lsat_pt_22.pdf

LSAT*

PrepTest 22June 1997

Test ID: LL3022

A complete version of PrepTest XXII has been reproducedwith the permission of Law School Admission Council, Inc.

Prep Test XXII 1997 Law School Admission Council, Inc.

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Kaplan.Lsat.pt22.4R 5/29/03 10:51 AM Page ii

Reading Comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION I

Logical Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION II

Logical Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION III

Analytical Reasoning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION IV

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Painter Frida Kahlo (19101954) often usedharrowing images derived from her Mexican heritageto express suffering caused by a disabling accident anda stormy marriage. Suggesting much personal andemotional content, her worksmany of them self-portraitshave been exhaustively psychoanalyzed,while their political content has been less studied. YetKahlo was an ardent political activist who in her artsought not only to explore her own roots, but also tochampion Mexicos struggle for an independentpolitical and cultural identity.

Kahlo was influenced by Marxism, which appealedto many intellectuals in the 1920s and 1930s, and byMexican nationalism. Interest in Mexicos culture andhistory had revived in the nineteenth century, and bythe early 1900s, Mexican indigenista tendencies rangedfrom a violently anti-Spanish idealization of AztecMexico to an emphasis on contemporary MexicanIndians as the key to authentic Mexican culture.Mexican nationalism, reacting against contemporaryUnited States political intervention in labor disputes aswell as against past domination by Spain, identified theAztecs as the last independent rulers of an indigenouspolitical unit. Kahlos form of Mexicanidad, a romanticnationalism that focused upon traditional art uniting allindigenistas, revered the Aztecs as a powerful pre-Columbian society that had united a large area of theMiddle Americas and that was thought to have beenbased on communal labor, the Marxist ideal.

In her paintings, Kahlo repeatedly employed Aztecsymbols, such as skeletons or bleeding hearts, thatwere traditionally related to the emanation of life fromdeath and light from darkness. These images ofdestruction coupled with creation speak not only toKahlos personal battle for life, but also to the Mexicanstruggle to emerge as a nationby implication, toemerge with the political and cultural strength admiredin the Aztec civilization. Self-Portrait on the Borderbetween Mexico and the United States (1932), forexample, shows Kahlo wearing a bone necklace,holding a Mexican flag, and standing between a highlyindustrialized United States and an agricultural,preindustrial Mexico. On the United States side aremechanistic and modern images such as smokestacks,light bulbs, and robots. In contrast, the organic andancient symbols on the Mexican sidea blood-drenched Sun, lush vegetation, an Aztec sculpture, apre-Columbian temple, and a skull alluding to thosethat lined the walls of Aztec temples emphasize theinterrelation of life, death, the earth, and the cosmos.

Kahlo portrayed Aztec images in the folkloric styleof traditional Mexican paintings, thereby heighteningthe clash between modern materialism and indigenoustradition; similarly, she favored planned economicdevelopment, but not at the expense of culturalidentity. Her use of familiar symbols in a readilyaccessible style also served her goal of being popularlyunderstood; in turn, Kahlo is viewed by someMexicans as a mythic figure representative ofnationalism itself.

1. Which one of the following best expresses the mainpoint of the passage?

(A) The doctrines of Marxist ideology andMexican nationalism heavily influencedMexican painters of Kahlos generation.

(B) Kahlos paintings contain numerous referencesto the Aztecs as an indigenous Mexican people predating European influence.

(C) An important element of Kahlos work isconveyed by symbols that reflect her advocacyof indigenous Mexican culture and Mexicanpolitical autonomy.

(D) The use of Aztec images and symbols inKahlos art can be traced to the latenineteenth-century revival of interest inMexican history and culture.

(E) Kahlo used Aztec imagery in her paintingsprimarily in order to foster contemporaryappreciation for the authentic art oftraditional Mexican culture.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

1 -2- 11SECTION I

Time35 minutes

26 Questions

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or impliedin the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you areto choose the best answer: that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

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2. With which one of the following statementsconcerning psychoanalytic and politicalinterpretations of Kahlos work would the author bemost likely to agree?

(A) The psychoanalytic interpretations of Kahloswork tend to challenge the politicalinterpretations.

(B) Political and psychoanalytic interpretationsare complementary approaches to Kahloswork.

(C) Recent political interpretations of Kahlo swork are causing psychoanalytic critics torevise their own interpretations.

(D) Unlike the political interpretations, thepsychoanalytic interpretations make use ofbiographical facts of Kahlos life.

(E) Kahlos mythic status among the audienceKahlo most wanted to reach is based upon thepsychoanalytic rather than the politicalcontent of her work.

3. Which one of the following stances toward theUnited States does the passage mention ascharacterizing Mexican nationalists in the earlytwentieth century?

(A) opposition to United States involvement ininternal Mexican affairs

(B) desire to decrease emigration of the Mexicanlabor force to the United States

(C) desire to improve Mexicos economiccompetitiveness with the United States

(D) reluctance to imitate the United States modelof rapid industrialization

(E) advocacy of a government based upon that ofthe Marxist Soviet Union rather than that ofthe United States

4. In the context of the passage, which one of thefollowing phrases could best be substituted for theword romantic (line 24) without substantiallychanging the authors meaning?

(A) dreamy and escapist(B) nostalgic and idealistic(C) fanciful and imaginative(D) transcendental and impractical(E) overwrought and sentimental

5. The passage mentions each of the following as anAztec symbol or image found in Kahlos paintingsEXCEPT a

(A) skeleton(B) sculpture(C) serpent(D) skull(E) bleeding heart

6. Which one of the following best describes theorganization of the third paragraph?

(A) contrast of opposing ideas(B) reconciliation of conflicting concepts(C) interrelation of complementary themes(D) explication of a principles implications(E) support for a generalization by means of an

example

7. The passage implies that Kahlos attitude toward theeconomic development of Mexico was

(A) enthusiastic(B) condemnatory(C) cautious(D) noncommittal(E) uncertain

8. The main purpose of the passage is to

(A) critique an artists style(B) evaluate opposing theories(C) reconcile conflicting arguments(D) advocate an additional interpretation(E) reconsider an artist in light of new discoveries


1 1-3-1


In recent years, a growing belief that the waysociety decides what to treat as true is controlledthrough largely unrecognized discursive practices hasled legal reformers to examine the complexinterconnections between narrative and law. In manylegal systems, legal judgments are based on competingstories about events. Without having witnessed theseevents, judges and juries must validate some stories astrue and reject others as false. This procedure is rootedin objectivism, a philosophical approach that hassupported most Western legal and intellectual systemsfor centuries. Objectivism holds that there is a singleneutral description of each event that is unskewed byany particular point of view and that has a privilegedposition over all other accounts. The laws quest fortruth, therefore, consists of locating this objectivedescription, the one that tells what really happened, asopposed to what those involved thought happened. Theserious flaw in objectivism is that there is no such thingas the neutral, objective observer. As psychologistshave demonstrated, all observers bring to a situation aset of expectations, values, and beliefs that determinewhat the observers are able to see and hear. Twoindividuals listening to the same story will heardifferent things, because they emphasize those aspectsthat accord with their learned experiences and ignorethose aspects that are dissonant with their view of theworld. Hence there is never any escape in life or in lawfrom selective perception, or from subjectivejudgments based on prior experiences, values, andbeliefs.

The societal harm caused by the assumption ofobjectivist principles in traditional legal discourse isthat, historically, the stories judged to be objectivelytrue are those told by people who are trained in legaldiscourse, while the stories of those who are not fluentin the language of the law are rejected as false.

Legal scholars such as Patricia Williams, DerrickBell, and Mari Matsuda have sought empowerment forthe latter group of people through the construction ofalternative legal narratives. Objectivist legal discoursesystematically disallows the language of emotion andexperience by focusing on cognition in its narrowestsense. These legal reformers propose replacing suchabstract discourse with powerful personal stories. Theyargue that the absorbing, nonthreatening structure andtone of personal stories may convince legal insiders forthe first time to listen to those not fluent in legallanguage. The compelling force of personal narrativecan create a sense of empathy between legal insidersand people traditionally excluded from legal discourseand, hence, from power. Such alternative narratives canshatter the complacency of the legal establishment anddisturb its tranquility. Thus, the engaging power ofnarrative might play a crucial, positive role in theprocess of legal reconstruction by overcomingdifferences in background and training and forming anew collectivity based on emotional empathy.

9. Which one of the following best states the main ideaof the passage?

(A) Some legal scholars have sought to empowerpeople historically excluded from traditionallegal discourse by instructing them in theforms of discourse favored by legal insiders.

(B) Some legal scholars have begun to realize thesocial harm caused by the adversarialatmosphere that has pervaded many legalsystems for centuries.

(C) Some legal scholars have proposed alleviatingthe harm caused by the prominence ofobjectivist principles within legal discourse byreplacing that discourse with alternativeforms of legal narrative.

(D) Some legal scholars have contended that thosewho feel excluded from objectivist legalsystems would be empowered by theconstruction of a new legal language thatbetter reflected objectivist principles.

(E) Some legal scholars have argued that the basicflaw inherent in objectivist theory can beremedied by recognizing that it is not possibleto obtain a single neutral description of aparticular event.

10. According to the passage, which one of the followingis true about the intellectual systems mentioned inline 11?

(A) They have long assumed the possibility of aneutral depiction of events.

(B) They have generally remained unskewed byparticular points of view.

(C) Their discursive practices have yet to beanalyzed by legal scholars.

(D) They accord a privileged position to thelanguage of emotion and experience.

(E) The accuracy of their basic tenets has beenconfirmed by psychologists.

11. Which one of the following best describes the senseof cognition referred to in line 43 of the passage?

(A) logical thinking uninfluenced by passion(B) the interpretation of visual cues(C) human thought that encompasses all emotion

and experience(D) the reasoning actually employed by judges to

arrive at legal judgments(E) sudden insights inspired by the power of

personal stories


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12. It can be inferred from the passage that WilliamsBell, and Matsuda believe which one of the followingto be a central component of legal reform?

(A) incorporating into the law the latestdevelopments in the fields of psychology andphilosophy

(B) eradicating from legal judgments discoursewith a particular point of view

(C) granting all participants in legal proceedingsequal access to training in the forms andmanipulation of legal discourse

(D) making the law more responsive to thediscursive practices of a wider variety ofpeople

(E) instilling an appreciation of legal history andmethodology in all the participants in a legalproceeding

13. Which one of the following most accurately describesthe authors attitude toward proposals to introducepersonal stories into legal discourse?

(A) strongly opposed(B) somewhat skeptical(C) ambivalent(D) strongly supportive(E) unreservedly optimistic

14. The passage suggests that Williams, Bell, andMatsuda would most likely agree with which one ofthe following statements regarding personal stories?

(A) Personal stories are more likely to adhere tothe principles of objectivism than are otherforms of discourse.

(B) Personal stories are more likely to de-emphasizedifferences in background and training thanare traditional forms of legal discourse.

(C) Personal stories are more likely to restoretranquility to the legal establishment than aremore adversarial forms of discourse.

(D) Personal stories are more likely to lead to theaccurate reconstruction of facts than aretraditional forms of legal narrative.

(E) Personal stories are more likely to beinfluenced by a persons expectations, values,and beliefs than are other forms of discourse.

15. Which one of the following statements about legaldiscourse in legal systems based on objectivism canbe inferred from the passage?

(A) In most Western societies the legalestablishment controls access to training inlegal discourse.

(B) Expertise in legal discourse affords power inmost Western societies.

(C) Legal discourse has become progressively moreabstract for some centuries.

(D) Legal discourse has traditionally denied theexistence of neutral, objective observers.

(E) Traditional legal discourse seeks to reconciledissonant world views.

16. Those who reject objectivism would regard the lawsquest for truth(lines 1516) as most similar towhich one of the following?

(A) a hunt for an imaginary animal(B) the search for a valuable mineral among

worthless stones(C) the painstaking assembly of a jigsaw puzzle(D) comparing an apple with an orange(E) the scientific analysis of a chemical compound


1 1-5-1


Many people complain about corporations, butthere are also those whose criticism goes further andwho hold corporations morally to blame for many ofthe problems in Western society. Their criticism is notreserved solely for fraudulent or illegal businessactivities, but extends to the basic corporate practice ofmaking decisions based on what will maximize profitswithout regard to whether such decisions willcontribute to the public good. Others, mainlyeconomists, have responded that this criticism isflawed because it inappropriately applies ethicalprinciples to economic relationships.

It is only by extension that we attribute the qualityof morality to corporations, for corporations are notpersons. Corporate responsibility is an aggregation ofthe responsibilities of those persons employed by thecorporation when they act in and on behalf of thecorporation. Some corporations are owner operated,but in many corporations and in most larger ones thereis a syndicate of owners to whom the chief executiveofficer, or CEO, who runs the corporation is said tohave a fiduciary obligation.

The economists argue that a CEOs soleresponsibility is to the owners, whose primary interest,except in charitable institutions, is the protection oftheir profits. CEOs are bound, as a condition of theiremployment, to seek a profit for the owners. Butsuppose a noncharitable organization is owneroperated, or, for some other reason, its CEO is notobligated to maximize profits. The economists view isthat even if such a CEOs purpose is to look to thepublic good and nothing else, the CEO should stillwork to maximize profits, because that will turn outbest for the public anyway.

But the economists position does not hold upunder careful scrutiny. For one thing, although thereare, no doubt, strong underlying dynamics in nationaland international economies that tend to make thepursuit of corporate interest contribute to the publicgood, there is no guaranteeeither theoretically or inpracticethat a given CEO will benefit the public bymaximizing corporate profit. It is absurd to deny thepossibility, say, of a paper mill legally maximizing itsprofits over a five-year period by decimating a forestfor its wood or polluting a lake with its industrialwaste. Furthermore, while obligations such as those ofcorporate CEOs to corporate owners are binding in abusiness or legal sense, they are not morallyparamount. The CEO could make a case to the ownersthat certain profitable courses of action should not betaken because they are likely to detract from the publicgood. The economic consequences that may befall theCEO for doing so, such as penalty or dismissal,ultimately do not excuse the individual from theresponsibility for acting morally.

17. Which one of the following most accurately states themain point of the passage?

(A) Although CEOs may be legally obligated tomaximize their corporations profits, thisobligation does not free them from the moralresponsibility of considering the implicationsof the corporations actions for the publicgood.

(B) Although morality is not easily ascribed tononhuman entities, corporations can be saidto have an obligation to act morally in thesense that they are made up of individualswho must act morally.

(C) Although economists argue that maximizing acorporations profits is likely to turn out bestfor the public, a CEOs true obligation is stillto seek a profit for the corporations owners.

(D) Although some people criticize corporationsfor making unethical decisions, economistsargue that such criticisms are unfoundedbecause ethical considerations cannot beapplied to economics.

(E) Although critics of corporations argue thatCEOs ought to consider the public good whenmaking financial decisions, the results of suchdecisions in fact always benefit the public.

18. The discussion of the paper mill in lines 4246 isintended primarily to

(A) offer an actual case of unethical corporatebehavior

(B) refute the contention that maximization ofprofits necessarily benefits the public

(C) illustrate that ethical restrictions oncorporations would be difficult to enforce

(D) demonstrate that corporations are responsiblefor many social ills

(E) deny that corporations are capable of actingmoral1y


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19. With which one of the following would theeconomists mentioned in the passage be most likelyto agree?

(A) Even CEOs of charitable organizations areobligated to maximize profits.

(B) CEOs of owner-operated noncharitablecorporations should make decisions basedprimarily on maximizing profits.

(C) Owner-operated noncharitable corporationsare less likely to be profitable than othercorporations.

(D) It is highly unlikely that the actions of anyparticular CEO will benefit the public.

(E) CEOs should attempt to maximize profitsunless such attempts result in harm to theenvironment.

20. The conception of morality that underlies theauthors argument in the passage is best expressed bywhich one of the following principles?

(A) What makes actions morally right is theircontribution to the public good.

(B) An action is morally right if it carries the riskof personal penalty.

(C) Actions are morally right if they are notfraudulent or illegal.

(D) It is morally wrong to try to maximize onespersonal benefit.

(E) Actions are not morally wrong unless theyharm others.

21. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) illustrate a paradox(B) argue for legal reform(C) refute a claim(D) explain a decision(E) define a concept


1 1-7-1


What it means to explain something in scienceoften comes down to the application of mathematics.Some thinkers hold that mathematics is a kind oflanguagea systematic contrivance of signs, thecriteria for the authority of which are internalcoherence, elegance, and depth. The application ofsuch a highly artificial system to the physical world,they claim, results in the creation of a kind of statementabout the world. Accordingly, what matters in thesciences is finding a mathematical concept thatattempts, as other language does, to accurately describethe functioning of some aspect of the world.

At the center of the issue of scientific knowledgecan thus be found questions about the relationshipbetween language and what it refers to. A discussionabout the role played by language in the pursuit ofknowledge has been going on among linguists forseveral decades. The debate centers around whetherlanguage corresponds in some essential way to objectsand behaviors, making knowledge a solid and reliablecommodity; or, on the other hand, whether therelationship between language and things is purely amatter of agreed-upon conventions, making knowledgetenuous, relative, and inexact.

Lately the latter theory has been gaining wideracceptance. According to linguists who support thistheory, the way language is used varies dependingupon changes in accepted practices and theories amongthose who work in a particular discipline. Theselinguists argue that, in the pursuit of knowledge, astatement is true only when there are no promisingalternatives that might lead one to question it. Certainlythis characterization would seem to be applicable to thesciences. In science, a mathematical statement may betaken to account for every aspect of a phenomenon it isapplied to, but, some would argue, there is nothinginherent in mathematical language that guarantees sucha correspondence. Under this view, acceptance of amathematical statement by the scientific communityby virtue of the statement s predictive power ormethodological efficiencytransforms what isbasically an analogy or metaphor into an explanation ofthe physical process in question, to be held as true untilanother, more compelling analogy takes its place.

In pursuing the implications of this theory, linguistshave reached the point at which they must ask: Ifwords or sentences do not correspond in an essentialway to life or to our ideas about life, then just what arethey capable of telling us about the world? In scienceand mathematics, then, it would seem equallynecessary to ask: If models of electrolytes or E = mc2,say, do not correspond essentially to the physicalworld, then just what functions do they perform in theacquisition of scientific knowledge? But this questionhas yet to be significantly addressed in the sciences.

22. Which one of the following statements mostaccurately expresses the passages main point?

(A) Although scientists must rely on both languageand mathematics in their pursuit of scientificknowledge, each is an imperfect tool forperceiving and interpreting aspects of thephysical world.

(B) The acquisition of scientific knowledgedepends on an agreement among scientists toaccept some mathematical statements as moreprecise than others while acknowledging thatall mathematics is inexact.

(C) If science is truly to progress, scientists musttemporarily abandon the pursuit of newknowledge in favor of a systematic analysis ofhow the knowledge they already possess cameto be accepted as true.

(D) In order to better understand the acquisitionof scientific knowledge, scientists mustinvestigate mathematical statementsrelationship to the world just as linguistsstudy languages relationship to the world.

(E) Without the debates among linguists thatpreceded them, it is unlikely that scientistswould ever have begun to explore theessential role played by mathematics in theacquisition of scientific knowledge.

23. Which one of the following statements, if true, lendsthe most support to the view that language has anessential correspondence to the things it describes?

(A) The categories of physical objects employed byone language correspond remarkably to thecategories employed by another language thatdeveloped independently of the first.

(B) The categories of physical objects employed byone language correspond remarkably to thecategories employed by another language thatderives from the first.

(C) The categories of physical objects employed byspeakers of a language correspond remarkablyto the categories employed by other speakersof the same language.

(D) The sentence structures of languages inscientifically sophisticated societies vary littlefrom language to language.

(E) Native speakers of many languages believe thatthe categories of physical objects employed bytheir language correspond to naturalcategories of objects in the world.


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24. According to the passage, mathematics can beconsidered a language because it

(A) conveys meaning in the same way thatmetaphors do

(B) constitutes a systematic collection of signs(C) corresponds exactly to aspects of physical

phenomena(D) confers explanatory power on scientific theories(E) relies on previously agreed-upon conventions

25. The primary purpose of the third paragraph is to

(A) offer support for the view of linguists whobelieve that language has an essentialcorrespondence to things

(B) elaborate the position of linguists who believethat truth is merely a matter of convention

(C) illustrate the differences between the essentialistand conventionalist positions in the linguistsdebate

(D) demonstrate the similarity of the linguistsdebate to a current debate among scientistsabout the nature of explanation

(E) explain the theory that mathematicalstatements are a kind of language

26. Based on the passage, linguists who subscribe to thetheory described in lines 2124 would hold that thestatement The ball is red is true because

(A) speakers of English have accepted that Theball is red applies to the particular physicalrelationship being described

(B) speakers of English do not accept thatsynonyms for ball and red express theseconcepts as elegantly

(C) The ball is red corresponds essentially toevery aspect of the particular physicalrelationship being described

(D) ball and red actually refer to an entity anda property respectively

(E) ball and red are mathematical conceptsthat attempt to accurately describe someparticular physical relationship in the world

1 1-9-1

S T O PIF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, YOU MAY CHECK YOUR WORK ON THIS SECTION ONLY.

DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST.


1. Braille is a method of producing text by means ofraised dots that can be read by touch. A recentdevelopment in technology will allow flat computerscreens to be made of a material that can be heatedin patterns that replicate the patterns used in braille.Since the thermal device will utilize the same symbolsystem as braille, it follows that anyone who isaccustomed to reading braille can easily adapt to theuse of this electronic system.

Which one of the following is an assumption onwhich the conclusion depends?

(A) Braille is the only symbol system that can bereadily adapted for use with the new thermalscreen.

(B) Only people who currently use braille as their solemedium for reading text will have the capacity toadapt to the use of the thermal screen.

(C) People with the tactile ability to discriminatesymbols in braille have an ability to discriminatesimilar patterns on a flat heated surface.

(D) Some symbol systems encode a piece of text byusing dots that replicate the shape of letters ofthe alphabet.

(E) Eventually it will be possible to train people toread braille by first training them in the useof the thermal screen.

2. Mayor of Otterville, a suburb of Center City:Outerville must grow if it is to survive, so, as wehave agreed, efforts should be made to attractmore residents. The best strategy for attractingresidents is to renovate the train station. Thenumbers of jobs in Center City and of peoplewho prefer to live in suburban towns areincreasing. With the rise in tolls, driving into thecity is becoming more expensive than traintravel. Therefore, people want to live in townswhere train travel is convenient and pleasant.

The argument leads to the conclusion that

(A) the town of Outerville should attract moreresidents

(B) the train station in Outerville should berenovated

(C) residents of Outerville who are in need ofwork should look for jobs in Center City

(D) people who work in Center City but live inOtterville should commute by train ratherthan driving

(E) people who want to live where train travel isconvenient and pleasant should live in Otterville

3. Land developer: By attempting to preserveendangered species that otherwise wouldbecome extinct during our lifetime, we arewasting money on species that will disappearover time regardless of our efforts.Paleontologists have established that extinctionis the normal fate of species on the geologicaltime scale of millions of years.

Environmentalist: To claim that we should let speciesdisappear because all species eventually die outmakes about as much sense as arguing that weshould not spend money to find a cure forcancer because all humans are inevitably mortal.

The method the environmentalist uses to object tothe land developers argument is to

(A) clarify a dilemma that is embedded in the landdevelopers argument

(B) attack the character of the land developerrather than the position the land developer istaking

(C) show that more evidence is needed tosubstantiate the land developers conclusion

(D) show that the land developers line ofreasoning would lead to an unacceptableconclusion if applied to a different situation

(E) argue that there are problems that money,however judiciously spent, cannot solve


2 -10- 222SECTION II

Time35 minutes

25 Questions

Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. For some questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer: thatis, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. You should not make assumptions that are by commonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have chosen the best answer,blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.


4. Most small children are flat-footed. This failure ofthe foot to assume its natural arch, if it persists pastearly childhood can sometimes result in discomfortand even pain later in life. Traditionally, flat-footednessin children has been treated by having the childrenwear special shoes that give extra support to the foot,in order to foster the development of the arch.

Which one of the following, if true, most calls intoquestion the efficacy of the traditional treatmentdescribed above?

(A) Many small children who have normal feetwear the same special shoes as those worn byflat-footed children.

(B) Studies of flat-footed adults show that flat feetare subject to fewer stress fractures than arefeet with unusually high arches.

(C) Although most childrens flat-footedness iscorrected by the time the children reachpuberty, some people remain flat-footed forlife.

(D) Flat-footed children who do not wear thespecial shoes are as likely to develop naturalarches as are flat-footed children who wearthe special shoes.

(E) Some children who are not flat-footed have hipand lower leg bones that are rotated excessivelyeither inward or outward.

5. The chances that tropical storms will develop in agiven area increase whenever the temperature of alarge body of water in that area exceeds 26 degreesCelsius to a depth of about 60 meters. If the amountof carbon dioxide in the Earths atmosphere continuesto increase, the temperatures of all of the Earthswaters will rise, with the result that the number oflarge bodies of water whose temperatures exceed 26degrees Celsius to a depth of about 60 meters willeventually be greater than it is today.

The statements above, if true, most strongly supportwhich one of the following conclusions?

(A) There are likely to be more tropical storms ifthe amount of carbon dioxide in the Earthsatmosphere continues to increase.

(B) Tropical storms can occur only when the airtemperature exceeds 26 degrees Celsius.

(C) The number of large bodies of water whosetemperatures exceed 26 degrees Celsius to adepth of about 60 meters is greater todaythan it ever was.

(D) The ferocity of tropical storms does notdepend on the amount of carbon dioxide inthe Earths atmosphere.

(E) Any increase in the temperatures of the Earthsoceans would cause the amount of carbondioxide in the atmosphere to increase as well.

6. Astorgas campaign promises are apparently just anattempt to please voters. What she says she will do ifelected mayor is simply what she has learned fromopinion polls that voters want the new mayor to do.Therefore, voters are not being told what Astorgaactually intends to do if she becomes mayor.

Which one of the following is a questionableassumption on which the argument relies?

(A) If she is elected mayor, Astorga will not becapable of carrying out the campaign promisesshe has made.

(B) The opinion polls on which Astorgas promisesare based do not accurately reflect what voterswant the new mayor to do.

(C) Most voters are unlikely to be persuaded byAstorgas campaign promises to vote for herin the mayoral election.

(D) Astorga has no strong opinions of her ownabout what the new mayor ought to do inoffice.

(E) Astorga does not actually intend, if elected, to dowhat she has learned from the public opinionpolls that voters want the new mayor to do.

7. Newsletter for community-center volunteers: Retiredpersons who regularly volunteer their time tohelp others generally display fewer and mildereffects of aging than their nonvolunteeringcontemporaries: in social resources, mentaloutlook, physical health, economic resources,and overall functioning, they are found to besubstantially stronger than nonvolunteers.Volunteering is often described as doing goodworks to improve the lives of others. How goodto know that there is evidence that it can equallybenefit your own well-being!

The inference drawn above is unwarranted because

(A) the center has a self-interested motive toattract new volunteers

(B) it interprets well-being as including thefactors of social and economic resources,mental outlook, physical health, and overallfunctioning

(C) some of those who do not volunteer might beolder than some volunteers and so could notbe considered their peers

(D) growing older might not necessarily result in achange in mental outlook

(E) those with better resources, health, outlook,and functioning are more able to work asvolunteers


2-11-2 22


Questions 89

The local agricultural official gave the fruit growers ofthe District 10 Farmers Cooperative a new pesticide thatthey applied for a period of three years to their pearorchards in place of the pesticide they had formerlyapplied. During those three years, the proportion of pearslost to insects was significantly less than it had beenduring the previous three-year period. On the basis ofthese results, the official concluded that the new pesticidewas more effective than the old pesticide, at least in theshort term, in limiting the loss of certain fruit to insects.

8. Each of the following, if true, weakens the officialsargument EXCEPT:

(A) The amount of fruit that an orchard canpotentially produce depends in part on howmany mature trees it contains, and thenumber of mature pear trees in District 10has declined steadily over the past eight years.

(B) During the past five years, the farmers of theDistrict 10 Farmers Cooperative have beengradually implementing a variety of insect-abatement programs, and some of theseprograms have proven successful.

(C) Over the past five years, one of the severalspecies of birds that typically prey on theinsects that feed on pears has gradually shiftedits migratory patterns, spending more andmore months each year in the region thatcontains District 10.

(D) Some of the species of insects in District 10that infest pear trees are water breeders, andthe reservoirs and marshlands in this districthave been shrinking rapidly over the pastthree years.

(E) The effects of certain pesticides, including thepesticide that had formerly been used inDistrict 10, are cumulative and persist forseveral years after the pesticide is no longerapplied.

9. The officials conclusion is most strongly supportedif which one of the following groups of trees did notshow a reduction in losses of fruit to insects?

(A) peach trees grown in the district that weretreated with the new pesticide instead of theold pesticide

(B) peach trees grown in the district that weretreated with the new pesticide in addition tothe old pesticide

(C) pear trees grown in the district that weretreated with the old pesticide instead of thenew pesticide

(D) pear trees grown in a neighboring district thatwere treated with neither the old nor the newpesticide

(E) pear trees grown in a neighboring district thatwere treated with the new pesticide instead ofthe old pesticide

10. The only motives that influence all human actionsarise from self-interest. It is clear, therefore, that self-interest is the chief influence on human action.

The reasoning in the argument is fallacious becausethe argument

(A) denies that an observation that a trait iscommon to all the events in a pattern cancontribute to a causal explanation of thepattern

(B) takes the occurrence of one particularinfluence on a pattern or class of events asshowing that its influence outweighs anyother influence on those events

(C) concludes that a characteristic of a pattern orclass of events at one time is characteristic ofsimilar patterns or classes of events at alltimes

(D) concludes that, because an influence is theparamount influence on a particular patternor class of events, that influence is the onlyinfluence on that pattern or class of events

(E) undermines its own premise that a particularattribute is present in all instances of a certainpattern or class of events

11. Astronomer: Astronomical observations in manyareas have become useless because light fromnearby cities obscures the stars Many peopleargue that since streetlights are needed forsafety, such interference from lights isinevitable. Here in Sandsville, however, thelocal observatorys view remains relativelyclear, since the city has restricted unnecessarylighting and installed special street lamps thatdirect all their light downward. It is thereforepossible to have both well-lighted streets andrelatively dark skies.

The astronomers argument proceeds by

(A) appealing to a scientific authority to challengea widely held belief

(B) questioning the accuracy of evidence given insupport of the opposing position

(C) proposing an alternative scientific explanationfor a natural phenomenon

(D) making a distinction between terms(E) offering a counter example to a general claim


2 -12- 222


12. Music critic: Some people argue that, unlikecertain works of Handel, which set to musicfamiliar religious texts, the organ symphoniesof Louis Vieme are not religious music. Quitethe contrary. Sitting in Notre Dame cathedralin Paris and hearing his organ symphoniesdemonstrates that Viernes works are divinelyinspired.

The music critics reasoning is vulnerable to criticismon the ground that it

(A) takes for granted that all religious music isinspiring

(B) confuses two different meanings of the termreligious

(C) overlooks the possibility that some organmusic is not divinely inspired

(D) confuses two different meanings of the termsymphonies

(E) takes for granted that all organ symphonies arereligious music

Questions 1314

Charles: During recessions unemployment typicallyrises. Thus, during a recession air pollution due toautomobile exhaust decreases, since fewer peoplecommute in cars to jobs and so cars emittingpollutants into the air are used less.

Darla: Why think that air pollution would decrease?During a recession fewer people can afford to buynew cars, and cars tend to emit more pollutants asthey get older.

13. Which one of the following most accurately describeshow Darlas response is related to Charless argument?

(A) It calls into question the truth of the premisesthat Charles uses to support his conclusion.

(B) It makes an additional claim that can be trueonly if Charless conclusion is false.

(C) It presents an additional consideration thatweakens the support given to Charlessconclusion by his evidence.

(D) It argues that Charless conclusion is true,although not for the reasons Charles gives tosupport that conclusion.

(E) It presents an argument showing that thepremises in Charles s argument support anabsurd conclusion that Charles hasoverlooked.

14. Which one of the following is an assumption onwhich Charless argument depends?

(A) People who have never been employed driveno less frequently during a recession thanthey would otherwise.

(B) Most air pollution is caused by automobileexhaust emitted by cars used by peoplecommuting to jobs.

(C) Most people who are employed do not use anyform of public transportation to commute totheir jobs.

(D) During a recession, decreases in the use of carsresulting from reductions in commuting tojobs are not offset by increased use of cars forother reasons.

(E) During a recession, a higher proportion ofpeople who commute in cars to their jobs losethose jobs than do people who do not use carsto commute to their jobs.


2-13-2 22


2 -14- 215. For the condor to survive in the wild, its breeding

population must be greatly increased. But because onlya few eggs can be produced by a breeding pair overtheir lifetime, any significant increase in the number ofbirds depends upon most of these eggs hatching, whichis extremely unlikely in the wild due to environmentaldangers. One possible way to eliminate the effects ofthese factors is to breed the birds in captivity andsubsequently return them to the wild.

Which one of the following is most strongly supportedby the information above?

(A) The condor as a species will eventually becomeextinct in the wild.

(B) The best way to save the condor from extinctionis to breed it in captivity.

(C) It is almost impossible to eliminate all theenvironmental threats to the eggs of condors.

(D) If more condor eggs do not hatch, the condoras a species will not survive in the wild.

(E) The most feasible way to save the condor fromextinction is to increase egg production.

16. Allowing more steel imports would depress domesticsteel prices and harm domestic steel manufacturers.Since the present government will not do anythingthat would harm the domestic steel industry, it willnot lift restrictions on steel imports.

The pattern of reasoning in the argument above ismost similar to that in which one of the following?

(A) Building construction increases only whenpeople are confident that the economy isdoing well. Therefore, since people are nowconfident in the economy we can expectbuilding construction to increase.

(B) Since workers are already guaranteed the rightto a safe and healthful workplace by law, thereis no need for the government to establishfurther costly health regulations for peoplewho work all day at computer terminals.

(C) In countries that have deregulated their airlineindustry, many airlines have gone bankrupt.Since many companies in other transportationindustries are in weaker economic conditionthan were those airlines, deregulating othertransportation industries will probably resultin bankruptcies as well.

(D) The chief executive officer of Silicon, Inc., willprobably not accept stock in the company as abonus next year, since next years tax laws willrequire companies to pay a new tax on stockgiven to executives.

(E) The installation of bright floodlights on campuswould render the astronomy departmentstelescope useless. The astronomy departmentwill not support any proposal that wouldrender its telescope useless; it will thereforenot support proposals to install brightfloodlights on campus.

17. Wild cheetahs live in the African grasslands. Previousestimates of the size that the wild cheetah populationmust be in order for these animals to survive a naturaldisaster in the African grasslands region were toosmall, and the current population barely meets theprevious estimates. At present, however, there is notenough African grassland to support a wild cheetahpopulation larger than the current population.

The statements above, if true, most strongly supportwhich one of the following conclusions?

(A) Previous estimates of the size of the existingwild cheetah population were inaccurate.

(B) The cheetahs natural habitat is decreasing insize at a faster rate than is the size of the wildcheetah population.

(C) The principal threat to the endangered wildcheetah population is neither pollution norhunting, but a natural disaster.

(D) In the short term, the wild cheetah populationwill be incapable of surviving a naturaldisaster in the African grasslands.

(E) In regions where land is suitable for cheetahhabitation, more natural disasters are expectedto occur during the next decade thanoccurred during the past decade.

18. To classify a work of art as truly great, it is necessarythat the work have both originality and far-reachinginfluence upon the artistic community.

The principle above, if valid, most strongly supportswhich one of the following arguments?

(A) By breaking down traditional schemes ofrepresentation, Picasso redefined painting. Itis this extreme originality that warrants hiswork being considered truly great.

(B) Some of the most original art being producedtoday is found in isolated communities, butbecause of this isolation these works haveonly minor influence, and hence cannot beconsidered truly great.

(C) Certain examples of the drumming practicedin parts of Africas west coast employ amusical vocabulary that resists representationin Western notational schemes. Thistremendous originality coupled with theprofound impact these pieces are having onmusicians everywhere, is enough to considerthese works to be truly great.

(D) The piece of art in the lobby is clearly notclassified as truly great, so it follows that itfails to be original.

(E) Since Bachs music is truly great, it not only hasboth originality and a major influence onmusicians, it has broad popular appeal as well.


22


2-15-219. Professor Robinson: A large meteorite impact

crater in a certain region was thought to be theclue to explaining the mass extinction of plantand animal species that occurred at the end ofthe Mesozoic era. However, the crystallinestructure of rocks recovered at the site indicatesthat the impact that formed this crater was notthe culprit. When molten rocks crystallize,they display the polarity of Earths magneticfield at that time. But the recrystallized rocksrecovered at the site display normal magneticpolarity, even though Earths magnetic fieldwas reversed at the time of the mass extinction.

Each of the following is an assumption on whichProfessor Robinson s argument depends EXCEPT:

(A) The crater indicates an impact of more thansufficient size to have caused the massextinction.

(B) The recovered rocks recrystallized shortly afterthey melted.

(C) No other event caused the rocks to melt afterthe impact formed the crater.

(D) The recovered rocks melted as a result of theimpact that formed the crater.

(E) The mass extinction would have occurred soonafter the impact that supposedly caused it.

20. Pieces of music consist of sounds and silencespresented to the listener in a temporal order. Apainting, in contrast, is not presented one part at atime to the viewer; there is thus no particular paththat the viewers eye must follow in order to readthe painting. Therefore, an essential distinctionbetween the experiences of hearing music and ofviewing paintings is that hearing music has atemporal dimension but viewing a painting has none.

The reasoning in the argument is flawed because

(A) the argument does not allow for the possibilityof being immersed in experiencing a paintingwithout being conscious of the passage oftime

(B) the argument is based on a very generaldefinition of music that does not incorporateany distinctions among particular styles

(C) the argument fails to bring out the aspects ofmusic and painting that are common to bothas forms of artistic expression

(D) relying on the metaphor of reading tocharacterize how a painting is viewedpresupposes the correctness of the conclusionto be drawn on the basis of thatcharacterization

(E) the absence of a particular path that the eyemust follow does not entail that the eyefollows no path

21. A study of the difference in earnings between menand women in the country of Naota found that theaverage annual earnings of women who are employedfull time is 80 percent of the average annual earningsof men who are employed full time. However, otherresearch consistently shows that, in Naota, theaverage annual earnings of all employed women is 65percent of the average annual earnings of allemployed men,

Which one of the following, if also established byresearch, most helps explain the apparent discrepancybetween the research results described above?

(A) In Naota, the difference between the averageannual earnings of all female workers and theaverage annual earnings of all male workershas been gradually increasing over the past 30years.

(B) In Naota, the average annual earnings ofwomen who work full time in exactly thesame occupations and under exactly the sameconditions as men is almost the same as themens average annual earnings.

(C) In Naota, a growing proportion of femaleworkers hold full-time managerial,supervisory, or professional positions, andsuch positions typically pay more than othertypes of positions pay.

(D) In Naota, a larger proportion of femaleworkers than male workers are part-timeworkers, and part-time workers typically earnless than full-time workers earn.

(E) In ten other countries where the proportion ofwomen in the work force is similar to that ofNaota, the average annual earnings of womenwho work full time ranges from a low of 50percent to a high of 90 percent of the averageannual earnings of men who work full time.


22


2 -16- 222. Biologist: Some speculate that the unusually high

frequency of small goats found in islandpopulations is a response to evolutionarypressure to increase the number of goats so asto ensure a diverse gene pool. However, onlythe reproductive success of a trait influencesits frequency in a population. So, the only kindof evolutionary pressure that can reduce theaverage size of the members of a goatpopulation is that resulting from small goatsachieving greater reproductive than theirlarger cousins.

The biologists view, if true, provides the mostsupport for which one of the following?

(A) The evolutionary pressure to ensure a diversegene pool could have the effect of increasingthe frequency of a gene for small size.

(B) The unusual frequency of small goats in islandpopulations is not a result of the greaterreproductive success small goats possess whenspace is limited.

(C) Contrary to what some believe, large goatsachieve greater reproductive success thansmall goats even when space is limited.

(D) The evolutionary pressure to ensure a diversegene pool does not have the effect ofincreasing the frequency of a gene for smallsize.

(E) A diverse gene pool cannot be achieved in agoat population unless the average size of itsmembers is reduced.

23. Several carefully conducted studies showed that 75percent of strict vegetarians reached age 50 withoutdeveloping serious heart disease. We can concludefrom this that avoiding meat increases ones chancesof avoiding serious heart disease. Therefore, peoplewho want to reduce the risk of serious heart diseaseshould not eat meat.

The flawed pattern of reasoning exhibited by whichone of the following is most similar to that exhibitedby the argument above?

(A) The majority of people who regularly driveover the speed limit will become involved intraffic accidents. To avoid harm to peoplewho do not drive over the speed limit, weshould hire more police officers to enforce thespeed laws.

(B) Studies have shown that cigarette smokershave a greater chance of incurring heartdisease than people who do not smoke. Sincecigarette smoking increases ones chances ofincurring heart disease, people who want totry to avoid heart disease should give upcigarette smoking.

(C) The majority of people who regularly drinkcoffee experience dental problems in the latterpart of their lives. Since there is thiscorrelation between drinking coffee andincurring dental problems, the governmentshould make coffee less accessible to thegeneral public.

(D) Studies show that people who do not exerciseregularly have a shorter life expectancy thanthose who exercise regularly. To help increasetheir patients life expectancy, doctors shouldrecommend regular exercise to their patients.

(E) Most people who exercise regularly are able tohandle stress. This shows that exercisingregularly decreases ones chances of beingoverwhelmed by stress. So people who wantto be able to handle stress should regularlyengage in exercise.


22


2-17-224. Mr. Nance: Ms. Chan said that she retired from

Quad Cities Corporation, and had received awatch and a wonderful party as thanks for her40 years of loyal service. But I overheard acolleague of hers say that Ms. Chan will begone for much of the next year on businesstrips and is now working harder than she everdid before; that does not sound like retirementto me. At least one of them is not telling thetruth.

Mr. Nances reasoning is flawed because it

(A) is based in part on hearsay(B) criticizes Ms. Chan rather than the claims she

made(C) draws a conclusion based on equivocal

language(D) fails to consider that Ms. Chans colleague may

have been deceived by her(E) fails to infer that Ms. Chan must be a person of

superior character, given her long loyalservice

25. A recent survey showed that 50 percent of peoplepolled believe that elected officials should resign ifindicted for a crime, whereas 35 percent believe thatelected officials should resign only if they areconvicted of a crime. Therefore, more people believethat elected officials should resign if indicted thanbelieve that they should resign if convicted.

The reasoning above is flawed because it

(A) draws a conclusion about the population ingeneral based only on a sample of thatpopulation

(B) confuses a sufficient condition with a requiredcondition

(C) is based on an ambiguity of one of its terms(D) draws a conclusion about a specific belief

based on responses to queries about twodifferent specific beliefs

(E) contains premises that cannot all be true

22




Questions 17

At a benefit dinner, a community theaters sevensponsorsK, L, M, P, Q, V, and Zwill be seated at threetables1, 2, and 3. Of the sponsors, only K, L, and M willreceive honors, and only M, P, and Q will give a speech.The sponsors seating assignments must conform to thefollowing conditions:

Each table has at least two sponsors seated at it, andeach sponsor is seated at exactly one table.

Any sponsor receiving honors is seated at table 1 ortable 2.

L is seated at the same table as V.

1. Which one of the following is an acceptableassignment of sponsors to tables?

(A) Table 1: K, P; Table 2: M, Q; Table 3: L, V, Z(B) Table 1: K, Q, Z; Table 2: L, V; Table 3: M, P(C) Table 1: L, P; Table 2: K, M; Table 3: Q, V, Z(D) Table 1: L, Q, V; Table 2: K, M; Table 3: P, Z(E) Table 1: L, V, Z; Table 2: K, M, P; Table 3: Q

2. Which one of the following is a list of all and onlythose sponsors any one of whom could be among thesponsors assigned to table 3?

(A) P, Q(B) Q, Z(C) P, Q, Z(D) Q, V, Z(E) P, Q, V, Z

3. If K is assigned to a different table than M, which oneof the following must be true of the seatingassignment?

(A) K is seated at the same table as L.(B) L is seated at the same table as Q.(C) M is seated at the same table as V.(D) Exactly two sponsors are seated at table 1.(E) Exactly two sponsors are seated at table 3.

4. If Q is assigned to table 1 along with two othersponsors, which one of the following could be true ofthe seating assignment?

(A) K is seated at the same table as L.(B) K is seated at the same table as Q.(C) M is seated at the same table as V.(D) M is seated at the same table as Z.(E) P Is seated at the same table as Q.

5. If the sponsors assigned to table 3 include exactlyone of the sponsors who will give a speech, then thesponsors assigned to table 1 could include any of thefollowing EXCEPT:

(A) K(B) M(C) P(D) Q(E) Z

6. If three sponsors, exactly two of whom are receivinghonors, are assigned to table 2, which one of thefollowing could be the list of sponsors assigned totable 1?

(A) K, M(B) K, Z(C) P, V(D) P, Z(E) Q, Z

7. Which one of the following conditions, if added tothe existing conditions, results in a set of conditionsto which no seating assignment for the sponsors canconform?

(A) At most two sponsors are seated at table 1.(B) Any sponsor giving a speech is seated at table 1

or else table 2.(C) Any sponsor giving a speech is seated at table 2

or else table 3.(D) Exactly three of the sponsors are seated at

table 1.(E) Any table at which both L and V are seated

also has a third sponsor seated at it.


33 -18- 33 3SECTION III

Time35 minutes

24 Questions

Directions: Each group of questions in this section is based on a set of conditions. In answering some of the questions, it may beuseful to draw a rough diagram. Choose the response that most accurately and completely answers each question and blacken thecorresponding space on your answer sheet.


Questions 814

Exactly four medical training sessionsM, O, R, and Swill be scheduled for four consecutive daysday 1through day 4one session each day. Six professionalsthree nurses and three psychologistswill teach thesessions. The nurses are Fine, Johnson, and Leopold; thepsychologists are Tyler, Vitale, and Wong. Each session willbe taught by exactly one nurse and exactly onepsychologist. The schedule must conform to the followingconditions:

Each professional teaches at least once.Day 3 is a day on which Leopold teaches.Neither Fine nor Leopold teaches with Tyler.Johnson teaches session S only.Session M is taught on the day after the day on which

session S is taught.

8. If session R is the only session for which Leopold isscheduled, which one of the following is a pair ofprofessionals who could be scheduled for day 2together?

(A) Fine and Tyler(B) Fine and Wong(C) Johnson and Tyler(D) Johnson and Wong(E) Leopold and Wong

9. Which one of the following must be false?

(A) Session O is scheduled for day 1.(B) Session S is scheduled for day 3.(C) Leopold is scheduled for day 1.(D) Vitale is scheduled for day 4.(E) Wong is scheduled for day 1.

10. Which one of the following could be the session andthe professionals scheduled for day 4 ?

(A) session M, Fine, Wong(B) session O, Fine, Tyler(C) session O, Johnson, Tyler(D) session R, Fine, Wong(E) session S, Fine, Vitale

11. If session S is scheduled for day 2, which one of thefollowing is a professional who must be scheduled toteach session M ?

(A) Fine(B) Leopold(C) Tyler(D) Vitale(E) Wong

12. If session O and session R are scheduled forconsecutive days, which one of the following is a pairof professionals who could be scheduled for day 2together?

(A) Fine and Leopold(B) Fine and Wong(C) Johnson and Tyler(D) Johnson and Vitale(E) Leopold and Tyler

13. Which one of the following could be the order inwhich the nurses teach the sessions, listed from day 1through day 4?

(A) Fine, Johnson, Leopold, Leopold(B) Fine, Leopold, Leopold, Johnson(C) Johnson, Johnson, Leopold, Fine(D) Johnson, Leopold, Leopold, Johnson(E) Leopold, Leopold, Fine, Fine

14. If session O is scheduled for day 3, which one of thefollowing must be scheduled for day 4?

(A) session R(B) session S(C) Fine(D) Leopold(E) Vitale


3-19-3 33 3


Questions 1519

Six paintings hang next to each other as shown below:

1 2 3

4 5 6

Each of the paintings is an oil or else a watercolor.Each oil is directly beside, directly above, or directly

below another oil.Each watercolor is directly beside, directly above, or

directly below another watercolor.Each painting is a nineteenth-century painting or

else a twentieth-century painting.Each painting is directly beside, directly above, or

directly below another painting painted in the samecentury.

Painting 2 is a nineteenth-century painting.Painting 3 is an oil.Painting 5 is a twentieth-century painting.

15. If all of the nineteenth-century paintings arewatercolors, which one of the following must be true?

(A) Painting 1 is an oil.(B) Painting 3 is a nineteenth-century painting.(C) Painting 4 is a watercolor.(D) Painting 5 is an oil.(E) Painting 6 is a twentieth-century painting.

16. It is possible that the only two watercolors among thesix paintings are

(A) paintings 1 and 5(B) paintings 1 and 6(C) paintings 2 and 4(D) paintings 4 and 5(E) paintings 4 and 6

17. If there are exactly three oils and three watercolors,which one of the following must be true?

(A) Painting 1 is a watercolor.(B) Painting 2 is a watercolor.(C) Painting 4 is a watercolor.(D) Painting 5 is a watercolor.(E) Painting 6 is a watercolor.

18. If exactly two paintings are oils and exactly twopaintings are nineteenth-century paintings, whichone of the following must be false?

(A) Painting 1 is a nineteenth-century painting,and painting 6 is an oil.

(B) Painting 2 is both a nineteenth-centurypainting and an oil.

(C) Painting 3 is a nineteenth-century painting.(D) Paintings 1 and 2 are both nineteenth-century

paintings.(E) Painting 2 is an oil, and painting 4 is a

nineteenth-century painting.

19. Which one of the following could be true?

(A) Paintings 1 and 4 are two of exactly threetwentieth-century paintings.

(B) Paintings 1 and 6 are two of exactly threetwentieth-century paintings.

(C) Paintings 1 and 6 are two of exactly threenineteenth-century paintings.

(D) Paintings 3 and 4 are two of exactly threenineteenth-century paintings.

(E) Paintings 4 and 6 are two of exactly threenineteenth-century paintings.


33 -20- 33 3


Questions 2024

Exactly six of seven jugglersG, H, K, L, N, P, and Qareeach assigned to exactly one of three positionsfront,middle, and rearon one of two teamsteam 1 and team2. For each team, exactly one juggler must be assigned toeach position according to the following conditions:

If either G or H or both are assigned to teams, theyare assigned to front positions.

If assigned to a team, K is assigned to a middleposition.

If assigned to a team, L is assigned to team 1.Neither P nor K is on the same team as N.P is not on the same team as Q.If H is on team 2, then Q is assigned to the middle

position on team 1.

20. Which one of the following is an acceptable list ofassignments of jugglers to team 2?

(A) front: Q; middle: K; rear: N(B) front: H; middle: P; rear: K(C) front: H; middle: L; near: N(D) front: G; middle: Q; rear: P(E) front: G; middle: Q; rear: N

21. If H is assigned to team 2, which one of the followingis an acceptable assignment of jugglers to team 1?

(A) front: G; middle: K; rear: L(B) front: G; middle: K; rear: N(C) front: L; middle: K; rear: P(D) front: L; middle: Q; rear: G(E) front: L; middle: Q; rear: N

22. Which one of the following is an acceptable list ofassignments of jugglers to team 1?

(A) front: G; middle: K; rear: L(B) front: G; middle: K; rear: P(C) front: L; middle: K; rear: Q(D) front: Q; middle: K; rear: P(E) front: Q; middle: L; rear: N

23. If G is assigned to team 1, which one of the followingis a pair of jugglers who could also be assigned toteam 1?

(A) H and N(B) K and L(C) K and P(D) L and N(E) L and Q

24. If G is assigned to team 1 and K is assigned to team2, which one of the following must be assigned therear position on team 2?

(A) H(B) L(C) N(D) P(E) Q

3-21-3 33 3




44 -22-

1. Advertisement: Among popular automobiles,Sturdimades stand apart. Around the world,hundreds of longtime Sturdimade owners havesigned up for Sturdimades long distanceclub, members of which must have aSturdimade they have driven for a total of atleast 100,000 miles or 160,000 kilometers.Some members boast of having driven theirSturdimades for a total of 300,000 miles(480,000 kilometers)! Clearly, if you buy aSturdimade you can rely on being able to driveit for a very long distance.

Construed as an argument, the advertisementsreasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on whichone of the following grounds?

(A) It draws a general conclusion from casesselected only on the basis of having acharacteristic that favors that conclusion.

(B) Its conclusion merely restates the evidencegiven to support it.

(C) It fails to clarify in which of two possible waysan ambiguous term is being used in thepremises.

(D) The evidence given to support the conclusionactually undermines that conclusion.

(E) It treats popular opinion as if it constitutedconclusive evidence for a claim.

2. Faced with a financial crisis, Upland Universitysboard of trustees reduced the budget for theuniversitys computer center from last year s $4million to $1.5 million for the coming year. However,the center cannot operate on less than $2.5 million.Since the board cannot divert funds from otherprograms to the computer center, there is no waythat the center can be kept operating for the comingyear.

The conclusion of the argument is properly drawn ifwhich one of the following is assumed?

(A) The computer center did not use all of the $4million that was budgeted to it last year.

(B) The budgets of other programs at theuniversity were also reduced.

(C) The computer center has no source of fundsother than those budgeted to it for the comingyear by the universitys board of trustees.

(D) No funds from any program at the universitycan be diverted to other programs.

(E) The board of trustees at the university valueother programs at the university more highlythan they do the computer center.


44 44SECTION IV

Time35 minutes

26 Questions

Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. For some questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer: thatis, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. You should not make assumptions that are by commonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have chosen the best answer,blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.


4-23-4Questions 34

Muriel: I admire Favillas novels, but she does notdeserve to be considered great writer. The point isthat, no matter how distinctive her style may be, hersubject matter is simply not varied enough.

John: I think you are wrong to use that criterion. A greatwriter does not need any diversity in subject matter;however, a great writer must at least have the abilityto explore a particular theme deeply.

3. Which one of the following is a point at issuebetween Muriel and John?

(A) whether Favilla has treated a wide variety ofsubjects in her novels

(B) whether Favilla should be considered a greatwriter because her style is distinctive

(C) whether treating a variety of subjects shouldbe a prerequisite for someone to beconsidered a great writer

(D) whether the number of novels that a novelisthas written should be a factor in judgingwhether that novelist is great

(E) whether there are many novelists who areconsidered to be great but do not deserve tobe so considered

4. Johns statements commit him to which one of thefollowing positions?

(A) Even if the subject matter in Favillas writingsis not particularly varied, she should notthereby be excluded from being considered agreat writer.

(B) Even if Favilla cannot explore any particulartheme deeply in her writings, she should notthereby be excluded from being considered agreat writer.

(C) If Favilla has explored some particular themeexceptionally deeply in her writings, shedeserves to be considered a great writer.

(D) If the subject matter in Favillas writings wereexceptionally varied, she would not deserve tobe considered a great writer.

(E) If Favillas writings show no evidence of adistinctive style, she does not deserve to beconsidered a great writer.

5. Astronaut: Any moon, by definition, orbits someplanet in a solar system. So, the moons in solarsystem S4 all orbit the planet Alpha.

The astronauts conclusion follows logically if whichone of the following is assumed?

(A) There is only one moon in S4.(B) Every moon in S4 orbits the same planet.(C) Alpha is the only planet in S4.(D) Every planet in S4 is orbited by more than one

moon(E) There is at least one moon that orbits Alpha.

6. A worker for a power company trims the branches oftrees that overhang power lines as a preventionagainst damage to the lines anticipated because ofthe impending stormy season. The worker reasonsthat there will be no need for her to trim theoverhanging branches of a certain tree because theowners of the tree have indicated that they might cutit down anyway.

Which one of the following decisions is based onflawed reasoning that is most similar to the workersflawed reasoning?

(A) A well inspector has a limited amount of timeto inspect the wells of a town. The inspectorreasons that the wells should be inspected inthe order of most used to least used, becausethere might not be enough time to inspectthem all.

(B) All sewage and incoming water pipes in ahouse must be replaced. The plumber reasonsthat the cheaper polyvinyl chloride pipesshould be used for sewage rather than copperpipes, since the money saved might be used toreplace worn fixtures.

(C) A mechanic must replace the worn brakes on acompanys vans that are used each weekday.The mechanic reasons that since one of thevans is tentatively scheduled to be junked, hewill not have to replace its brakes.

(D) A candidate decides to campaign in the areasof the city where the most new votes areconcentrated. The candidate reasons thatcampaigning in other areas is unnecessarybecause in those areas the candidates messageis actually liable to alienate voters.

(E) None of the children in a certain kindergartenclass will take responsibility for the crayondrawing on the classroom wall. The teacherreasons that it is best to keep all thekindergarten children in during recess inorder to be certain to punish the one who didthe drawing on the wall.


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44 -24-7. Currently, the city of Grimchester is liable for any

injury incurred because of a city sidewalk in need ofrepair or maintenance. However, Grimchesterssidewalks are so extensive that it is impossible to hireenough employees to locate and eliminate everypotential danger in its sidewalks. Governmentsshould be liable for injuries incurred on publicproperty only if they knew about the dangerbeforehand and negligently failed to eliminate it.

Which one of the following describes an injury forwhich the city of Grimchester is now liable, butshould not be according to the principle cited above?

(A) A person is injured after tripping on a badlyuneven city sidewalk, and the cityadministration had been repeatedly informed ofthe need to repair the sidewalk for several years.

(B) A person is injured after tripping over ashopping bag that someone had left lying inthe middle of the sidewalk.

(C) A person is injured after stepping in a largehole in a city sidewalk, and the cityadministration had first learned of the needto repair that sidewalk minutes before.

(D) A person who is heavily intoxicated is injuredafter falling on a perfectly even city sidewalkwith no visible defects.

(E) A person ridding a bicycle on a city sidewalk isinjured after swerving to avoid a pedestrianwho had walked in front of the bicyclewithout looking.

8. Early in the development of a new product line, thecritical resource is talent. New marketing venturesrequire a degree of managerial skill disproportionateto their short-term revenue prospects. Usually,however, talented managers are assigned only toestablished high-revenue product lines and, as aresult, most new marketing ventures fail. Contrary tocurrent practice, the best managers in a companyshould be assigned to development projects.

Which one of the following, if true, most strengthensthe authors argument?

(A) On average, new ventures under the directionof managers at executive level survive nolonger than those managed by lower-rankingmanagers.

(B) For most established companies, thedevelopment of new product lines is a relativelysmall part of the companys total expenditure.

(C) The more talented a manager is, the less likelyhe or she is to be interested in undertakingthe development of a new product line.

(D) The current revenue and profitability of anestablished product line can be maintainedeven if the companys best managers areassigned elsewhere.

(E) Early short-term revenue prospects of a newproduct line are usually a good predictor ofhow successful a product line will ultimately be.

9. Television news coverage gives viewers a sense of directinvolvement with current events but does not providethe depth of coverage needed for the significance ofthose events to be appreciated. Newspapers, on theother hand, provide depth of coverage but no sense ofdirect involvement. Unfortunately, a full understandingof current events requires both an appreciation of theirsignificance and a sense of direct involvement withthem. Therefore, since few people seek out newssources other than newspapers and television, fewpeople ever fully understand current events.

The reasoning in the argument is flawed because theargument

(A) treats two things, neither one of which canplausibly be seen as excluding the other, asthough they were mutually exclusive

(B) ignores the possibility that people readnewspapers or watch television for reasonsother than gaining a full understanding ofcurrent events

(C) makes crucial use of the term depth ofcoverage without defining it

(D) fails to consider the possible disadvantages ofhaving a sense of direct involvement withtragic or violent events

(E) mistakenly reasons that just because somethinghas the capacity to perform a given functionit actually does so

10. Critic: Some writers have questioned Stalins sanityduring his last years. They typicallycharacterized his vindictiveness and secrecy asparanoia and morbid suspiciousness, thelatter almost a standard term applied by theSoviet writers under glasnost to explain thisextraordinary mans misdeeds. But Stalinscruelty and deviousness are not more apparentduring those years than in earlier periods ofhis rule. Morbid suspiciousness has to be acharacteristic of tyrants. Without it they wouldnot remain long in power.

Which one of the following most accurately expressesa point of disagreement between the critic and thewriters?

(A) whether Stalin should be held guilty of thecruel deeds attributed to him

(B) whether Stalins cruel misdeeds provideevidence of morbid suspiciousness

(C) whether it is Stalins state of paranoia or ratherhis cruelty that gives the stronger reason fordoubting his sanity

(D) whether tyranny tends to lead to cruelty (E) whether it was Stalins psychological state or

rather his political condition that was theprimary cause of his cruel misdeeds


44 44


11. Even though apes are the only nonhuman creaturesable to learn human language, no ape has ever usedits human language skills to ask such philosophicalquestions as, How am I different from all othercreatures? Therefore, philosophical thought isunique to humans.

The conclusion in the passage above relies on whichone of the following assumptions?

(A) Human language is unique to humans.(B) Apes are incapable of thinking in human

language.(C) Philosophical thought can be expressed only in

human language.(D) Speaking in human language is easier than

thinking in human language.(E) It is more difficult to learn human language

than to express philosophical questions.

12. Most adults in country X consume an increasingamount of fat as they grow older. However, for nearlyall adults in country X, the percentage of fat in aperson s diet stays the same throughout adult life.

The statements above, if true, most strongly supportwhich one of the following conclusions about adultsin country X?

(A) They generally consume more fat than dopeople of the same age in other countries.

(B) They generally eat more when they are olderthan they did earlier in their adulthood.

(C) They generally have diets that contain a lowerpercentage of fat than do the diets of childrenin country X.

(D) They tend to eat more varied kinds of food asthey become older.

(E) They tend to lose weight as they become older.

13. Politician: The bill that makes using car phoneswhile driving illegal should be adopted. Mysupport of this bill is motivated by a concernfor public safety. Using a car phone seriouslydistracts the driver, which in turn poses athreat to safe driving. People would bedeterred from using their car phones whiledriving if it were illegal to do so.

The arguments main conclusion follows logically ifwhich one of the following is assumed?

(A) The more attention one pays to driving, thesafer a driver one is.

(B) The only way to reduce the threat to publicsafety posed by car phones is throughlegislation.

(C) Some distractions interfere with ones abilityto safely operate an automobile.

(D) Any proposed law that would reduce a threatto public safety should be adopted.

(E) Car phone use by passengers does not distractthe driver of the car.

14. When soil is plowed in the spring, pigweed seeds thathave been buried in the soil all winter are churned upto the surface and redeposited just under the surface.The brief exposure of the seeds to sunlight stimulatesreceptors, which have become highly sensitive tosunlight during the months the seeds were buried inthe soil, and the stimulated receptors triggergermination. Without the prolonged darkness,followed by exposure to sunlight, the seeds do notgerminate.

The statements above, if true, most strongly supportwhich one of the following statements about a fieldthat will be plowed in the spring and in whichpigweed seeds have been buried in the soil all winter?

(A) Fewer pigweed plants will grow in the field if itis plowed only at night than if it is plowedduring the day.

(B) Fewer pigweed plants will grow in the field if itis plowed at all than if it is plowed only atnight.

(C) Fewer pigweed plants will grow in the field if itis plowed just before sunrise than if it isplowed just after sunset.

(D) The pigweed seeds that are churned up to thesurface of the soil during the plowing will notgeminate unless they are redeposited underthe surface of the soil.

(E) All of the pigweed seeds that are already on thesurface of the soil before the field is plowedwill germinate.


4-25-4 44 44


44 -26-15. In 1992, there were over 250 rescues of mountain

climbers, costing the government almost 3 milliondollars. More than 25 people died in climbingmishaps that year. Many new climbers enter the sporteach year. Members of a task force have proposed abonding arrangement requiring all climbers to post alarge sum of money to be forfeited to the governmentin case of calamity.

Each of the following principles, if valid, supports thetask force members proposal EXCEPT:

(A) Taxpayers should not subsidize a freely chosenhobby and athletic endeavor of individuals.

(B) The government is obliged to take measures todeter people from risking their lives.

(C) For physically risky sports the governmentshould issue permits only to people who havehad at least minimal training in the sport.

(D) Citizens who use publicly subsidized rescueservices should be required to pay moretoward the cost of these services than citizenswho do not.

(E) People who engage in physically risky behaviorthat is not essential to anyones welfare shouldbe held responsible for the cost of treatingany resulting injuries.

16. The familiar slogan survival of the fittest ispopularly used to express the claim, often mistakenlyattributed to evolutionary biologists, that the fittestare most likely to survive. However, biologists use theterm fittest to mean most likely to survive, so theslogan is merely claiming that the most likely tosurvive are the most likely to survive. While thisclaim is clearly true, it is a tautology and so is neitherinformative nor of scientific interest.

The argument above depends on assuming whichone of the following?

(A) All claims that are of scientific interest areinformative.

(B) Only claims that are true are of scientificinterest.

(C) Popular slogans are seldom informative or ofscientific interest.

(D) Informative scientific claims cannot use termsin the way they are popularly used.

(E) The truth of a purported scientific claim is notsufficient for it to be of scientific interest.

17. Council member: The preservation of individualproperty rights is of the utmost importance tothe city council. Yet, in this city, property ownersare restricted to little more than cutting grassand weeding. Anything more extensive, such asremodeling, is prohibited by our zoning laws.

Which one of the following provides a resolution tothe apparent inconsistency described by the councilmember?

(A) Property owners are sometimes allowedexemptions from restrictive zoning laws.

(B) It is in the best interest of property owners tomaintain current laws in order to prevent anincrease in their property taxes.

(C) The city council places less importance onproperty rights than do property owners.

(D) An individuals property rights may beinfringed upon by other people altering theirown property .

(E) Zoning laws ensure that property rights arenot overly extensive.

18. Coach: Our team has often been criticized for ourenthusiasm in response to both our successesand our opponents failures. But this behavioris hardly unprofessional, as our critics haveclaimed. On the contrary, if one looks at theprofessionals in this sport, one will find thatthey are even more effusive. Our critics shouldleave the team alone and let the players enjoythe game.

The coachs argument is most vulnerable to thecharge that it

(A) misleadingly equates enthusiasm withunethical play

(B) misinterprets the critics claim that the team isunprofessional

(C) too quickly generalizes from the sport at onelevel to the sport at a different level

(D) shifts the blame for the teams behavior toprofessional players

(E) takes everyone on the team to have performedthe actions of a few


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