% WP per 5 liters of water per 100 m2 is also useful and more persistent on alkaline surface.

Chemical Composition and utilization

Groundnut oil contains high oleic acids and insignificant amount of oleic and linoleic acids which makes it stable for oxidation (Getinet 1992). It is a good source of cooking, frying, salad, mayonnaise, margarine and peanut butter. Poor quality groundnut may be used for manufacturing soaps and detergents. The nuts are eaten raw or after roasting too. The best quality cake or meal may be ground into flour for human consumption. It is also supplemented to poultry, pig feeds.

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Sesame

Distribution

Sesame belongs to the pedaliaceae family, which contains 60 species organized into 6 genera. About 37 species have been described in the genus Sesamum, but only S. indicum has been recognized as a cultivated species. The cultivated sesame is an important and very ancient oilseed crop cultivated extensively from the tropics to the temperate zones in the world. Ethiopia is considered to be either center or origin of sesame. It seams that the crop was taken to cultivation in Africa and then taken to India, world sesame production comes from developing countries which amounts to 23.5 Million tons and ethiopia produces up to 36,000 tons annually.

Ecological Adaptability

The crop is normally found below 1250 m although sesame land races adapted up to 200 m are known. It requires warm temperatures of 23 to 28 °C for rapid growth and flower development (Table 4). High temperature during flowering reduced fertilization, while temperature below 18 °C retards growth. It is very sensitive to day length and both’ long and short day forms occur. Sesame grows well with an average rainfall of 500 to 700 mm, but extremes of 300 mm and 1200 can be tolerated. Once established, it can be, tolerate short periods of

drought. However, excessive moisture is detrimental to normal plant development and increases the chance of fungal disease development. Sesame will grow on any soil as log as it is moderately fertile and freely drained. It perform well on poor soils. The soil should preferably be light-textured with a pH range of 5.5 to 8.0 (Table 4).

Sesame grows well in the northwest lowlands of Ethiopia, notably the Humera and Metema plains as sole or mixed crop. Although the crop grows best within between 500 and 1600 m of altitude, it could also grow up to 2000 m. Most of sesame growing areas of Ethiopia receive rainfall of 300 to 700 mm during the growing season, which indicate that sesame is tolerant to water stress. Sesame also which fits to lowland warm areas with rainfall deficit.

Table 4. Environmental requirements for sesame

Parameters and land

characteristics

Ranqe of Suitabilitv

Highly Moderately Marginally

Altitude (m) 5 0 0 -125 0 3 5 0 -500 0 -350

1 2 50 -16 00 1 6 0 0 -2 0 0 0

Temperature (°C)

minimum 16.0-21.0 13.0-16.0

maximum 30.0 -35 .0 27 .0 -22 .0

Mean 23.0 -28 .0 20 .0 -23 .0

Length of row ing period (days) 120 -180 100 -120 70 -1 00

Soils

texture light

type sandy loam

color brown, red

pH 6.0-7.3 5.5-6.0

7.0-8.0

Rain fall (mm) 500 -700 4 0 0 -5 0 0 3 0 0 -4 0 0

7 0 0 -120 0 12 0 0 -1 5 0 0

Source: Hiruy and Getinet 1989.

Crop Performance and Management

Thought sesame has tremendous potential under irrigated condition ir̂ the awash Valley, it is a labor-intensive crop which would be likely to succeed as a peasant crop. Experimental evidence has indicated that the yields at Were, Tendaho, Gode, Pawe, Beles, Dedessa, and Fincha could be over 8 q ha'1 (Table 5).

In Meiso, Harer Zuria, and Gursum sesame is often intercropped with dagussa and cotton, but it is also sown as a sole crop. In Welega, it is sown as intercropped with tef, while it is grown as sole crop in Gambella, Assosa, Benshegul Gumz, Metema and Humera. In irrigation farming like Werer, sesame can be grown on either sides of the ridges. However, in rain fed areas sesame is grown on flat land. In both instances, seed source for planting should be clean, viable and free from seed borne pathogens. Sesame can be sown be n either by broadcasting or in rows. Mid-April to mid-June and November to December are optimum dates for seeding in the Middle Awash valley, for the main-and off-seasons respectively. In areas like Babile and Bisidimo, with marginal rainfall, sowing date can be adjusted following the beginning of rainfall. In such areas early sowing is found advantageous (Bulcha 1987).

Seed rate of 5 kg ha"1 in row and 5-10 kg ha1' for broadcasting is used, which is equivalent to about 250,00 plants ha1' (Bulcha 1987, IAR 1984). Spacings of 10 cm between plants and 40 cm between rows are optimum planting arrangements (Bulcha 1987). Whenever possible irrigation at 12.5 cm, applied at two week interval is optimum (Geremew and Fantaw 1992). Sesame does not sufficiently respond to N-Fertilizers seedlings attain a height of about 10 centimeters.

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Table 5. Sum m ary of seed yield of sesam e grow n at 13 sites trial

Area Site Yield (Kg ha ’)

Irrigated Melka Werer (3) 1 9 90

Tendaho (3) 2 2 3 0

Gode (2) 8 2 0

Mean 1680

Marginal rainfall Bisidemo (3) 54 0

M eiso (2) 27 0

Harbu (2) 61 8

K o b o (2) 590

Setit Humera (5) 67 0

Mean 537

High rainfull Pawe (2) 85 0

Beles (3) 1250

Didessa (3) 1250

Fincha (3) 1090

Abobo (3) 58 0

Tedelle (3) 72 0

Mean 1008

Source: IIAR 1973, 1975, 1984, 1986. 1966-1989aJ.

(numbers in parenthesis are number of trials)

Sesame is a weak competitor of weeds. The critical period for weed competition is about four weeks after emergence, therefore, ones early, weeding 4-5 weeks after emergence is economical (Taddese and Yabio 1988). Pre-emergence herbicides; Alachlor @ 4-5 It ha'1 and Metolachlor @ 2.5 It ha-1 if applied 1-2 days after first irrigation will be effective against grasses and broad-leaf weeds. One supplementary hand weeding is essential (Kassahun 1997). The best time for harvesting sesame is when 1/3—2/3 of the leaves, stems and pods turned yellow (Bulcha 1987). Sowing sesame year-after-year on the same of land will result the build uo of insects, diseases and weeds. Thus, sesame should be rotated every three or four year.

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Varieties

A total of nine varieties were released smce 1976 (Table 6). Of these T- 85 was recommended for Humera and Kelafo-74 for Gode. For high rainfall areas of western lowlands with high incidence of bacterial blight, Aba Sina was released in 1990. However, varieties S and E also did well in Anger-Gutin and Tedelle in the western lowlands. The varieties T-85, Kelafo 74, S and E also did well at Setit Humera (NCIC 1982). The recent varieties Mehado 80, Argene, Adi and Sercamo are suitable for irrigation. i

Tabte 6. Seed yield in irrigated high rainfall and marginal rainfall, days to mature, oil content and year of release of sesame varieties

Variety Origin

Seed vield (Ka ha'1)

Irrigated High Marginal

Oil

%

Days to

mature

Year

release

T-85 India 1000 700 500 44 105 1976

Kelafo-74 Ethiopia 1200 600 300 43 112 1976

E Uganda 1400 700 300 43 109 1978S Uganda 1200 700 400 43 112 1978

Mehado 80 Ethiopia 1700 600 400 44 101 1989

Aba Slna Ethiopia 1400 900 400 43 109 1990

Argene Cross 1800 420 130 48 95 1992

Adi Exotic 1700 664 112 46 97

Sercamo Ethiopia 1800 458 - 50 103

Source: (Adugna 1993, IAR 1997a Unpublished}

f;Diseases, insects and their control

DiseasesBacterial blight is very important in humid and high rainfall areas (Karobko and Eshetu 1987). It is mainly transmitted throtigh infected seeds. Control measures include use of disease free seed,t removal of

infected plants and residue, destroy alternate hosts, weeds and crop rotation. The initial infection of the disease can be avoided by treating the seed in hot water (52-58°C) for 12-14 hours. Treating seeds with in Streptomycin solution of 250-1000 ppm for 30 minutes is also effective. Phylody caused by Mycoplasm like organism is very destructive and is mainly transmitted through Jassid (Orosius albicinctus). Control measures of phylody include, controlling vectors particularly jassid, destroying alternate hosts and infected plants.

InsectsSesame leaf roller or web worm (Antigastra ctalaunalis) is the most important and wide spread insect of sesame in Ethiopia (Crop and Shitaye 1970. The pest attack the crop in all stages of development. Tha insect can be controlled by Dimecron 100 SCW and Malathion 95% ULV at @ 21 ha'1 or Thionex 25% ULV @ 31 ha'1. Sesame jassids Empoasca spp. Deltocephalus spp. are economically important pests of sesame in terms or transmitting virus and Mycoplasm diseases rather than their direct feeding damage to the crop. For effective control of the pest chemicals like Thionex 25% ULV @ of ha'1 and Dimecron 250 ULV @ 21 h a 1 can be used for spraying. But, this should be supplemented with destruction of alternative hosts of jassids. green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) can be extremely damaging to sesame at all stages of growth particularly at Bisidimo Werer and Kobo. They also various diseases (Crow and Shitaye 1970). The pests can be controlled by applying Dimecron 250 ULV, Deltant 200 EC/ULV, and Marshal 250 ULV @ 2 It ha'1 Sesame seed bug (Elasmolomus sordidus) is important at Humera and Metema and its control could be achieved by spraying Dimecron 250 ULV @ 2 It h a 1 or Thionex 25% ULV @ 3 It ha'1

Storage pestsThe damage caused by insects attacking sesame seeds is quite substantial, but no information is available on the actual yield loss. The most

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important storage pests of sesame in Ethiopia are Red flour beetle (Tribolium confusum) and rice moth (Coreyra cephalonica). These are cosmopolitan and attack a range of stored products. Warehouse fumigation by Phosphine or Methyl bromide can better control these pests. For seed dressing Actelic 2% dust @ 3 g Kg'1 seed. Fenitrothion 3% Dust @ 30 g 100 Kg'1 or Baythion 1% DP @ 100 g 100 Kg"1 seed and are effective. For surface application sacks Lindane dust at 500 g 10' 1 m2 is also effective.

Sesame oil is mainly for edible for cooking salad oil, as well as margarine, plasters, ointments, and soaps manufacturing, sesame oil contains high amount of oleic and linoleic acids is known for its tolerance to rancidity. In Ethiopia sesame seed is used for cooking oil and illumination. The oil or pounded seed is used to prepare a stew or ‘wet’ and sweets and bakery. The meal remaining for extraction is a good source of animal feed.

Chemical Composition and Utilization

)

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X X X

X X XX X X

Highly suitable

Moderately suitable

Marginally suitable

Safflower

Distribution

Safflower is a member of the Composite family. The species of this family have many flowers and seeds in each capitulum. It is only known in cultivation with primary center in Afghanistan and the Nile Valley. Ethiopia is considered to be the secondary center of variability of safflower. Carthamus tinctorius is supposed to have originated from the wild species C. lunatus or C. oxyacantha. Safflower is among the oldest crops known to human beings. Its ancient use was as a dye for food and cloth. It is dried florets which are sources of the dye. At present, the crop is known primary, for its seed which is used for many purposes. It is widely grown as an oilseed crop in India, the USA, Mexico, Australia, Middle East, Afghanistan and Ethiopia. In terms total world production it essential remains to be a peasant crop.

Even though, safflower is adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions, it does not favor extreme temperatures. Emerging, plants need cooler temperature for better establishment. Seed yield could be higher when day temperature at flowering are on the range of 24-32 °C. Average temperature of 17-20 °C seem to best for the crop. The growing areas of

Ecological Adaptability

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^ z r c h 1

safflow. • is characterized b monthly average maximum temperature during the growing areas of aoout 21-23 °C (Table 7).

Safflower Is drought tolerant because of its capability of obtaining subsoil moisture from depths not accessible to many other crops. On the other hand, the crop cannot tolerate waterlogging. High temperature and humidity are favorable environments for the development of fungal diseases. Damage from root rot have been observed under excess soil moisture. Late rain can also adversely affect pollination and impair seed quality or oil content. Thus dry atmosphere is required for flowering, proper seed setting and high oil content.

The crop does well on sandy loam, alluvial and dark to dark reddish brown clay loams with moderate to good drainage, but it thrives best on deep, fertile well drained neutral soils. It can tolerate some degree of salinity but cannot tolerate excessive salinity (Table 7).

Crop Performance

Safflower experimental results from 15 locations demonstrated that satisfactory yields can be obtained from irrigated and rained sites (Table 8). Large-scale production of the crop, by planting early in the rainy season will be risky unless varieties resistant to Ramularia leaf spot are used. It might be advantageous to grow safflower in drier regions under irrigation. Because of its susceptibility to waterlogging, care should be taken when choosing irrigation system and frequency.

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Table 7. Environmental requirements for Safflower

Range of Suitability

Parameters and land

characteristics Highly Moderately Marginally

Altitude (m)

Temperature (°C)

maximum

mean

Length of grow ing period (days)

Soils

texture

type

color

pH

Rain fall (mm)

1 6 0 0 -2 0 0 0

10.5-18.0

22 .5 -32 .0

16 .5-25.0

150 -200

1 100 -1600

2 0 0 -240 0

8.0-10.5

18.0-22.0

20.0-22.5

32 .0 -34 .0

14.0-16.5

25 .0 -28 .0

120 .150

medium

sandy loam, clay loam

black, brown, red

6.0-7.3

5 0 0 -600

5.5-6.0

7.0-8.0

4 0 0 -5 0 0

6 0 0 .100

50 0 -1 1 0 0

2 4 0 0 -2 6 0 0

100-120

Source: Hiruy and Getinet 1989.

Chemical composition

Safflower is used for ‘fitfit’ during fasting period among the Orthodox Christians. It is also consumed as additive to barley and chickpea 'kolo\ The seed is free from any toxic product and contains about 30% oil with 75% linoleic acid.

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Table 8. M ean seed yield of improved safflower cultivars grown at 1 5 locations, 1 960 -1987

crop season s (number of trails in parenthesis) (IAR 1984, 1 986 and 1988).

Locations

Seed Yield (Kg ha ’)

1866 -1971 19 84 -1987

Debre Zeit

Nazret

Tedelle

Mean

3056(4)

1046(2)

1003(1)

3345

1523(4)

Kulumsa

Dhera

Mean

2190(3)

1361(2)

1776

Bako

Jima

Mean

705(3)

960(1)

833

Alemaya

oursum

Babile

Meiso

Werer

Tendaho

Gode

Mean

693(2)

1444(2)

516(3)

516(3)

3300(1)

3125 (2)

2500 (1)

24 05

1177(4)

1350

22

x x xXXXXXX

Highly suitable

Moderately suitable

Marginally suitable

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Fig.3 Safflower growing areas in Ethiopia

References

Adugna Wakjira. 1993. Early maturing groundnut variety released. Oil Crops Newsletter, No. 10:44

Alemayehu Referaand Ababu Demissie. 1992. Entomological research on sesame and

Groundnut in Ethiopia. In: Oilseeds research and Development in Ethiopia, In: Proceedings of the First National oilseeds Workshop, 3-5 december 1991, Addis Ababa, pp. 178-81.

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