LSAT*

PrepTest 42December 2003

Test ID: LL3042

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Analytical Reasoning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION I

Logical Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION II

Reading Comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION III

Logical Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION IV

Questions 15

A panel of five scientists will be formed. The panelists willbe selected from among three botanistsF, G, and Hthree chemistsK, L, and Mand three zoologistsP, Q,and R. Selection is governed by the following conditions:The panel must include at least one scientist of each of thethree types.

If more than one botanist is selected, then at mostone zoologist is selected.

F and K cannot both be selected.K and M cannot both be selected.If M is selected, both P and R must be selected.

1. Which one of the following is an acceptable selectionof scientists for the panel?

(A) F, G, K, P, Q(B) G, H, K, L, M(C) G, H, K, L, R(D) H, K, M, P, R(E) H, L, M, P, Q

2. If M is the only chemist selected for the panel, whichone of the following must be true?

(A) F and G are both selected.(B) G and H are both selected.(C) H and P are both selected.(D) F, G, and H are all selected.(E) P, Q, and R are all selected.

3. If four of the scientists selected are F, L, Q, and R,which one of the following must be the fifth scientistselected?

(A) G(B) H(C) K(D) M(E) P

4. If P is the only zoologist selected, which one of thefollowing must be true?

(A) If K is selected, G cannot be selected.(B) If L is selected, F cannot be selected.(C) If exactly one chemist is selected, it must be K.(D) If exactly two chemists are selected, F cannot

be selected.(E) If exactly two chemists are selected, G cannot

be selected.

5. If both G and H are among the scientists selected,then the panel must include either

(A) F or else K(B) F or else M(C) K or else M(D) M or else Q(E) P or else Q

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1 -2- 11SECTION I

Time35 minutes

23 Questions

Directions: Each group of questions in this section is based on a set of conditions. In answering some of the questions, it may beuseful to draw a rough diagram. Choose the response that most accurately and completely answers each question and blacken thecorresponding space on your answer sheet.

Questions 612

A loading dock consists of exactly six bays numbered 1through 6 consecutively from one side of the dock to theother. Each bay is holding a different one of exactly sixtypes of cargofuel, grain, livestock, machinery, produce,or textiles. The following apply:

The bay holding grain has a higher number than thebay holding livestock.

The bay holding livestock has a higher number thanthe bay holding textiles.

The bay holding produce has a higher number thanthe bay holding fuel.

The bay holding textiles is next to the bay holdingproduce.

6. Which one of the following lists could accuratelyidentify the cargo held in each of the loading docksfirst three bays, listed in order from bay 1 to bay 3?

(A) fuel, machinery, textiles(B) grain, machinery, fuel(C) machinery, livestock, fuel(D) machinery, textiles, fuel(E) machinery, textiles, produce

7. Which one of the following CANNOT be the type ofcargo held in bay 4?

(A) grain(B) livestock(C) machinery(D) produce(E) textiles

8. If there is exactly one bay between the bay holdingmachinery and the bay holding grain, then forexactly how many of the six bays is the type of cargothat bay is holding completely determined?

(A) two(B) three(C) four(D) five(E) six

9. Which one of the following could be the bay holdinglivestock?

(A) bay 1(B) bay 2(C) bay 3(D) bay 5(E) bay 6

10. Which one of the following must be false?

(A) The bay holding fuel is next to the bay holdingmachinery.

(B) The bay holding grain is next to the bayholding machinery.

(C) The bay holding livestock is next to the bayholding fuel.

(D) The bay holding produce is next to the bayholding livestock.

(E) The bay holding textiles is next to the bayholding fuel.

11. If the bay holding produce is next to the bay holdinglivestock, then each of the following could be trueEXCEPT:

(A) Bay 2 is holding fuel.(B) Bay 4 is holding produce.(C) Bay 4 is holding textiles.(D) Bay 5 is holding grain.(E) Bay 5 is holding machinery.

12. If bay 4 is holding produce, then for exactly howmany of the six bays is the type of cargo that bay isholding completely determined?

(A) two(B) three(C) four(D) five(E) six

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1 1-3-1

Questions 1318

A bakery makes exactly three kinds of cookieoatmeal,peanut butter, and sugar. Exactly three batches of eachkind of cookie are made each week (Monday throughFriday) and each batch is made, from start to finish, on asingle day. The following conditions apply:

No two batches of the same kind of cookie are madeon the same day.

At least one batch of cookies is made on Monday.The second batch of oatmeal cookies is made on the

same day as the first batch of peanut butter cookies.The second batch of sugar cookies is made on

Thursday.

13. Which one of the following could be a complete andaccurate list of the days on which the batches of eachkind of cookie are made?

(A) oatmeal: Monday, Wednesday, Thursdaypeanut butter: Wednesday, Thursday, Fridaysugar: Monday, Thursday, Friday

(B) oatmeal: Monday, Tuesday, Thursdaypeanut butter: Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursdaysugar: Monday, Wednesday, Thursday

(C) oatmeal: Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursdaypeanut butter: Wednesday, Thursday, Fridaysugar: Tuesday, Thursday, Friday

(D) oatmeal: Monday, Tuesday, Thursdaypeanut butter: Monday, Wednesday, Thursdaysugar: Monday, Thursday, Friday

(E) oatmeal: Monday, Thursday, Fridaypeanut butter: Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursdaysugar: Monday, Thursday, Friday

14. How many of the days, Monday through Friday, aresuch that at most two batches of cookies could bemade on that day?

(A) one(B) two(C) three(D) four(E) five

15. If the first batch of peanut butter cookies is made onTuesday, then each of the following could be trueEXCEPT:

(A) Two different kinds of cookie have their firstbatch made on Monday.

(B) Two different kinds of cookie have their firstbatch made on Tuesday.

(C) Two different kinds of cookie have their secondbatch made on Wednesday.

(D) Two different kinds of cookie have their secondbatch made on Thursday.

(E) Two different kinds of cookie have their thirdbatch made on Friday.

16. If no batch of cookies is made on Wednesday, thenwhich one of the following must be true?

(A) Exactly three batches of cookies are made onTuesday.

(B) Exactly three batches of cookies are made onFriday.

(C) At least two batches of cookies are made onMonday.

(D) At least two batches of cookies are made onThursday.

(E) Fewer batches of cookies are made on Mondaythan on Tuesday.

17. If the number of batches made on Friday is exactlyone, then which one of the following could be true?

(A) The first batch of sugar cookies is made onMonday.

(B) The first batch of oatmeal cookies is made onTuesday.

(C) The third batch of oatmeal cookies is made onFriday.

(D) The first batch of peanut butter cookies ismade on Wednesday.

(E) The second batch of peanut butter cookies ismade on Tuesday.

18. If one kind of cookies first batch is made on thesame day as another kind of cookies third batch,then which one of the following could be false?

(A) At least one batch of cookies is made on eachof the five days.

(B) At least two batches of cookies are made onWednesday.

(C) Exactly one batch of cookies is made onMonday.

(D) Exactly two batches of cookies are made onTuesday.

(E) Exactly one batch of cookies is made onFriday.

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1 -4- 11

Questions 1923

For the school paper, five studentsJiang, Kramer, Lopez,Megregian, and ONeilleach review one or more ofexactly three plays: Sunset, Tamerlane, and Undulation,but do not review any other plays. The followingconditions must apply:

Kramer and Lopez each review fewer of the playsthan Megregian.

Neither Lopez nor Megregian reviews any play Jiangreviews.

Kramer and ONeill both review Tamerlane.Exactly two of the students review exactly the same

play or plays as each other.

19. Which one of the following could be an accurate andcomplete list of the students who review only Sunset?

(A) Lopez(B) ONeill(C) Jiang, Lopez(D) Kramer, ONeill(E) Lopez, Megregian

20. Which one of the following must be true?

(A) Jiang reviews more of the plays than Lopezdoes.

(B) Megregian reviews more of the plays thanJiang does.

(C) Megregian reviews more of the plays thanONeill does.

(D) ONeill reviews more of the plays than Jiangdoes.

(E) ONeill reviews more of the plays than Kramerdoes.

21. If exactly three of the students review Undulation,which one of the following could be true?

(A) Megregian does not review Undulation.(B) ONeill does not review Undulation.(C) Jiang reviews Undulation.(D) Lopez reviews Tamerlane.(E) ONeill reviews Sunset.

22. Which one of the following could be an accurate andcomplete list of the students who review Tamerlane?

(A) Jiang, Kramer(B) Kramer, ONeill(C) Kramer, Lopez, ONeill(D) Kramer, Megregian, ONeill(E) Lopez, Megregian, ONeill

23. If Jiang does not review Tamerlane, then which oneof the following must be true?

(A) Jiang reviews Sunset.(B) Lopez reviews Undulation.(C) Megregian reviews Sunset.(D) Megregian reviews Tamerlane.(E) ONeill reviews Undulation.

1 1-5-1

S T O PIF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, YOU MAY CHECK YOUR WORK ON THIS SECTION ONLY.

DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST.

2 -6- 2

1. Carl is clearly an incompetent detective. He hassolved a smaller percentage of the cases assigned tohim in the last 3 yearsonly 1 out of 25than anyother detective on the police force.

Which one of the following, if true, most seriouslyweakens the argument above?

(A) Because the police chief regards Carl as themost capable detective, she assigns him onlythe most difficult cases, ones that others havefailed to solve.

(B) Before he became a detective, Carl was aneighborhood police officer and was highlyrespected by the residents of theneighborhood he patrolled.

(C) Detectives on the police force on which Carlserves are provided with extensive resources,including the use of a large computerdatabase, to help them solve crimes.

(D) Carl was previously a detective in a policedepartment in another city, and in the 4 yearshe spent there, he solved only 1 out of 30crimes.

(E) Many of the officers in the police departmentin which Carl serves were hired or promotedwithin the last 5 years.

2. It is well documented that people have positiveresponses to some words, such as kind andwonderful, and negative responses to others, suchas evil and nausea. Recently, psychologicalexperiments have revealed that people also havepositive or negative responses to many nonsensewords. This shows that peoples responses to wordsare conditioned not only by what the words mean,but also by how they sound.

The claim that people have positive or negativeresponses to many nonsense words plays which oneof the following roles in the argument?

(A) It is a premise offered in support of theconclusion that people have either a positiveor a negative response to any word.

(B) It is a conclusion for which the only supportprovided is the claim that peoples responsesto words are conditioned both by what thewords mean and by how they sound.

(C) It is a generalization partially supported by theclaim that meaningful words can triggerpositive or negative responses in people.

(D) It is a premise offered in support of theconclusion that peoples responses to wordsare engendered not only by what the wordsmean, but also by how they sound.

(E) It is a conclusion supported by the claim thatpeoples responses under experimentalconditions are essentially different from theirresponses in ordinary situations.

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22SECTION II

Time35 minutes

26 Questions

Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. For somequestions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; thatis, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. You should not make assumptions that are bycommonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have chosen the best answer,blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

2-7-23. People with high blood pressure are generally more

nervous and anxious than are people who do not havehigh blood pressure. This fact shows that thisparticular combination of personality traitsthe so-called hypertensive personalityis likely to cause aperson with these traits to develop high blood pressure.

The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable tocriticism on the ground that the argument

(A) fails to define the term hypertensivepersonality

(B) presupposes that people have permanentpersonality traits

(C) simply restates the claim that there is ahypertensive personality without providingevidence to support that claim

(D) takes a correlation between personality traitsand high blood pressure as proof that thetraits cause high blood pressure

(E) focuses on nervousness and anxiety only,ignoring other personality traits that peoplewith high blood pressure might have

4. In his book, published in 1892, Grey used the samemetaphor that Jordan used in her book, which waspublished in 1885. The metaphor is so unusual thatthere is little chance that two different peopleindependently created it. Therefore, it is highly likelythat Grey read Jordans book.

Which one of the following, if true, most weakens theargument?

(A) A text that was probably known to both Jordanand Grey was published in 1860 and alsocontained the same unusual metaphor.

(B) The passage in Greys book that employs theunusual metaphor expresses an idea thatbears little relation to any ideas expressed inJordans book.

(C) Both Greys book and Jordans book werewritten for the same audience.

(D) Jordan used the same metaphor in a work thatshe wrote in 1894 and published in 1895.

(E) According to most scholars, Grey was generallya more inventive writer than Jordan anddeveloped many original metaphors.

5. Medical specialists report that patients with backmuscle injuries who receive a combination of drugsand physical therapy do only as well as those whoreceive physical therapy alone. Yet the specialists statethat drugs are a necessary part of the treatment of allpatients who receive them for back muscle injuries.

Which one of the following, if true, most helps toreconcile the medical specialists two claims?

(A) Medical specialists treat all patients who haveserious back muscle injuries with eitherphysical therapy alone or a combination ofdrugs and physical therapy.

(B) Medical specialists who prescribe thesetreatments make accurate judgments aboutwho needs both drugs and physical therapyand who needs physical therapy alone.

(C) Some back muscle injuries have beencompletely healed by a combination of drugsand physical therapy.

(D) Some back muscle injuries that have beenaggravated by improper attempts at physicaltherapy, such as home massage, have beensuccessfully treated with drugs.

(E) Patients with injuries to other muscles showmore improvement when treated with bothdrugs and physical therapy than when treatedwith physical therapy alone.

6. Commentator: In many countries the influence offringe movements is increasing. The greatcentrifugal engine of modern culture turnsfaster and faster, spinning off fashions,ideologies, religions, artistic movements,economic theories, cults, and dogmas infabulous profusion. Hence, modern culturethreatens the national identities that now existin the world.

Which one of the following statements, if true, mostseriously weakens the commentators argument?

(A) New national identities are often forged out ofconflicts among diverse groups.

(B) A stable national identity is typically acomposite of a staggering number ofsubcultures.

(C) The rate of cultural change in most countrieswill soon change drastically.

(D) It is preferable to have a pluralistic rather thana monolithic national culture.

(E) A culture with a solidified national identitytends to have more social problems than onewithout such an identity.

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22

2 -8- 27. Packaging is vital to a products commercial success.

For example, the maker of a popular drink introduceda new, improved version which succeeded in blindtaste tests. However, customers did not buy theproduct when marketed, mainly because the can,almost identical to that used for the earlier version ofthe beverage, made consumers expect that the newproduct would share certain features of the old, anexpectation not satisfied by the new product.

Which one of the following is most stronglysupported by the information above?

(A) Proper product packaging is more importantthan the quality of the product.

(B) Products generally succeed in the market ifthey are packaged in a manner that accuratelyreflects their nature.

(C) Changing the packaging of a product will notimprove the products sales unless theproduct is also changed.

(D) To succeed in the market, a new productshould not be packaged in a way that createsexpectations that it does not meet.

(E) An improved version of an existing productwill sell better than the earlier version unlessthe improved version is packaged like theearlier one.

8. Larew: People in the lowest income quintile had amuch higher percentage increase in averageincome over the last ten years than did those inthe highest quintile. So their economic prosperityincreased relative to the highest quintiles.

Mendota: I disagree. The average income for thelowest quintile may have increased by a greaterpercentage, but the absolute amount of theincrease in average income was surely greaterfor the highest quintile.

Larew and Mendota disagree about whether

(A) change in the economic prosperity of thelowest income quintile relative to the highestis accurately measured by comparing theirpercentage changes in average income

(B) change in the economic prosperity of thelowest income quintile is more accuratelymeasured in terms relative to the highestincome quintile than in terms relative only tothe lowest income quintile

(C) changes in the average income of people in thelowest quintile should ever be compared tochanges in the average income of people inthe highest quintile

(D) there were any improvements at all in theeconomic situation of those in the lowestincome quintile during the ten years beingconsidered

(E) the average income of people in the lowestquintile increased by a greater percentageover the last decade than did that of people inthe highest quintile

9. Challenge can be an important source of self-knowledge, since those who pay attention to how theyreact, both emotionally and physically, to challenge cangain useful insights into their own weaknesses.

Which one of the following most closely conforms tothe principle above?

(A) A concert pianist should not have an entirelynegative view of a memory lapse during adifficult performance. By understanding whythe memory lapse occurred, the pianist canbetter prepare for future performances.

(B) A salesperson should understand that thecommission earned is not the only reward ofmaking a sale. Salespeople should also takesatisfaction from the fact that successful salesreflect well on their personalities.

(C) Compassion is valuable not only for thewonderful feelings it brings, but also for theopportunities it affords to enrich the lives ofother people.

(D) While some of the value of competition comesfrom the pleasure of winning, the primaryreward of competition is competition itself.

(E) Even people who dread public speaking shouldaccept invitations to speak before large groups.People will admire their courage and they willexperience the fulfillment of having attemptedsomething that is difficult for them.

10. In some countries, national planners have attempted toaddress the problems resulting from increasingurbanization by reducing migration from rural areas.But some economists have suggested an alternativeapproach. These economists assert that planners couldsolve these problems effectively by trading goods orservices produced by a predominantly urbanpopulation in order to obtain the agricultural productsthat were previously produced domestically.

Which one of the following, if true, would providethe most support for the economists assertion?

(A) Government subsidies to urban manufacturerscan ease the problems caused by the migrationof people from rural to urban areas.

(B) All problems that have economic causes musthave economic solutions.

(C) A scarcity of agricultural products is a centralelement of many problems created byurbanization.

(D) Problems associated with migration to citiesfrom rural areas are primarily due to tradeimbalances between countries.

(E) Free trade policies can exacerbate theproblems caused by increasing urbanization.

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2-9-211. Inez: The book we are reading, The Nature of

Matter, is mistitled. A title should summarizethe content of the whole book, but nearly halfof this book is devoted to discussing adifferent, albeit closely related subject: energy.

Antonio: I do not think that the author erred;according to modern physics, matter andenergy are two facets of the samephenomenon.

Which one of the following is most stronglysupported by the conversation above?

(A) Inez believes that the book should be calledThe Nature of Energy.

(B) Antonio believes that there are no differencesbetween matter and energy.

(C) Inez and Antonio disagree on whether matterand energy are related.

(D) Inez and Antonio disagree about the overallvalue of the book.

(E) Inez believes that the books title should notmention matter without mentioning energy.

12. Politician: Those economists who claim thatconsumer price increases have averaged lessthan 3 percent over the last year are mistaken.They clearly have not shopped anywhererecently. Gasoline is up 10 percent over the lastyear; my auto insurance, 12 percent;newspapers, 15 percent; propane, 13 percent;bread, 50 percent.

The reasoning in the politicians argument is mostvulnerable to criticism on the grounds that theargument

(A) impugns the character of the economistsrather than addressing their arguments

(B) fails to show that the economists mentionedare not experts in the area of consumer prices

(C) mistakenly infers that something is not truefrom the claim that it has not been shown tobe so

(D) uses evidence drawn from a small sample thatmay well be unrepresentative

(E) attempts to persuade by making an emotionalappeal

13. Sherrie: Scientists now agree that nicotine in tobaccois addictive inasmuch as smokers who try tostop smoking suffer withdrawal symptoms. Forthis reason alone, tobacco should be treated thesame way as other dangerous drugs.Governments worldwide have a duty to restrictthe manufacture and sale of tobacco.

Fran: By your own admission, addictive is broadenough to include other commonly consumedproducts, such as coffee and soft drinks containingcaffeine. But of course the manufacture and sale ofthese products should not be restricted.

The dialogue above lends the most support to theclaim that Sherrie and Fran disagree with each otherabout which one of the following statements?

(A) The manufacture and sale of all drugs shouldbe regulated by governments.

(B) Coffee and soft drinks that contain caffeineshould not be regulated by governments.

(C) Agreement by scientists that a substance isaddictive justifies government restrictions onproducts containing that substance.

(D) Scientists are not proper authorities withrespect to the question of whether a givensubstance is addictive.

(E) Scientists and governments have a duty tocooperate in regulating drugs to protect thepublic health.

14. In 1963, a young macaque monkey was observedventuring into a hot spring to retrieve food which hadfallen in. Soon, other macaques began to enter thespring, and over a few years this behavior was adoptedby the entire troop. Prior to 1963, no macaques hadever been observed in the hot spring; by 1990, thetroop was regularly spending time there during thewinters. Thus, these macaques are able to adopt andpass on new patterns of social behavior, and are notcomplete captives of their genetic heritage.

Which one of the following is an assumptionrequired by the argument above?

(A) Mutations in the genetic heritage of a certainvariety of macaques can occur over a timespan as short as a few years or decades.

(B) New patterns of behavior that emerge inmacaque populations over the course of a fewyears or decades are not necessarilygenetically predetermined.

(C) Only when behaviors become typical amongan animal population can we conclude that agenetic alteration has occurred in that varietyor species.

(D) The social behaviors of macaques are completelyindependent of their genetic heritage.

(E) The macaques new pattern of behavior willpersist over several generations.

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22

2 -10- 215. Technological innovation rarely serves the interests of

society as a whole. This can be seen from the fact thatthose responsible for technological advances arealmost without exception motivated by considerationsof personal gain rather than societal benefit in thatthey strive to develop commercially viable technology.

The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on thegrounds that it

(A) contains a premise that cannot possibly be true(B) takes for granted that technology beneficial to

society as a whole cannot be commerciallyviable

(C) fails to consider the possibility that actionsmotivated by a desire for personal gain oftendo not result in personal gain

(D) takes for granted that an action is unlikely toproduce a certain outcome unless it ismotivated by a desire to produce that outcome

(E) draws a conclusion about the practicalconsequences of peoples actions on the basisof theoretical views about what people shouldor should not do

16. There are two kinds of horror stories: those thatdescribe a mad scientists experiments and those thatdescribe a monstrous beast. In some horror storiesabout monstrous beasts, the monster symbolizes apsychological disturbance in the protagonist. Horrorstories about mad scientists, on the other hand,typically express the authors feeling that scientificknowledge alone is not enough to guide humanendeavor. However, despite these differences, bothkinds of horror stories share two features: theydescribe violations of the laws of nature and they areintended to produce dread in the reader.

If the statements above are true, which one of thefollowing would also have to be true?

(A) All descriptions of monstrous beasts describeviolations of the laws of nature.

(B) Any story that describes a violation of a law ofnature is intended to invoke dread in thereader.

(C) Horror stories of any kind usually describecharacters who are psychologically disturbed.

(D) Most stories about mad scientists express theauthors antiscientific views.

(E) Some stories that employ symbolism describeviolations of the laws of nature.

17. Politician: Some of my opponents have argued ontheoretical grounds in favor of reducing socialspending. Instead of arguing that there isexcessive public expenditure on socialprograms, my opponents should focus on themain cause of deficit spending: the fact thatgovernment is bloated with bureaucrats andself-aggrandizing politicians. It is unwarranted,therefore, to reduce social expenditure.

A reasoning flaw in the politicians argument is thatthe argument

(A) does not address the arguments advanced bythe politicians opponents

(B) makes an attack on the character of opponents(C) takes for granted that deficit spending has just

one cause(D) portrays opponents views as more extreme

than they really are(E) fails to make clear what counts as excessive

spending

18. While it is true that bees vision is well suited to thetask of identifying flowers by their colors, it isprobable that flowers developed in response to thetype of vision that bees have, rather than bees visiondeveloping in response to flower color.

Which one of the following, if true, most stronglysupports the statement above?

(A) Many insects that have vision very similar tothat of bees do not depend on perceiving anobjects color.

(B) Some flowers rely on insects other than bees.(C) The number of different species of flowers is

greater than the number of different speciesof bees.

(D) Many nonflowering plants rely on bees.(E) Present-day bees rely exclusively on flowers for

their food.

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22

2-11-219. Professor: It has been argued that freedom of

thought is a precondition for intellectualprogress, because freedom of thought allowsthinkers to pursue their ideas, regardless ofwhom these ideas offend, in whatever directionthey lead. However, it is clear that one mustmine the full implications of interrelated ideasto make intellectual progress, and for this,thinkers need intellectual discipline. Therefore,this argument for freedom of thought fails.

The conclusion drawn by the professor followslogically if which one of the following is assumed?

(A) Thinkers who limit their line of thought to aparticular orthodoxy are hindered in theirintellectual progress.

(B) Thinkers can mine the full implications ofinterrelated ideas only in the context of asociety that values intellectual progress.

(C) In societies that protect freedom of thought,thinkers invariably lack intellectual discipline.

(D) Freedom of thought engenders creativity,which aids the discovery of truth.

(E) Without intellectual discipline, thinkers canhave no freedom of thought.

20. People who have specialized knowledge about ascientific or technical issue are systematicallyexcluded from juries for trials where that issue isrelevant. Thus, trial by jury is not a fair means ofsettling disputes involving such issues.

Which one of the following, if true, most seriouslyweakens the argument?

(A) The more complicated the issue beinglitigated, the less likely it is that a jurorwithout specialized knowledge of the fieldinvolved will be able to comprehend thetestimony being given.

(B) The more a juror knows about a particularscientific or technical issue involved in a trial,the more likely it is that the juror will beprejudiced in favor of one of the litigatingparties before the trial begins.

(C) Appointing an impartial arbitrator is not a fairmeans of settling disputes involving scientificor technical issues, because arbitrators tend tofavor settlements in which both partiescompromise on the issues.

(D) Experts who give testimony on scientific ortechnical issues tend to hedge their conclusionsby discussing the possibility of error.

(E) Expert witnesses in specialized fields oftencommand fees that are so high that manypeople involved in litigation cannot affordtheir services.

21. If one has evidence that an act will benefit otherpeople and performs that act to benefit them, thenone will generally succeed in benefiting them.

Which one of the following best illustrates theproposition above?

(A) A countrys leaders realized that fosteringdiplomatic ties with antagonistic nationsreduces the chances of war with thosenations. Because those leaders worried thatwar would harm their chances of beingreelected, they engaged in diplomaticdiscussions with a hostile country, and thetwo countries avoided a confrontation.

(B) A government study concluded that aproposed bureaucratic procedure would allowpeople to register their cars without waitingin line. The government adopted theprocedure for this reason, and, as with mostbureaucratic procedures, it was not successful.

(C) Betsy overheard a heating contractor say thatregularly changing the filter in a furnace helpsto keep the furnace efficient. So Betsy hasregularly changed the furnace filter in herdaughters house. As a result, the furnace hasnever required maintenance due to becomingclogged with dust or dirt.

(D) Sejal learned in a psychology class that the bestway to help someone overcome an addictionis to confront that person. So she confrontedher friend Bob, who was struggling with achemical dependency.

(E) Zachary hoped that psychotherapy could helphis parents overcome their maritaldifficulties. He persuaded his parents to call apsychotherapist, and eventually theirproblems were resolved.

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22

2 -12- 222. Radio airplay restrictions are nationally imposed

regulations. The City Club has compiled a guide toall nationally imposed regulations except thoserelated to taxation or to labor law. Radio airplayrestrictions are related neither to taxation nor tolabor law, so the City Clubs guide covers radioairplay restrictions.

Which one of the following exhibits a pattern ofreasoning most similar to that exhibited by theargument above?

(A) All prepackaged desserts pose a risk of toothdecay. The Nutrition Foundationrecommends avoiding all prepackageddesserts that are not high in vitamins orprotein. Many prepackaged snack foods arelow in vitamins or protein, so the NutritionFoundation recommends avoidingprepackaged snack foods as well.

(B) Coreopsis is a perennial. The Garden Clubawards a prize each year for each perennialexcept those that are shrubs or not native toNorth America. Coreopsis is native to NorthAmerica and is not a shrub. So the GardenClub awards a prize each year for coreopsis.

(C) The Windsor Coalition is an example of acommunity organizing to discourageoverdevelopment. The NeighborhoodAssociation is in favor of this sort ofcommunity organizing, except when it poses athreat to regional economic growth.Therefore, the Neighborhood Association isin favor of the Windsor Coalition.

(D) Compact discs are a kind of data storagedevice. Leotol Corporation does not producedata storage devices that use analog storagemethods. Compact discs do not use analogstorage methods, so it follows that LeotolCorporation produces compact discs.

(E) Traffic laws are a type of governmentregulation. The association supports trafficlaws that are in the public interest, even ifthey have not been shown to reduce theaccident rate. Thus, the association shouldsupport all government regulations that arein the public interest.

23. Physics professor: Some scientists claim thatsuperheated plasma in which electricalresistance fails is a factor in causing so-calledball lightning. If this were so, then suchlightning would emit intense light and, sinceplasma has gaslike properties, would rise in theair. However, the instances of ball lightning thatI observed were of low intensity and floatedhorizontally before vanishing. Thus, superheatedplasma with failed electrical resistance is never afactor in causing ball lightning.

The physics professors conclusion follows logically ifwhich one of the following is assumed?

(A) Superheated plasma in which electricalresistance fails does not cause types oflightning other than ball lightning.

(B) The phenomena observed by the physicsprofessor were each observed by at least oneother person.

(C) Ball lightning can occur as the result of severaldifferent factors.

(D) Superheating of gaslike substances causesbright light to be emitted.

(E) All types of ball lightning have the same cause.

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22

2-13-224. Advertisement: Our oat bran cereal is the only one

that has printed right on its package all of itsclaimed health benefits. And really health-conscious consumers have demonstrated thatthese health claims are true by buying ourcereal since they would not have bought ourcereal unless the claims were true. How do weknow these consumers are really health-conscious? No really health-consciousconsumer would buy food in a package thatdid not have accurate information about thefoods health benefits printed on it.

Which one of the following employs a flawedargumentative strategy that is most closely parallel tothe flawed argumentative strategy in theadvertisement above?

(A) Greeting ones coworkers must be a politething to do, because people who areconsidered polite always greet theircoworkers. The proof that these people reallyare polite is that they are consistently polite intheir daily lives.

(B) This card game must be intellectuallychallenging, because it is played by highlyintelligent people, who play only intellectuallychallenging card games. In fact, these playersintelligence is demonstrated by the fact thatthey play this game.

(C) When coffee is being chosen, Brand Z is thecoffee chosen by people with highlydeveloped taste in coffee. These peopleshowed their highly developed taste in coffeeby correctly distinguishing eight brands ofcoffee from each other in a taste test.

(D) That jacket must have been made for a veryshort person, because only very short peoplewere able to fit into it. We know that theywere very short because we saw them beforethey tried on the jacket.

(E) This painting is a poor imitation, because onlypeople with poor eyesight mistook it for theoriginal. That these people have poor eyesightis demonstrated by the fact that they alsomistook a vase of flowers in the painting for apeacock.

25. A study of 86 patients, all of whom suffered fromdisease T and received the same standard medicaltreatment, divided the patients into 2 equal groups.One groups members all attended weekly supportgroup meetings, but no one from the other groupattended support group meetings. After 10 years, 41patients from each group had died. Clearly, supportgroup meetings do not help patients with disease Tlive longer.

Which one of the following statements, if true, mostseriously weakens the argument?

(A) Of the 4 patients who survived more than 10years, the 2 who had attended weekly supportgroup meetings lived longer than the 2 whohad not.

(B) For many diseases, attending weekly supportgroup meetings is part of the standardmedical treatment.

(C) The members of the group that attended weeklysupport group meetings lived 2 years longer, onaverage, than the members of the other group.

(D) Some physicians have argued that attendingweekly support group meetings gives patientsless faith in the standard treatment for disease T.

(E) Everyone in the group whose membersattended weekly support group meetingsreported after 1 year that those meetings hadhelped them to cope with the disease.

26. Astronomer: I have asserted that our solar systemdoes not contain enough meteoroids and othercosmic debris to have caused the extensivecratering on the far side of the moon. Myopponents have repeatedly failed todemonstrate the falsity of this thesis. Theirevidence is simply inconclusive; thus theyshould admit that my thesis is correct.

The reasoning in the astronomers argument isflawed because this argument

(A) criticizes the astronomers opponents ratherthan their arguments

(B) infers the truth of the astronomers thesis fromthe mere claim that it has not been proven false

(C) ignores the possibility that alternativeexplanations may exist for the cratering

(D) presumes that the astronomers thesis shouldnot be subject to rational discussion andcriticism

(E) fails to precisely define the key wordmeteoroids

22

S T O PIF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, YOU MAY CHECK YOUR WORK ON THIS SECTION ONLY.

DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST.

33 -14-

Most of what has been written about ThurgoodMarshall, a former United States Supreme Court justicewho served from 1967 to 1991, has just focused on hisjudicial record and on the ideological content of hisearlier achievements as a lawyer pursuing civil rightsissues in the courts. But when Marshalls career isviewed from a technical perspective, his work with theNAACP (National Association for the Advancement ofColored People) reveals a strategic and methodologicallegacy to the field of public interest law. Though theNAACP, under Marshalls direction, was not the firstlegal organization in the U.S. to be driven by a politicaland social agenda, he and the NAACP developedinnovations that forever changed the landscape ofpublic interest law: during the 1940s and 1950s, intheir campaign against state-sanctioned racialsegregation, Marshall and the NAACP, instead ofsimply pursuing cases as the opportunity arose, set up apredetermined legal campaign that was meticulouslycrafted and carefully coordinated.

One aspect of this campaign, the test case strategy,involved sponsoring litigation of tactically chosencases at the trial court level with careful evaluation ofthe precedential nuances and potential impact of eachdecision. This allowed Marshall to try out differentapproaches and discover which was the best to be used.An essential element in the success of this tactic wasthe explicit recognition that in a public interest legalcampaign, choosing the right plaintiff can mean thedifference between success and failure. Marshallcarefully selected cases with sympathetic litigants,whose public appeal, credibility, and commitment tothe NAACPs goals were unsurpassed.

In addition, Marshall used sociological andpsychological statisticspresented in expert testimony,for example, about the psychological impact ofenforced segregationas a means of transformingconstitutional law by persuading the courts that certaindiscriminatory laws produced public harms in violationof constitutional principles. This tactic, while ofteneffective, has been criticized by some legal scholars asa pragmatic attempt to give judges nonlegal materialwith which to fill gaps in their justifications fordecisions where the purely legal principles appearinconclusive.

Since the time of Marshalls work with theNAACP, the number of public interest law firms in theU.S. has grown substantially, and they have widelyadopted his combination of strategies for litigation,

devoting them to various public purposes. Thesestrategies have been used, for example, in consumeradvocacy campaigns and, more recently, by politicallyconservative public interest lawyers seeking to achieve,through litigation, changes in the law that they have notbeen able to accomplish in the legislature. If we focuson the particular content of Marshalls goals andsuccesses, it might seem surprising that his work hasinfluenced the quest for such divergent politicalobjectives, but the techniques that he honedoriginally considered to be a radical departure fromaccepted conventionshave become the norm for U.S.public interest litigation today.

1. Which one of the following most accurately expressesthe main point of the passage?

(A) In his role as a lawyer for the NAACP, Marshalldeveloped a number of strategies forlitigation which, while often controversial,proved to be highly successful in arguingagainst certain discriminatory laws.

(B) The litigation strategies that Marshall devised inpursuit of the NAACPs civil rights goals duringthe 1940s and 1950s constituted significantinnovations that have since been adopted asstandard tactics for public interest lawyers.

(C) Although commentary on Marshall has oftenfocused only on a single ideological aspect ofhis accomplishments, a reinvestigation of hisrecord as a judge reveals its influence oncurrent divergent political objectives.

(D) In his work with the NAACP during the 1940sand 1950s, Marshall adopted a set of tacticsthat were previously considered a radicaldeparture from accepted practice, but which headapted in such a way that they eventuallybecame accepted conventions in the field of law.

(E) Contrary to the impression commonly givenby commentary on Marshall, hiscontributions to the work of the NAACP havehad more of a lasting impact than hisachievements as a U.S. Supreme Court justice.

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33 3SECTION III

Time35 minutes

26 Questions

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated orimplied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However,you are to choose the best answer; that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blackenthe corresponding space on your answer sheet.

(5)

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3-15-32. Which one of the following most accurately describes

two main functions of the first sentence of the passage?

(A) It disputes a claim that has often been acceptedand summarizes Marshalls achievements.

(B) It establishes the passages main topic andindicates the controversial nature ofMarshalls ideologies.

(C) It introduces two aspects of Marshalls careerand outlines the historical significance of both.

(D) It identifies Marshalls better-knownachievements and suggests that commentaryhas neglected certain other achievements.

(E) It provides a new perspective on Marshallsachievements and corrects a historicalinaccuracy.

3. Which one of the following pairs of tactics used byan environmental-advocacy public interest law firmis most closely analogous to the strategies thatMarshall utilized during his work with the NAACP?

(A) a decision to pursue a pollution case based onits potential legal implications for a large classof related cases; and testimony by a notedmedical authority whose data support theclaim that the pollution in question causeswidespread medical problems

(B) acceptance of a pollution case based on thepractical urgency of its expected impact on theenvironment if a ruling in favor of the plaintiffis rendered; and assignment of the case to themost widely known members of the firm

(C) preference for pursuing a series of cases thatare to be tried in courts having a record ofdecisions that are favorable to environmentalinterests; and taking these cases to judges whostrictly uphold constitutional principles

(D) acceptance of a pollution damage case basedprimarily on the potential plaintiff s needs;and careful orchestration of pretrial publicitydesigned to acquaint the public with therelevant issues

(E) thorough and painstaking research ofprecedents relating to a current pollutioncase; and consultations with lawyers for thedefense regarding a pretrial settlement

4. It can be most reasonably inferred from the passagethat the author views the test case strategy developedby Marshall as

(A) arbitrary(B) inflexible(C) unprecedented(D) necessary(E) subjective

5. The passage provides the most support for which oneof the following statements?

(A) The ideological motivations for Marshallswork with the NAACP changed during histenure on the U.S. Supreme Court.

(B) Marshall declined to pursue some cases thatwere in keeping with the NAACPs goals butwhose plaintiffs likely impression on thepublic he deemed to be unfavorable.

(C) Marshalls tactics were initially opposed bysome other members of the NAACP whofavored a more traditional approach.

(D) Marshall relied more on expert testimony inlower courts, whose judges were more likelythan higher court judges to give weight tostatistical evidence.

(E) Marshalls colleagues at the NAACPsubsequently revised his methods and extendedtheir applications to areas of law and politicsbeyond those for which they were designed.

6. Based on the passage, it can be most reasonablyinferred that the author would agree with which oneof the following statements?

(A) In light of a reconsideration of Marshallscareer, it seems that commentary hasundervalued both his innovations inlitigation strategy and his accomplishmentson the U.S. Supreme Court.

(B) The most controversial of Marshalls methodswas, somewhat paradoxically, the mostunequivocally successful part of his overallcampaign with the NAACP.

(C) Lawyers representing private interests hadpreviously used sociological evidence in courtcases.

(D) In response to Marshalls successes in NAACPlitigations, the first public interest law firmswere established, and they represented a radicalchange from previous types of U.S. law firms.

(E) Marshalls techniques lend themselves to beingused even for purposes that Marshall mightnot have intended.

7. According to the passage, some legal scholars havecriticized which one of the following?

(A) the ideology Marshall used to support his goals(B) recent public interest campaigns(C) the use of Marshalls techniques by politically

conservative lawyers(D) the use of psychological statistics in court cases(E) the set of criteria for selecting public interest

litigants

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33 3

33 -16-The painter Roy Lichtenstein helped to define pop

artthe movement that incorporated commonplaceobjects and commercial-art techniques into paintingsby paraphrasing the style of comic books in his work.His merger of a popular genre with the forms andintentions of fine art generated a complex result: whilepoking fun at the pretensions of the art world,Lichtensteins work also managed to convey aseriousness of theme that enabled it to transcend mereparody.

That Lichtensteins images were fine art was atfirst difficult to see, because, with their word balloonsand highly stylized figures, they looked like nothingmore than the comic book panels from which they werecopied. Standard art history holds that pop art emergedas an impersonal alternative to the histrionics ofabstract expressionism, a movement in which paintersconveyed their private attitudes and emotions usingnonrepresentational techniques. The truth is that by thetime pop art first appeared in the early 1960s, abstractexpressionism had already lost much of its force. Popart painters werent quarreling with the powerful earlyabstract expressionist work of the late 1940s but with asecond generation of abstract expressionists whosework seemed airy, high-minded, and overly lyrical.Pop art paintings were full of simple black lines andlarge areas of primary color. Lichtensteins work waspart of a general rebellion against the fading emotionalpower of abstract expressionism, rather than an aloofattempt to ignore it.

But if rebellion against previous art by means ofthe careful imitation of a popular genre were all thatcharacterized Lichtensteins work, it would possessonly the reflective power that parodies have in relationto their subjects. Beneath its cartoonish methods, hiswork displayed an impulse toward realism, an urge tosay that what was missing from contemporary paintingwas the depiction of contemporary life. The stiltedromances and war stories portrayed in the comic bookson which he based his canvases, the stylizedautomobiles, hot dogs, and table lamps that appeared inhis pictures, were reflections of the culture Lichtensteininhabited. But, in contrast to some pop art,Lichtensteins work exuded not a jaded cynicism aboutconsumer culture, but a kind of deliberate naivete,intended as a response to the excess of sophisticationhe observed not only in the later abstract expressionistsbut in some other pop artists. With the comicstypically the domain of youth and innocenceas hisreference point, a nostalgia fills his paintings that givesthem, for all their surface bravado, an inner sweetness.His persistent use of comic-art conventionsdemonstrates a faith in reconciliation, not only betweencartoons and fine art, but between parody and truefeeling.

8. Which one of the following most accurately states themain point of the passage?

(A) Lichtensteins use of comic book elements inhis paintings, considered simply a parodicreaction to the high-mindedness of laterabstract expressionism, is also an attempt tore-create the emotionally powerful work ofearlier abstract expressionists.

(B) Lichtensteins use of comic book elements isnot solely a parodic reaction to the high-mindedness of later abstract expressionismbut also demonstrates an attempt to achieverealistic and nostalgic effects simultaneouslyin his paintings.

(C) Lichtensteins use of comic book elementsobscures the emotional complexity containedin his paintings, a situation that hasprevented his work from being recognized asfine art in the expressionist tradition.

(D) Lichtensteins use of comic book elementsappears to mark his paintings as parodicreactions to the whole of abstractexpressionism when they are instead arebellion against the high-mindedness of thelater abstract expressionists.

(E) Lichtensteins use of comic book elements inhis paintings, though a response to theexcessive sophistication of the art world, isitself highly sophisticated in that it managesto reconcile pop art and fine art.

9. Which one of the following best captures the authorsattitude toward Lichtensteins work?

(A) enthusiasm for its more rebellious aspects(B) respect for its successful parody of youth and

innocence(C) pleasure in its blatant rejection of abstract

expressionism(D) admiration for its subtle critique of

contemporary culture(E) appreciation for its ability to incorporate both

realism and naivete

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33 3

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3-17-310. The author most likely lists some of the themes and

objects influencing and appearing in Lichtensteinspaintings (lines 3843) primarily to

(A) show that the paintings depict aspects ofcontemporary life

(B) support the claim that Lichtensteins work wasparodic in intent

(C) contrast Lichtensteins approach to art withthat of abstract expressionism

(D) suggest the emotions that lie at the heart ofLichtensteins work

(E) endorse Lichtensteins attitude towardconsumer culture

11. Based on the passage, which one of the followingwould be an example of pop art that is most inkeeping with the spirit of Lichtensteins work?

(A) a painting that uses realistic techniques torepresent several simple objects arranged on atable

(B) a painting that parodies human figures bydepicting them as stick figures

(C) a painting that conveys its creators innerturmoil through the use of bold lines andprimary colors

(D) a painting that employs vague shapes andimages to make a statement about consumerculture

(E) a painting that depicts products as they appearin magazine advertisements to comment onsocietys values

12. Which one of the following, if true, would mostchallenge the authors characterization ofLichtenstein?

(A) Lichtenstein frequently attended exhibitions byabstract expressionist painters in the 1960s.

(B) Lichtenstein praised a contemporary abstractexpressionist in the 1960s for producing anatypically emotional painting.

(C) Lichtenstein praised an early abstractexpressionist for producing emotionalpaintings.

(D) Lichtenstein criticized a pop artist in the 1960sfor producing emotional paintings.

(E) Lichtenstein criticized a pop artist in the 1960sfor producing paintings void of emotion.

13. The primary purpose of the passage is most likely to

(A) express curiosity about an artists work(B) clarify the motivation behind an artists work(C) contrast two opposing theories about an

artists work(D) describe the evolution of an artists work(E) refute a previous overestimation of an artists

work

14. Based on the passage, which one of the followingdoes the author appear to believe about therebellious aspect of Lichtensteins work?

(A) It was directed less against abstractexpressionism exclusively than against overlysophisticated art.

(B) It was directed less against later abstractexpressionism than against commercial art.

(C) It was directed less against later abstractexpressionism exclusively than againstabstract expressionism in general.

(D) It was an objection to the consumerism of theculture.

(E) It was an objection to the simplicity of line andcolor used by pop artists.

15. Based on the passage, which one of the following canmost reasonably be inferred about abstractexpressionism?

(A) Over time, it moved from abstraction to realism.(B) Over time, it moved from intensity to lyricism.(C) Over time, it moved from intellectualism to

emotionalism.(D) Over time, it moved from obscurity to clarity.(E) Over time, it moved from density to sparseness.

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33 3

33 -18-Because the market system enables entrepreneurs

and investors who develop new technology to reapfinancial rewards from their risk of capital, it may seemthat the primary result of this activity is that somepeople who have spare capital accumulate more. But inspite of the fact that the profits derived from varioustechnological developments have accrued to relativelyfew people, the developments themselves have servedoverall as a remarkable democratizing force. In fact,under the regime of the market, the gap in benefitsaccruing to different groups of people has beennarrowed in the long term.

This tendency can be seen in various well-knowntechnological developments. For example, before theprinting press was introduced centuries ago, few peoplehad access to written materials, much less to scribesand private secretaries to produce and transcribedocuments. Since printed materials have becomewidely available, however, people without specialposition or resourcesand in numbers once thoughtimpossiblecan take literacy and the use of printedtexts for granted. With the distribution of books andperiodicals in public libraries, this process has beenextended to the point where people in general can haveessentially equal access to a vast range of texts thatwould once have been available only to a very few. Amore recent technological development extends thisprocess beyond printed documents. A child in schoolwith access to a personal computer and modemwhich is becoming fairly common in technologicallyadvanced societieshas computing power anddatabase access equal to that of the best-connectedscientists and engineers at top-level labs of just fifteenyears ago, a time when relatively few people hadpersonal access to any computing power. Or considerthe uses of technology for leisure. In previous centuriesonly a few people with abundant resources had theability and time to hire professional entertainment, andto have contact through travel and writtencommunicationboth of which were prohibitivelyexpensivewith distant people. But now broadcasttechnology is widely available, and so almost anyonecan have an entertainment cornucopia unimagined inearlier times. Similarly, the development ofinexpensive mail distribution and telephoneconnections and, more recently, the establishment ofthe even more efficient medium of electronic mail havegreatly extended the power of distant communication.

This kind of gradual diffusion of benefits acrosssociety is not an accident of these particulartechnological developments, but rather the result of ageneral tendency of the market system. Entrepreneursand investors often are unable to maximize financialsuccess without expanding their market, and thisinvolves structuring their prices to the consumers so asto make their technologies genuinely accessible to anever-larger share of the population. In other words,because market competition drives prices down, ittends to diffuse access to new technology acrosssociety as a result.

16. Which one of the following does the passage identifyas being a result of a technological development?

(A) burgeoning scientific research(B) educational uses of broadcasting(C) widespread exchange of political ideas(D) faster means of travel(E) increased access to databases

17. As used in the passage, the word democratizing(line 9) most nearly means equalizing which one ofthe following?

(A) distribution of tangible and intangible goods(B) opportunity to create new technology(C) accumulation of financial assets in investments(D) participation in the regulation of society

through either public or private institutions(E) generally acknowledged social status in a

community

18. Which one of the following most accuratelyrepresents the primary function of the reference tomaximization of financial success (lines 5254)?

(A) It forms part of the authors summary of thebenefits that have resulted from thetechnological developments described in thepreceding paragraph.

(B) It serves as the authors logical conclusionfrom data presented in the precedingparagraph regarding the social consequencesof technological development.

(C) It forms part of a speculative hypothesis thatthe author presents for its interest in relationto the main topic rather than as part of anargument.

(D) It serves as part of a causal explanation thatreinforces the thesis in the first paragraphregarding the benefits of technologicaldevelopment.

(E) It forms part of the authors concession thatcertain factors complicate the argumentpresented in the first two paragraphs.

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33 3

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3-19-319. It can be most reasonably inferred from the passage

that the author would agree with which one of thefollowing statements?

(A) The profits derived from computer technologyhave accrued to fewer people than have theprofits derived from any other technologicaldevelopment.

(B) Often the desire of some people for profitsmotivates changes that are beneficial for largenumbers of other people.

(C) National boundaries are rarely barriers to thedemocratizing spread of technology.

(D) Typically, investment in technology is riskierthan many other sorts of investment.

(E) Greater geographical mobility of populationshas contributed to the profits ofentrepreneurs and investors in technology.

20. From the passage it can be most reasonably inferredthat the author would agree with which one of thefollowing statements?

(A) The democratizing influence of technologygenerally contributes to technologicalobsolescence.

(B) Wholly unregulated economies are probablythe fastest in producing an equalization ofsocial status.

(C) Expanded access to printed texts across apopulation has historically led to an increasein literacy in that population.

(D) The invention of the telephone has had agreater democratizing influence on societythan has the invention of the printing press.

(E) Near equality of financial assets among peopleis a realistic goal for market economies.

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33 3

33 -20-Neurobiologists once believed that the workings of

the brain were guided exclusively by electrical signals;according to this theory, communication betweenneurons (brain cells) is possible because electricalimpulses travel from one neuron to the next by literallyleaping across the synapses (gaps between neurons).But many neurobiologists puzzled over how thisleaping across synapses might be achieved, and asearly as 1904 some speculated that electrical impulsesare transmitted between neurons chemically rather thanelectrically. According to this alternative theory, theexcited neuron secretes a chemical called aneurotransmitter that binds with its correspondingreceptor molecule in the receiving neuron. This bindingof the neurotransmitter renders the neuron permeable toions, and as the ions move into the receiving neuronthey generate an electrical impulse that runs throughthe cell; the electrical impulse is thereby transmitted tothe receiving neuron.

This theory has gradually won acceptance in thescientific community, but for a long time little wasknown about the mechanism by whichneurotransmitters manage to render the receivingneuron permeable to ions. In fact, some scientistsremained skeptical of the theory because they hadtrouble imagining how the binding of a chemical to areceptor at the cell surface could influence the flow ofions through the cell membrane. Recently, however,researchers have gathered enough evidence for aconvincing explanation: that the structure of receptorsplays the pivotal role in mediating the conversion ofchemical signals into electrical activity.

The new evidence shows that receptors forneurotransmitters contain both a neurotransmitterbinding site and a separate region that functions as achannel for ions; attachment of the neurotransmitter tothe binding site causes the receptor to change shapeand so results in the opening of its channel component.Several types of receptors have been isolated thatconform to this structure, among them the receptors foracetylcholine, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA),glycine, and serotonin. These receptors display enoughsimilarities to constitute a family, known collectivelyas neurotransmitter-gated ion channels.

It has also been discovered that each of thereceptors in this family comes in several varieties sothat, for example, a GABA receptor in one part of thebrain has slightly different properties than a GABAreceptor in another part of the brain. This discovery ismedically significant because it raises the possibility ofthe highly selective treatment of certain braindisorders. As the precise effect on behavior of everyvariety of each neurotransmitter-gated ion channel isdeciphered, pharmacologists may be able to designdrugs targeted to specific receptors on definedcategories of neurons that will selectively impede orenhance these effects. Such drugs could potentiallyhelp ameliorate any number of debilitating conditions,including mood disorders, tissue damage associatedwith stroke, or Alzheimers disease.

21. Which one of the following most completely andaccurately states the main point of the passage?

(A) Evidence shows that the workings of the brainare guided, not by electrical signals, but bychemicals, and that subtle differences amongthe receptors for these chemicals may permitthe selective treatment of certain braindisorders.

(B) Evidence shows that the workings of the brainare guided, not by electrical signals, but bychemicals, and that enough similarities existamong these chemicals to allow scientists toclassify them as a family.

(C) Evidence shows that electrical impulses aretransmitted between neurons chemicallyrather than electrically, and that enoughsimilarities exist among these chemicals toallow scientists to classify them as a family.

(D) Evidence shows that electrical impulses aretransmitted between neurons chemicallyrather than electrically, and that subtledifferences among the receptors for thesechemicals may permit the selective treatmentof certain brain disorders.

(E) Evidence shows that receptor molecules in thebrain differ subtly from one another, and thatthese differences can be exploited to treatcertain brain disorders through the use ofdrugs that selectively affect particular parts ofthe brain.

22. Based on the passage, the authors attitude towardthe discovery presented in the last paragraph is mostaccurately described as

(A) certainty that its possible benefits will berealized

(B) optimism about its potential applications(C) apprehension about the possibility of its misuse(D) concern that its benefits are easily exaggerated(E) skepticism toward its assumptions about the

brain

23. Each of the following statements is affirmed by thepassage EXCEPT:

(A) The secretion of certain chemicals plays a rolein neuron communication.

(B) The flow of ions through neurons plays a rolein neuron communication.

(C) The binding of neurotransmitters to receptorsplays a role in neuron communication.

(D) The structure of receptors on neuron surfacesplays a role in neuron communication.

(E) The size of neurotransmitter binding sites onreceptors plays a role in neuroncommunication.

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33 3

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3-21-324. The author most likely uses the phrase defined

categories of neurons in lines 5556 in order to referto neurons that

(A) possess channels for ions(B) respond to drug treatment(C) contain receptor molecules(D) influence particular brain functions(E) react to binding by neurotransmitters

25. Which one of the following most accurately describesthe organization of the passage?

(A) explanation of a theory; presentation ofevidence in support of the theory;presentation of evidence in opposition to thetheory; argument in favor of rejecting thetheory; discussion of the implications ofrejecting the theory

(B) explanation of a theory; presentation ofevidence in support of the theory;explanation of an alternative theory;presentation of information to support thealternative theory; discussion of anexperiment that can help determine whichtheory is correct

(C) explanation of a theory; description of anobstacle to the theorys general acceptance;presentation of an explanation that helps thetheory overcome the obstacle; discussion of afurther implication of the theory

(D) explanation of a theory; description of anobstacle to the theorys general acceptance;argument that the obstacle is insurmountableand that the theory should be rejected;discussion of the implications of rejecting thetheory

(E) explanation of a theory; description of howthe theory came to win scientific acceptance;presentation of new information thatchallenges the theory; modification of thetheory to accommodate the new information;discussion of an implication of themodification

26. The primary purpose of the passage is most likely to

(A) propose a new theory about the workings ofthe brain

(B) introduce evidence that challenges a widelyaccepted theory about the workings of thebrain

(C) describe the approach scientists use whenstudying the workings of the brain

(D) discuss new support for a widely acceptedtheory about the workings of the brain

(E) illustrate the practical utility of scientificresearch into the workings of the brain

33 3

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DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST.

44 -22-

1. Many newborn babies have a yellowish tinge to theirskin because their blood contains a high level of thepigment bilirubin. One group of doctors treatsnewborns to reduce high levels of bilirubin, sincebilirubin, if it enters the brain, might cause thetetanus that sometimes occurs in newborns.However, a second group of doctors argues forallowing bilirubin levels in newborn babies to remainhigh, since the brains own natural defenses normallyprevent bilirubin from entering.

Which one of the following, if true, most helps tosupport the position of the second group of doctors?

(A) The treatment that most effectively reduceshigh levels of bilirubin in newborns has noknown negative side effects.

(B) Some diseases that occur in newborns canweaken the brains natural defenses and allowbilirubin to enter.

(C) In newborns the pigment bilirubin, like otherpigments, occurs not only in the blood butalso in fluids involved in digestion.

(D) Bilirubin neutralizes certain potentiallydamaging substances to which newborns areexposed at birth.

(E) Among doctors who recommend treatingnewborns to reduce high levels of bilirubin,there is general agreement about what levelsshould be considered excessively high.

2. Economist: Some sociologists argue that becausecapitalism intrinsically involves competition, itweakens the ties between the people of acommunity. Although this may formerly havebeen true, modern capitalism requires thatthere be large corporations. Thus, moderncapitalism promotes, rather than weakens,communal ties.

Which one of the following is an assumption onwhich the economists argument depends?

(A) Few economic systems are more successfulthan modern capitalism in fosteringcommunal ties between citizens.

(B) Modern capitalism is designed primarily todistribute goods and services, not to createcommunal ties between people.

(C) Corporations that compete with each othermust develop some ties to each other in orderto reach agreement on the rules of thecompetition.

(D) Having large corporations in a moderncapitalist system promotes the strength ofcommunal ties.

(E) An economic system that does not encouragelarge corporations will be less successfuleconomically than one that does.

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44 44SECTION IV

Time35 minutes

26 Questions

Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. For somequestions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; thatis, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. You should not make assumptions that are bycommonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have chosen the best answer,blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

4-23-43. Teacher: Participating in organized competitive

athletics may increase a childs strength andcoordination. As critics point out, however, italso instills in those children who are notalready well developed in these respects afeeling of inferiority that never reallydisappears. Yet, since research has shown thatadults with feelings of inferiority become moresuccessful than those free of such anxieties,funding for childrens athletic programsshould not be eliminated.

Which one of the following most accurately describesthe role played in the teachers argument by theassertion that participating in organized competitiveathletics may increase a childs strength andcoordination?

(A) It is mentioned as one possible reason foradopting a policy for which the teachersuggests an additional reason.

(B) It is a claim that the teacher attempts to refutewith counterarguments.

(C) It is a hypothesis for which the teacher offersadditional evidence.

(D) It is cited as an insufficient reason foreliminating funding for childrens athleticprograms.

(E) It is cited as an objection that has been raisedto the position that the teacher is supporting.

4. Columnist: Donating items to charity may be a signof generosity, but any generosity it maydemonstrate is rarely a permanent virtue, sincemost donors make donations onlyintermittently.

Which one of the following most accurately describesa flaw in the columnists argument?

(A) The argument takes for granted that trulygenerous people are the most virtuous.

(B) The argument attacks the character of thosewhose values are different from those of thecolumnist.

(C) The argument takes for granted that acharacter trait is present only whenmanifested.

(D) The argument generalizes from too small asample of cases.

(E) The argument takes for granted that mostpeople donate out of generosity.

5. Researchers have found that, hours after birth,infants are able to distinguish faces from otherimages. Infants stare at drawings of faces for longerperiods of time than they do at blank ovals ordrawings in which facial features are scrambled.

Which one of the following, if true, most helps toexplain the ability of newborn infants described above?

(A) Certain abilities of facial pattern recognitionare innate in humans, rather than learned.

(B) The longer an infant stares at an object, themore interesting the infant finds that object.

(C) Infants learn to associate human faces with thenecessities of comfort and nourishment.

(D) The less an infant stares at an object, theweaker the preference the infant has for thatobject.

(E) Infants learn to associate the sound of humanvoices with the images of human faces.

6. Violent crime in this town is becoming a seriousproblem. Compared to last year, local lawenforcement agencies have responded to 17 percentmore calls involving violent crimes, showing that theaverage citizen of this town is more likely than everto become a victim of a violent crime.

Which one of the following, if true, most seriouslyweakens the argument?

(A) The towns overall crime rate appears to haverisen slightly this year compared to the sameperiod last year.

(B) In general, persons under the age of 65 are lesslikely to be victims of violent crimes thanpersons over the age of 65.

(C) As a result of the towns community outreachprograms, more people than ever are willing toreport violent crimes to the proper authorities.

(D) In response to worries about violent crime, thetown has recently opened a community centerproviding supervised activities for teenagers.

(E) Community officials have shown that arelatively small number of repeat offenderscommit the majority of violent crimes in thetown.

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44 -24-7. Two different dates have been offered as the

approximate end point of the last ice age in NorthAmerica. The first date was established by testinginsect fragments found in samples of sediments todetermine when warmth-adapted open-groundbeetles replaced cold-adapted arctic beetles. Thesecond date was established by testing pollen grainsin those same samples to determine when ice massesyielded to spruce forests. The first date is more than500 years earlier than the second.

The statements above, if true, most strongly supportwhich one of the following conclusions about the lastice age and its aftermath in North America?

(A) Toward the end of the ice age, warmth-adaptedopen-ground beetles ceased to inhabit areaswhere the predominant tree cover consistedof spruce forests.

(B) Among those sediments deposited toward theend of the ice age, those found to containcold-adapted arctic beetle fragments can alsobe expected to contain spruce-pollen grains.

(C) Ice masses continued to advance throughNorth America for several hundred years afterthe end of the ice age.

(D) The species of cold-adapted arctic beetle thatinhabited areas covered by ice masses diedout toward the end of the last ice age.

(E) Toward the end of the ice age, warmth-adaptedopen-ground beetles colonized the newterrain opened to them faster than soilchanges and seed dispersion established newspruce forests.

8. When presented with the evidence against him, Ellisonfreely admitted to engaging in illegal transactionsusing company facilities. However, the companyobtained the evidence by illegally recording Ellisonsconversations. Therefore, although the company maydemand that he immediately cease, it cannotjustifiably take any punitive measures against him.

Which one of the following judgments best illustratesthe principle illustrated by the argument above?

(A) After Price confessed to having stolen moneyfrom Long over a period of several years,Long began stealing from Price. DespitePrices guilt, Long was not justified in takingillegal action against him.

(B) Shakilas secretary has admitted that he isillegally receiving cable television withoutpaying for it. Shakila would not be justified inreporting him, though, since she once did thesame thing.

(C) After Takashi told Sarahs parents that he hadseen her at the movies on Tuesday, Sarahconfessed to sneaking out that day. OnMonday, however, Takashi had violated thelocal curfew for minors. Hence Sarahs parentscannot justifiably punish her in this case.

(D) After a conservation officer discovered them,Kuttner admitted that he had set the illegalanimal traps on his land. But, because she wastrespassing at the time, the conservation officercannot justifiably punish Kuttner in this case.

(E) Ramirez was forced by the discovery of newevidence to admit that she lied about her rolein managing the chief of staff s financialaffairs. Nevertheless, the board of directorscannot justifiably take action againstRamirez, because in past instances it haspardoned others guilty of similarimproprieties.

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4-25-49. In a recent study, each member of two groups of

people, Group A (composed of persons sixty-five toseventy-five years old) and Group B (composed ofcollege students), was required to make a telephone callto a certain number at a specified time. The time wheneach call was initiated was recorded electronically.Group A proved far better at remembering to make atelephone call precisely at a specified time than didGroup B. There were fourteen lapses in Group B butonly one lapse in Group A. Clearly, at least one type ofmemory does not suffer as a person ages.

Which one of the following, if all of them are true, isLEAST helpful in establishing that the conclusionabove is properly drawn?

(A) There was the same number of people in eachgroup.

(B) The same group of researchers answered thecalls made by the callers in both study groups.

(C) Among the college students there were nopersons more than forty years old.

(D) Both groups had unrestricted access totelephones for making the required calls.

(E) The members of the two groups received theirinstructions approximately the same amountof time before they were to make theirtelephone calls.

10. Prediction, the hallmark of the natural sciences,appears to have been made possible by reducingphenomena to mathematical expressions. Some socialscientists also want the power to predict accurately andassume they ought to perform the same reduction. Butthis would be a mistake; it would neglect data that arenot easily mathematized and thereby would onlydistort the social phenomena.

Which one of the following most accurately expressesthe main conclusion of the argument?

(A) The social sciences do not have as muchpredictive power as the natural sciences.

(B) Mathematics plays a more important role inthe natural sciences than it does in the socialsciences.

(C) There is a need in the social sciences toimprove the ability to predict.

(D) Phenomena in the social sciences should notbe reduced to mathematical formulas.

(E) Prediction is responsible for the success of thenatural sciences.

11. Studies have shown that the more high-stress pointsa bridge has, the more likely it is to fractureeventually. This might lead one to expect fractures todevelop at high-stress points. Surprisingly, however,fractures develop not at high-stress points butelsewhere on the bridge.

Which one of the following, if true, contributes mostto an explanation of why bridges fracture elsewherethan at high-stress points?

(A) In many structures other than bridges, such asship hulls and airplane bodies, fractures donot develop at high-stress points.

(B) Fractures do not develop at high-stress points,because bridges are reinforced at those points;however, stress is transferred to other pointson the bridge where it causes fractures.

(C) In many structures, the process of fracturingoften causes high-stress points to develop.

(D) Structures with no high-stress points cannonetheless have a high probability offracturing.

(E) Improper bridge construction, e.g., low-qualitywelding or the use of inferior steel, often leadsboth to the development of high-stress pointsand to an increased probability of fracturing.

12. Many people say that the press should not pry intothe personal lives of private individuals. But the presshas the right to publish any story of interest to thepublic unless that story is libelous. So, if a storyabout a private individual is not libelous, the presshas an obligation to publish it, for such informationis clearly of interest to the public.

The arguments reasoning is vulnerable to criticismon the grounds that the argument presumes, withoutgiving warrant, that

(A) the press can publish nonlibelous stories aboutprivate individuals without prying into theirpersonal lives

(B) ones having a right to do something entailsones having an obligation to do it

(C) the publishing of information about thepersonal lives of private individuals cannot belibelous

(D) if one has an obligation to do something thenone has a right to do it

(E) the presss right to publish always outweighsthe individuals right not to be libeled

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44 -26-13. Consumer advocate: A recent study concluded that

top-loading washing machines are superioroverall to front-loaders. But front-loaders havethe controls and access in front. This is moreconvenient for wheelchair users, some ofwhom find it highly inconvenient to removelaundry from top-loaders. So for someconsumers front-loaders are superior.

Which one of the following is an assumption uponwhich the consumer advocates argument depends?

(A) For some consumers the convenience of front-loaders outweighs the advantages of top-loaders in assessing which is superior.

(B) Washing machines of a given type should becompared only with washing machines of thattype.

(C) Convenience is the only important factor indetermining which type of washing machineis superior.

(D) Retrieving clothes from a top-loader isconvenient for people who do not usewheelchairs.

(E) Retrieving clothes from front-loaders isinconvenient for people who are notwheelchair users.

14. Over 90 percent of the human brain currently servesno purpose, as is evident from the fact that manypeople with significant brain damage show nodiscernible adverse effects. So once humans begin totap into this tremendous source of creativity andinnovation, many problems that today seeminsurmountable will be within our ability to solve.

Which one of the following most accurately describesa flaw in the argument?

(A) The argument presumes, without providingjustification, that the effects of brain damageare always easily detectable.

(B) The argument presumes, without providingjustification, that the only reason that anyproblem remains unsolved is a lack ofcreativity and innovation.

(C) The argument infers that certain parts of thebrain do nothing merely on the basis of theassertion that we do not know what they do.

(D) The argument infers that problems will besolved merely on the basis of the claim thatthey will be within our ability to solve.

(E) The argument presumes, without providingjustification, that the currently unused partsof th