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M-Dex among the Islamic Countries
Raudha Md. Ramli School of Economics, Faculty of Economics and Management
National University of Malaysia
43600 Bangi Selangor Malaysia
Abdul Ghafar Ismail1
Islamic Research and Training Institute
Islamic Development Bank
Jeddah P.O Box 9201
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
+96624646330
Muhammad Tasrif2
School of Architecture, Planning and Policy Development
Bandung Institute of Technology
Jl. Ganesha No. 10
40132 Bandung Indonesia
+62222534237
ABSTRACT
Development and welfare of humanity are important elements in Islam. Islam has laid
Maqasid Shariah as a vital point in Shariah that highlights human welfare as the ultimate
purposes, which are to ensure and promote the well-being of all mankind and to prevent harm
through safeguarding faith (ad-din), life (an-nafs), posterity (an-nasl), intellect (al-‘aql), and
wealth (al-mãl). The existing Human Development Index (HDI) published by the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) might be the most comprehensive indicator to
capture the human development concept, necessitating an adequate measure of human
development. However, the HDI is not fully compatible and sufficient for measuring human
development in Islamic perspective. In fact, the underlying theory and concept to develop
HDI are also not based on Maqasid Shariah. In view of the insufficiency of the existing
development index proposed, this study attempts to improve the existing statistical
measurement of development by providing an alternative framework of a complementary
model from the Islamic perspective. This study proposes Maslahah-Based Development
Index (M-Dex) framework representing the Maqasid Shariah or objectives of the Shariah for
OIC and non-OIC countries. The findings show that the rank composition between M-Dex
and HDI is slightly different. A number of countries enjoy a good rank in both indexes. It is
envisaged to be of practical use in national policy making and may also be related to agenda
of the bilateral and international development agencies.
1 He is head of research division and Professor of Banking and Financial Economics. He is currently on leave
from School of Economics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. He is also principal research fellow, Institut Islam
Hadhari, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia; AmBank Group Resident Fellow for Perdana Leadership Foundation;
Adjunct Professor, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia; and Fellow, Yayasan Pembangunan Ekonomi Islam
Malaysia 2 Senior lecturer at Bandung Institute of Technology, Indonesia.
2
Keywords: Islamic economic development, human development, well-being, Maqasid
Shariah, Maslahah-Based Development Index
JEL Classifications: C82; D69; O11; O15; P49;
3
1. INTRODUCTION
The world has been witnessing the evolution of the development measures since three decades
ago following the profound change in the perception and definition of development itself
(Anto, 2011). The traditional single indicator such as economic growth or GNP per capita has
been perceived as insufficient to measure economic development performance and
comprehensive measures of well-being (Kelly, 1991; Noorbakhsh, 1998; Todaro, 1997;
Adelle and Pallemaerts, 2009; Anto, 2011). In the 1970s, the socio-economic indicator was
constructed as an alternative to GDP per capita. This approach was criticised as capturing
neither distributional aspects, nor social and human welfare dimension (Desai, 1991). Human
well-being is often treated as a multidimensional concept, consisting of a number of distinct,
separable dimensions (McGillivray and Noorbakhsh, 2004). Numerous economists have
expounded the incorporation of social indicators and efforts to create other composite
indicators that could serve as complements or alternatives to the traditional measurement of
development (Anto, 2011).
Morris (1979) puts forward the Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI). The study
carried out in 1970 by the United Nations Research Institute on Social Development Geneva
(UNRISD) concerned with the selection of the most appropriate indicators of development
and an analysis of the relationship between these indicators at different levels of development.
This index was based on infant mortality rate, life expectancy, and literacy rate. Similar to
HDI, the PQLI approach gives equal weights to the attributes of the composite index under
the assumption that these attributes are equally important in capturing the defined aspect of
the concept (Alkire and Sarwar, 2009). The PQLI has also been critiqued for its limited
dimensionality, and most scholars find it difficult to accept the results of a composite
development index without strong theoretical foundation (McGillivray and Noorbakhsh,
2004; Alkire and Sarwar, 2009).
In 1990, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) launched the
competitive series of reports called Human Development Report, which also included the
Human Development Index (HDI). The HDI was designed to expand the focus of economic
output, growth, and development on various dimensions of people’s lives (Human
Development Report, 1995; Hicks, 1997). HDI also offers an alternative and shows the
inadequacy of other indices such as GNP for measuring the relative socio-economic progress
of nations (Human Development Report, 1994; Streeten, 1994; Noorbakhsh, 1998). The HDI
components reflect to three major dimensions of human development, namely longevity,
knowledge, and access to resources (Human Development Report, 1990). These dimensions
are to represent three of the essential choices for people to lead a long and healthy life, to
acquire knowledge, and to have access to resources needed for a decent standard of living
(Human Development Report, 1990). However, HDI is a summary and is not a
comprehensive measure of human development, and thus the search for further
methodological and data refinement to the HDI continues (Human Development Report,
2001).
Although the HDI attempts to measure human development as a multidimensional
concept, the HDI has not absconded from criticism. Some criticisms of the HDI can be found
in McGillivray (1991) who questions the HDI’s contribution to the assessment of intercountry
development levels composition and the usefulness of the HDI as a development indicator or
as a measure for inter-country comparisons as it can be viewed as being redundant. Kelly
(1991) contends that the HDI is a tool of limited value and the grounds of attaching equal
weights to its components. Engineer, Roy and Fink (2010) critique that the implementation of
the dimension index in HDI to capture a long and healthy life is based solely on mortality
indicator and life expectancy measure. They suggest life expectancy as a good indicator of the
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quantity of life, but it is only an indirect measure of a healthy life. Hicks (1997) and Alkire
and James (2010) suggest and design an Inequality-Adjusted Human Development Index as
the complement measurement to the HDI with distributional of human development
achievement involving the Gini coefficients for income, education, and longevity.
Sustainable development represents a commitment to advance human well-being, with
the added constraint that this development needs to take place within the ecological limits of
the biosphere (Moran, Wackernagel, Kitzes, Goldfinger and Boutaud, 2008). The goals of
sustainable well-being are long and happy life without harming the Earth. One way to assess a
country’s progress towards sustainability defined as achieving a high degree of well-being for
its people within the means of its ecosystems is by mapping the two dimensions of sustainable
development namely human development and ecological footprint on the same graph. The per
capita ecological footprint is plotted on one axis, while the UNDP’s HDI is plotted on the
other (see Figure 1.4). The ecological footprint as an indicator of sustainable consumption
measures the area of biologically productive land and water required to produce the resources
required and to absorb the waste generated by individuals, the population, or activity (Rees,
1992; Wackernagel and Rees, 1996; Mattoon, 2013). The Happy Planet Index (HPI) was
launched in 2006. HPI index measures three components factors that influence sustainable
well-being, namely experienced well-being, life expectancy well-being, and ecological
footprint (NEF, 2012). The HPI offers an excellent example of how such measures work in
practice. The HPI balances the prominence currently given to GDP with those measures that
take seriously the challenges faced in the 21st century in creating economies that deliver
sustainable well-being for all.
Several indices have been developed, as an alternative to measure human’s well-being
in the process of development. A few studies have attempted to integrate religious aspect of
development that reflects spiritual well-being, which has been recognised as an important
component in the development of the indices. Dar (2004) developed the Ethics-Augmented
Human Development Index (E-HDI). The E-HDI is based on Maqasid Shariah, and it
conceptualises socio-economic change and development for all countries. This index
encompasses more explicitly the ethical concerns in measuring development by incorporating
freedom, faith, environmental concerns, and the institution of family in the HDI. However,
the ranking of countries in the study is based on the ordinal measure using the Borda Rule
instead of the actual values of E-HDI computed for all countries. Anto (2011) developed the
Islamic Human Development Index (I-HDI). The index comprises the Material Welfare Index
(MWI) and Nonmaterial Welfare Index (NWI), representing the five basic needs in Maqasid
Shariah. In addition, the I-HDI also includes the Freedom Index and the Environment Index.
Rehman and Askari (2010) developed the Islamicity Index (I2) to measure the degree of
“Islamicity” of Islamic and non-Islamic countries based on the principles of Islam. The index
aims at finding out whether or not Islam is an agent that enhances human development and its
economic performance. The index uses four sub-indices namely the Economic Islamicity
Index (EI2), the Legal and Governance Islamicity Index (LGI
2), the Human and Political
Rights Islamicity Index (HPI2), and the International Relations Islamicity Index (IRI
2). These
indices in a nutshell measure a government’s adherence to Islamic principles in its (1)
economics, (2) legal integrity and governance environment, (3) degree of civil and political
rights, and (4) relationship with the global community in regard to several key areas of
environmental contribution, globalisation, military engagement, and overall country risk
(Rehman and Askari, 2010). In this index, Islamic economic, financial, political, legal, and
social principles are represented by 67 proxies, which are the standard practice of good
governance and good economics applicable to all countries regardless of their religious
orientation. Moreover, the Islamicity Index basically uses existing indicators, which represent
universal values, and therefore it is not really based on Maqasid Shariah.
5
In view of the insufficiency of existing development indices proposed, this paper
attempts to improve the existing statistical measurement of sustainable development by
incorporating Islamic perspective. Maqasid Shariah (literally means the objectives of
Shariah) forms a basis of the analysis and encompasses both the physical and spiritual
dimensions of human development. The focus of this paper is to find out if the Islamic
concept of development is rooted in the contemporary Muslim world. This paper is divided
into four major areas of discussion. First section discusses the concept of development, the
transition of sustainable development, and the development goals. The second section reviews
on the Islamic principles for sustainable economic development and the literature on
development with a particular reference to Islamic concepts and its relevance to development.
This section also proposes and concludes the components that represent the M-Dex
measurement according to Quran and Hadith. The third section describes the measurement
and formula of M-Dex. The forth section explains the analysis and findings of the study. The
final section presents the research conclusion and future recommendation for further study.
2. A HEURISTIC EXPOSITION ON ISLAMIC ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Development seems to be emerging as a dominant theme in the area of Islamic economics
(Hasan, 1995). Islamic viewpoint on economic development should be based on the holistic
view of Islamic teaching itself. The First Islamic Conference on Environment Ministers 2002
identified the major challenges faced by the Islamic world in the field of sustainable
development, materialised mainly in the poverty, illiteracy, accumulation of foreign debts,
degradation of economic and social conditions, disequilibrium between population growth
and available natural resources, the weakness of technical capabilities, the lack of expertise
and skills in environment management, along with the negative impacts left by regional
conflicts, and foreign occupation. The conference provided general framework for an Islamic
agenda in sustainable development known as the Islamic Declaration on Sustainable
Development, which revolves around the major areas namely economic growth, poverty
eradication, population and urban development, health and environment, and natural resources
(United Nations, 2002). Khan (1991) outlines the basic concepts of Islamic economics and
argues that Islamic economics has the potential and would lead the world in the future.
Islam encourages the economic development that is underlined with a mere application
of morality, ethics, social justice, and equitable and fair development (Khan, 1991; Chapra,
1993; Hasan, 1995, 2006; Dar, 2004; Chapra, 2009; Mohammad, 2010; and Ibrahim, Basir
and Rahman, 2011). Development with justice is not possible without moral and ethical
development (Hasan, 1995). Holy Quran introduces a wide range of ordinance on socio-
economic justice, equality, and equal distribution of wealth in an unrelenting approach. The
Holy Quran says:
“…so that it (the wealth and resources) may not circulate only between the rich
among you…” (Quran 59:7)
“Indeed We have sent Our Messengers with clear proofs, and revealed with them
the Scripture and the Mizan that mankind may keep up justice. And We brought
forth iron wherein is mighty power, as well as many benefits for mankind, that
Allah may test who it is that will help Him (His religion) and His Messengers in
the unseen. Verily, Allah is Powerful, Almighty.” (Quran 57:25)
According to Chapra (2006), the entire Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun links all important
socio-economic and political variables including the development (g) and justice (j),
6
sovereignty or political authority (G), belief and rules of behaviour or the Shariah (S), people
(N), and wealth or stock resources (W) in a circular and interdependent manner. Each variable
influences the others and in turn being influenced by them (see Figure1).
Figure 1: Interrelationship of Variables in Economic Development and the Chain Reaction
Source: Chapra (2006)
Hasan (1995) enlightens the concept of development centres around two broad aspects
of its belief system, namely the divine and the human. According to Chapra (1993), the
Islamic worldview is based on three fundamental concepts namely Tawhid (Oneness and
Unity of God)3, khilafah (vicegerent of human beings)
4, and ‘adalah (justice). Tawhid is the
most important of these concepts and implies the universe consciously designed and created
by the Supreme Being. Salleh (2013) adds two more concepts, which are Rububiyyah5 and
Tazkiyah6.
The objective of Islamic economic development is to achieve a comprehensive and
holistic welfare for people to live a balanced life in this world as well as in the Hereafter
(Akheerah) (Khan, 1991; Chapra, 2009; Ul Hassan, 2010; Anto, 2011 and Ibrahim et al.,
2011). This objective is called as Falãh, which refers to inclusive state of spiritual, cultural,
political, social, and economic well-being in this world and God’s pleasure in the Hereafter
(Khan, 1991). Tazkiyah appears to be the focal point of Khurshid Ahmad philosophical in
Islamic development concept (Salleh, 2013). Salleh (2003) defines the right ultimate aim of
Islamic development is Mardhatillah (the pleasure of Allah S.W.T) instead of Falãh.
According to him, only one who gains the pleasure of Allah S.W.T. will likely to have Falãh.
Salleh (2003, 2013) suggests seven philosophical foundations that more. They are mould,
actors, time-scale, framework, methodology, means, and ultimate aim. Established in earlier
writing by Salleh (2003), the mould of Islamic development is Islamic worldview (tasawwur);
the actors of Islamic development are human beings (‘abdullah, or servant of God and
khilafatullah or vicegerent of God); the time-scale covers three worlds of pre-birth (malakut),
3 Refers to God’s unity and sovereignty, which lay down the rules of God-man and man-man relationships
(Hablu minallah and Hablu minannas), respectively. 4 The human being is the Supreme Being’s khalifah or vicegerent on earth. Allah S.W.T says: “Those who
remember Allah standing, sitting, and lying down on their sides, and think deeply about the creation of the
heavens and the earth, (saying): "Our Lord! You have not created this without purpose, glory to You! Give us
salvation from the torment of the Fire” (Quran 3:191); and “And (remember) when your Lord said to the angels:
“Verily, I am going to place (mankind) generations after generations on earth.” They said: “Will You place
therein those who will make mischief therein and shed blood, while we glorify You with praises and thanks and
sanctify You.” He (Allah) said: “I know that which you do not know” (Quran 2:30). 5 Rububiyyah refers to Divine arrangement for nourishment, sustenance, and directing things towards their
perfection. The fundamental law of universe throws light on the divine model for the useful development of
resources and their mutual support and sharing. It is in the context of this divine arrangement that human effort
takes place. 6 Tazkiyyah refers to purification plus growth. It is the mission of all the Prophets of God to perform the tazkiyah
of man in all his relationships with God, man, natural environment, society, and the state.
7
Allah S.W.T.
Revealed Knowledge
(Fardhu Ain)
Acquired Knowledge
(Fardhu Kifayah)
Monotheism
(Tawhid)
Ethics/Virtue
(Akhlak)
Islamic
Jurisprudence
(Fiqh)
Ibadah
Business (Muamalat)
Marriage
(Munakahat)
Criminal Law
(Jinayat)
Low Level of
Knowledge High Level
of
Knowledge
Development
Human beings and Vicegerent (Al-Insan and Khalifah)
Goals: Pleasure of God (Mardhatillah)
Balanced life in this world as well as in the Hereafter (Hasanah fid-dunya wa hasanah fii al-akheerah)
(
present (ad-dunya), and Hereafter (Akheerah); the framework is the Islamic obligatory
knowledge (fard ‘ain); the methodology is the worship (ibadah) of God; the means is the
natural resources; and the ultimate goal is the pleasure of God (mardhatillah). These seven
philosophical foundations are illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2: The Integration between Knowledge of Fardhu Ain and Knowledge of Fardhu
Kifayah in Islamic Development
Source: Salleh (2003)
The primary purpose of Islamic development is to ensure the human well-being of all
mankind, and it should be consistent with the objectives of Shariah or Maqasid Shariah
(Sadeq, 1987; Dar, 2004; Hasan, 2006; Chapra, 2006, 2009; and Anto, 2011). The Quran
reveal an overriding interest in the overall welfare of mankind and need to balance between
this world and the Hereafter:
“And of them there are some who say: ‘Our Lord! Give us in this world that
which is good and in the Hereafter that which is good, and save us from the
torment of the Fire!’” (Quran 2:201)
“But seek, with that which Allah has bestowed on you, the home of the Hereafter,
and forget not your portion of lawful enjoyment in this world; and be generous as
Allah has been generous to you, and seek not mischief in the land. Verily, Allah
likes not the mischief-makers.” (Quran 28:77)
8
Thus, development in Islam can be defined as a balance and sustained improvement in
the material and nonmaterial well-beings of man and as a multidimensional process that
involves improvement of human welfare through advancement, reorganisation, and
reorientation of entire economic and social systems in accordance with the norms and values
of Islam (Sadeq, 1987). These definition and objective of Islamic development can be
concluded as in Kurshid Ahmad’s fundamental principles and values. Kurshid Ahmad
delineates five essential features of the concept of Islamic development as follows (Salleh,
2013):
i. The Islamic development concept is comprehensive in character and includes
moral, spiritual, and material dimensions. Development becomes a goal and
value-oriented activity devoted to the optimisation of human well-being in all of
these areas for their welfare in this world and the Hereafter.
ii. The focus for development effort is man. Development therefore means
development of man, his attitudes and ambitions, his behaviour and lifestyle, and
his physical and socio-cultural environment. Man acts as the premium mobile, not
merely in a mechanical sense, but in the fullness of the human potential.
iii. Economic development is looked upon by Islam as a multidimensional activity
with different factors and forces that have to be balanced, harnessed, and
mobilised.
iv. Economic development involves a number of changes, quantitative and
qualitative. These changes have to be balanced between each other.
v. Islamic development involves two dynamic principles of social life. First is the
optimal utilisation of resources that God has endowed to man and provided in his
physical environment. Second is the equitable use and distribution for the
promotion of justice amongst all human relationships.
Considering that development in Islam is to achieve balanced and sustained
improvement in the material and nonmaterial well-beings of man (Hasanah fi al-akheerah wa
ad-Dunya), Islam has laid Maqasid Shariah as a vital point in Shariah that highlights human
welfare as the ultimate purposes. The ultimate purposes of Shariah are to ensure and promote
the well-beings of all mankind and to prevent harm (jalbu al-Mashalih wa dar’u al-Mafasid)7.
Referring to al-Rusayni (1991:326), Maqasid Shariah is the objective that is determined by
the Islamic law and needs to be achieved for the benefit of humankind. Maqasid Shariah
constitutes all the elements related to human nature (fitrah)8. These elements can be classified
into five fundamental matters (Dar, 2004: Hasan, 2006; Anto, 2011; Dusuki and Bouheraoua,
2011; Ahmed, 2011; and Ibrahim et al., 2011). The concept of Maqasid Shariah can be
captured and discussed by stressing the Shariah concern with safeguarding five main
dharuriyyat of human’s life (al-dharuriyyatul khams)9 within the quotes by Islamic
philosopher (d.505/111), Abu Hamid al-Ghazali as follows:
“The very objective of the Shariah is to promote the well-being of the people,
which lies in safeguarding their faith (ad-din), their lives (an-nafs), their intellect
(al-‘aql), their posterity (an-nasl) and their wealth (al-mãl). Whatever ensures the
7 Wahbah Zuhayli, (n.d), Al-Wajeez fi Usul al-Fiqh, (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr al-Mu’asir), p. 92. 8 See El-Mesawi, M.E.T., 2006. Ibn Ashur: Treatise on Maqasid al-Shariah. The International Institute of Islamic
Thought (IIIT) and Islamic Book Trust (South East Asia Publisher), Washington. 9 Allamah al Qarafi and many other scholars have added a sixth essential, namely ‘ird (dignity). See Hashim
Kamali, “Al-Maqasid al-Shariah: The Objectives of Islamic Law”, The Muslim Lawyer Journal, 3, No.1, (April–
June, 1998), 2; available at http://www.aml.org.uk/journal/3.1/Kamali%20-%20Maqasid.pdf; Internet.
9
safeguard of these five serves public interest and is desirable, and whatever hurts
them is against public interest and its removal is desirable10”.
According to Al-Ghazali and Al-Shatibi11
, Maslahah can be achieved by promoting
three important components namely necessities (Daruriyyat), complements or needs
(Hajiyyat), and embellishment or luxuries (Tahsiniyyat). According to Auda (2008),
necessities (Daruriyyat) are the basic elements of a good life, and protecting them constitutes
the goals of Maqasid Shariah. Necessities (Daruriyyat) can be categorised into safeguarding
faith (ad-din), life (an-nafs), intellect (al-’aql), posterity (an-nasl), and wealth (al-mãl)
(Chapra, 2008). Figure 3 illustrates the Al-Ghazali’s theoretical framework of Maqasid
Shariah.
Figure 3: Al-Ghazali’s Theoretical Framework of Maqasid Sharia
The categories of Maqasid Shariah are briefly discussed below:
i. Necessities (Daruriyyat) are defined as those activities and things that are
essential to the preservation of the five areas, which are the basic needs of human
existence. These necessities comprise the five abovementioned objectives of
Shariah, namely safeguarding of faith (ad-din), life (an-nafs), intellect (al-’aql),
posterity (an-nasl), and wealth (al-mãl). These necessities serve as the basics for
the establishment of welfare in this world and the hereafter. If they are ignored,
then coherence and order cannot be established. Fasãd (chaos and disorder) shall
prevail in this world, and there will be obvious loss in the hereafter. Some
scholars argue that though the five Necessities (Daruriyyat) are essential for
human welfare, they are not confined to these five Maqasid; hence, they propose
an additional Daruriyyat namely equality, freedom, and protection of the
environment (Auda, 2008). Deuraseh (2012) includes another two essential values
of Daruriyyat namely preservation of environment, health, and disease. Khan and
Ghifari (1992) assert that one foundation, i.e., freedom should be added to the list
as well. They see freedom as the sixth element that should be promoted along
with the five elements. The enrichment of faith (ad-din), life (an-nafs), intellect
10 Abu Hamid Al Ghazali (1356/1937) Al_Mustasf) Ghazali m_ al_Ussl_ Cairo:_ Al Maktabah_al
Tijariyyah._vol. I, p. 416. 11 Shatibi, (n.d), Muwafaqat, Vol.1, Maktabah Al Syamilah p. 243
Maqasid Shariah
Embellishment (Tahsiniyyat)
Necessities (Daruriyyat)
Safeguarding of faith (Ad-
Din)
Safeguarding of life (An-
Nafs)
Safeguarding of posterity (An-Nasl)
Safeguarding of intellect (Al-Aql)
Safeguarding of wealth (Al-Mãl)
Complement (Hajiyyat)
10
(al-’aql), posterity (an-nasl), and wealth (al-mãl) becomes the centre of an
Islamic development process in keeping with the objective of an Islamic society.
The goals cover the physical as well as the moral, psychological, and intellectual
needs of present and future generation (Dar, 2004).
ii. Complements or needs (Hajiyyat) are defined as the complementary elements for
the basic needs to Daruriyyat (Ahmad, 2011). All activities are not vital to the
preservation of the five foundations, but are necessary to relieve impediments and
to alleviate hardship in life to be free from distress and predicament.
Complements promote and supplement the necessities, and their neglect leads to
hardship but not to the total disruption of normal life.
iii. Embellishments or luxuries (Tahsiniyyat) refer to activities and things that go
beyond the limits of complementary (Hajiyyat) and whose realisation leads to
refinement and attainment of human life and allow for perfection in order and
conduct of people at all levels of achievement.
The classical conception classifies Maqasid Shariah into three inter-related categories
as demonstrated in Figure 4. Daruriyyat are the fundamentals to Hajiyyat and Tahsiniyyat.
With regard to the relationship between Daruriyyat, Hajiyyat, and Tahsiniyyat, Al-Shatibi12
and other scholar13
stress that:
Figure 4: The Pyramid of Maqasid Shariah
Source: Auda (2008) and Dusuki et al. (2011)
i) Daruriyyat are the fundamentals to Hajiyyat and Tahsiniyyat.
ii) Deficiency in Daruriyyat inevitably causes deficiency in Hajiyyat and
Tahsiniyyat.
iii) Deficiency in Hajiyyat and Tahsiniyyat does not necessarily affect Daruriyyat.
iv) An absolute deficiency in Hajiyyat and Tahsiniyyat may bring deficiency to
some extent in Daruriyyat.
v) It is desirable to keep up Hajiyyat and Tahsiniyyat for the proper maintenance
of Daruriyyat.
12 Shatibi, (n.d), Muwafaqat, Vol.1, Maktabah Al Syamilah p. 243. 13 See further in Ghazali, Shifa al-Ghalil, in Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee, Outlines of Islamic Jurisprudence (e-
book: Advanced Legal Studies Institute), 165.
Embellishment (Tahsiniyyat)
Complementary (Hajiyyat)
Necessities (Daruriyyat)
11
3. The Maslahah-based Development Model
Chapra (2008) uses Al-Ghazali’s classification of the five essentials to develop a model of
human development and well-being. These five necessities are necessary and basic for human
existence. In terms of applicability, al Zahrah (1997) also simplifies and lists the Maqasid
Shariah in three specific terms known as educating the individual (Tahdhib al-Fard),
establishing justice (Iqamah al-‘Adl), and public interest (al-Maslahah). Therefore, every
society should preserve and protect these five necessities or perform good education, justice,
and public interest in all levels of society. Otherwise, human life would be harsh, brutal, poor,
and miserable in this world and the Hereafter. Hence, based on the deliberations above, the
fulfilment of three levels of Maslahah and the five essential elements will be the theoretical
foundation and represent the comprehensive and multidimensional framework for producing
the Maslahah-based Development Index (M-Dex). The meanings for five necessities are as
follow:
i. Safeguarding of faith (ad-Din) is defined as the preservation and development of
human faith through spiritual enrichment in the divine law, embracing good moral
standards, and performing religious practices at the individual, family, and nation
(Ummah) levels. Protection of ad-din is achieved through the observance of the
different kinds of ibadah. The aqidah, ibadah, and muamalat, which are
applicable to all Muslims, intend to manage the relationship between Muslims and
Allah and also among Muslims themselves (Ibrahim et al., 2011). Chapra (2008)
sees al-Din in the context of al-Maqasid as providing religious worldview that
potentially helps man to reform the human self to ensure the fulfilment of all his
spiritual and material needs.
ii. Safeguarding of life (an-Nafs) is defined as ensuring the existence, sustenance,
and development of human life through the fulfilment of both physical and
spiritual basic needs and moral and social needs and protection from threats from
both human and nonhuman. This purpose is necessary to specify the major needs
of human beings that must be satisfied to not only raise and sustain their
development and well-being, but also to enable to play their roles as a khalifah of
God effectively. Ensuring the fulfilment of these needs can help raise the moral,
physical, intellectual, and technological capabilities of the present as well as
future generations and thereby ensure a sustained well-being (Chapra, 2008).
Chapra (2008) further states that safeguarding of life involves the achievement of
the following:
1. Dignity, self-respect, brotherhood, and social equality
2. Justice
3. Spiritual and moral uplift
4. Security of life, property, and honour
5. Freedom
6. Education
7. Good governance
8. Removal of poverty and need fulfilment
9. Employment and self-employment opportunities
10. Equitable distribution of income and wealth
11. Marriage and stable family life
12. Family and social solidarity
12
13. Minimisation of crime and anomie
14. Mental peace and happiness
iii. Safeguarding of posterity (an-Nasl) is defined as the protection of everything of
those that would ensure the survival and progress of the family in all dimensions
such as physical, material, spiritual, emotional, and development of the quality of
future generations (Chapra, 2008). Çizakça (2007) also views protection of
posterity of future generation. Protection of dignity includes the protection of
individual rights to privacy and not exposing or accusing others of misbehaviour.
Islam has also regulated the relationship between men and women in order to
protect their dignity. The prohibition of adultery in Islam is a manifestation of the
protection of dignity and legalised and encourages marriage (Kasule, 2004). The
punishment of those involved in false accusations and adultery is meant to protect
dignity (Ibrahim et al., 2011).
iv. Safeguarding of intellect (al-‘Aql) is defined as utilising and developing the
intellect and safeguarding the mind from negative influences such as drugs and
superstitions. Faith and intellect are both interdependent and need to be used in
such a way that would strengthen each other and help to realise Maqasid Shariah.
Without the guidance of faith, intellect may lead to more and more ways of
deceiving and exploiting people. According to Chapra (2008), intellect is the
distinguishing characteristic of a human being and needs to be enriched
continually to improve the individual’s own as well as his society’s knowledge
and technological base and to promote development and human well-being. The
intellect (al-‘aql) is a great gift from Allah S.W.T. to humankind and is one of the
capacities that differentiate humankind from animals. The manifestation of the
protection of intellect is obvious as Islam provides the right to freedom of
expression, encourages its followers to acquire knowledge, and forbids them from
any activities detrimental to the mind. In addition, punishment for those who are
involved in activities detrimental to the mind also supports this principle.
v. Safeguarding of property (al-Mal) is defined as the protection of ownership and
property from damage, harm, theft, exploitation, or injustice. In addition, it also
encompasses the acquisition and development of wealth by making it available
through circulation and equitable distribution as well as preserving the wealth
through investment and good governance. Chapra (2008) stresses that wealth
needs to be developed and used honestly and conscientiously to remove poverty,
to fulfil the needs of those in need, and to promote equitable distribution of
income and wealth in the development and expansion of wealth. Chapra (2008)
further proposes the redistribution methods of zakah, sadaqah, and awqaf.
For safeguarding of faith (ad-din), level of corruption and criminal rate are used as
proxies to measure human development. It has been clearly acknowledged that corruption,
criminal, and violence practices are un-Islamic and are specifically condemned in Islam
(Rehman et al., 2010). The Divine scheme of life as enunciated in the Quran views fasãd
(corruption) with great displeasure as it abhors zulm (injustice) in the society (Zaman, 1999).
The term fasãd is used in the Quran to convey the following meanings:
i. Creating chaos and confusion (Quran 2:11; Quran 2:27; Quran 2:205; Quran 17:4)
ii. Violating moral limits (Quran 26:151–152)
13
iii. Underweighting and short measurement (Quran 11:85)
iv. Harming unity and cooperation among Muslims (Quran 8:73)
v. Dividing people into classes and discriminating against the down-trodden (Quran 28:4)
vi. Disturbing the social, religious, or political set-up (Quran 7:74, 85–86)
vii. Egotism and violation of Divine Law (Quran 5:33)
viii. Misuse of wealth and neglect of other rights in ones’ wealth (Quran 28:76–77)
In the 1994 Human Development Report, it is argued that the concept of security must
shift from the idea of a militaristic safeguarding of state borders to the reduction of insecurity
in people’s daily lives (or human insecurities). In every society, human security is undermined
by a variety of threats including hunger, disease, crime, unemployment, human rights
violations, and environmental challenges (Human Development Report, 2013). Perspective on
security needs to shift from misplaced emphasis on military strength to a well-rounded,
people-centred view. Progress in this shift can be gleaned in part from statistics on crime. The
2012 Caribbean Human Development Report argues that violent crime erodes confidence in
future development prospects (Human Development Report, 2013). Peace and security are the
important elements in Islam. Allah says:
“And Allah gives the example of a township (Makkah), it was secure and
peaceful: its provision coming to it in abundance from every place, but it (its
people) denied the favours of Allah. So Allah made it taste extreme hunger
(famine) and fear, because of what they did.” (Quran 16:112)
“And (remember) when Ibrahim said: ‘O my Lord! Make this city (Makkah) one
of peace and security, and preserve me and my sons away from worshipping
idols.’” (Quran 14:35)
For safeguarding of live (an-nafs), environmental degradation (carbon dioxide emission
in metric tons per capita) and political freedom are used as proxies in a sustainable way for
the betterment of human life. Salleh (2003) suggests that to maximise society welfare,
economists should be concerned with the efficient use of the stock of natural resources. He
proposes that the quality of the environment of many countries should be maintained to
achieve sustainable development. Such a sustainable development can be achieved through
faith, knowledge, and the conduct of good deeds (Ghafory-Ashtiany, 2009). The reward for
doing good deeds is based on Allah’s guidance and accompanied by belief as a result in
sustainable development, safety, and vitality in human societies. Figure 5 shows that by
following the Islamic teachings and principles, people can realise themselves and, in religious
terms as, the ultimate goal, i.e., to reach the heaven. In this world, heaven means a productive,
safe, healthy, and peaceful life.
According to this, belief and doing good deeds can be interpreted as follows (Ghafory-
Ashtiany, 2009):
Belief. Believing that our Creator’s (Allah) guidance is for the best concerning
human performance and better living. People are encouraged by being endowed with
free will, awareness, and the knowledge to follow Allah’s guidance by believing in
wisdom, facts and expertise as well as accepting, respecting and following spiritual,
individual, social, and technical laws, rules and regulations.
Doing good deeds. Doing the best acts possible, based on the most correct beliefs
and the best knowledge.
14
The lesson that can be extracted from Figure 5 is that environmental protection (located
in layer 3) needs to be delivered first. Only then can humankind receive pleasure from heaven
and social development, or in other words, sustainable development (located in layer 4). Islam
perceives development programme as holistic in nature in which any development programme
must take into account the environmental issues.
Figure 5: The Process of Achieving Safety, Development, Vitality, and Finally Heaven by
Following the Islamic Form of God’s (Allah) Guidance
Source: Ghafory-Ashtiany (2009)
Intellect is the distinguishing characteristic of human being. Intellect needs to be
enriched continually to improve the individual’s own self as well as his society’s knowledge
and technological base and to promote development and human well-being (Chapra, 2008).
The dimension of safeguarding of intellect (al-‘Aql) is included as measured by expected
years of schooling for schooling age children and mean years of schooling for adults aged 25
and older. This component provides education that increases labour productivity. Education is
an important determinant of the capability of the nations to adopt new technology and to
expand its production capacity. Education level also influences demographic behaviour of the
population. Therefore, education sector raises the poor education level and supports future
development of the country. Knowledge is the basis of all good, and it generates actions that
are based on the commandments of Allah and the instructions of the Prophet. Hence, every
Muslim must instil in his mind a desire to seek knowledge. The Holy Prophet Muhammad
(PBUH) has said: “Attainment of knowledge is a must for every Muslim.” (Narrated by Ibn
Majah)
God
Heaven
Heaven and Sosial Development:
Vitality
Better and Safer Living Comfort Saving Human Life
Environmental Protection
Following the Guidance Results in Correct Use and Best Benefit of
Nature as God's Bounty; Use Wisdom, Knowldege and Expertise
Islam: Submission to God's Guidance that is Based on Belief, Faith, and Recognition in
Doing Good Deeds
15
The meaning of education in the context of Islam is fundamentally the combination of
the terms Tarbiyyah, Ta’lim, and Ta’dib (Salleh, 2009). Literally, Tarbiyyah means educate,
Ta’lim means knowledgeable, and Ta’dib is derived from the word ‘adaba’ that means moral.
These comprehensive meanings concern the multilateral relationship of humans and their
society, human and the environment, society and the environment, and the relationship with
Allah. Quran and Hadith mention repeatedly the paramount importance of education and its
supremacy. For example, Allah says:
“…Allah will exalt in degrees those of you who believe, and those who have
been granted knowledge. And Allah is Well-Acquainted with what you do.”
(Quran 58:11)
In this verse, Allah grants high ranks to those who obtain knowledge. If a human being
wants to rise, he or she should attain knowledge. The enrichment of his/her intellect is through
a high quality of education (Chapra, 2008). Chapra (2008) performs dual purposes of
education. First, education should enlighten the members of society about the worldview and
moral values of Islam as well as their mission in this world as a khalifah of God. Secondly,
education should enable the members of society to not only perform their jobs efficiently by
working hard and conscientiously, but also by expanding the knowledge and technological
base of their society. Without the moral uplift and expansion of their knowledge and
technological base, it may not be possible to enrich the intellect and to enable the intellect to
contribute richly to the goal of accelerating and sustaining development.
The next Maqasid component namely safeguarding of posterity (an-nasl) includes
child mortality rates as a protection of progeny. Life expectancy at birth and fertility rate is
used as the dimension namely developing future generation. Allah says in Quran:
“Would any of you wish to have a garden with date palms and vines, with rivers
flowing underneath, and all kinds of fruits for him there in, while he is stricken
with old age, and his children are weak (not able to look after themselves), then
it is struck with a fiery whirlwind, so that it is burnt Thus does Allah make clear
His Ayat to you that you may give thought.” (Quran 2:266)
“And let those (executors and guardians) have the same fear in their minds as
they would have for their own, if they had left weak offspring behind. So, let
them have Taqwa of Allah and speak truthfully.” (Quran 4:9)
Wealth is a trust from God, and it needs to be developed and used honestly and
conscientiously for removing poverty, fulfilling the needs of humans, making life as
comfortable as possible for everyone, and promoting equitable distribution of income and
wealth. It is acquisition as well as use need to be primarily for the purpose of realising the
Maqasid (Chapra, 2008). The GNI per capita adjusted for PPP has been used to reflect
wealth/income for safeguarding of wealth (al-mal). Based on the above explanation, Islam
takes care of sustainable economic development through its teachings, and Islam emphasises
the importance of looking at the material, nonmaterial, and spiritual needs. Based on the
explanation above, the dimensions of each component of the Maqasid are identified and
summarised in Table 1 and Table 2. Table 1 shows the dimension of each component of the
Maqasid Shariah definitions by some scholars and based on Quran and Hadith. Table 2
summarises the dimension index selected based on existing indicators and data for further
measurement and empirical study.
16
Table 1: Dimensions Components of the Maqasid Shariah Based on Operational Definitions
Maqasid Component Dimension Possible Elements
Safeguarding of faith
(ad-din)
Enrichment of Spiritual Performing prayers; Fasting; Payment of zakat; Perform Hajj
(Quran 2:43, 83, 125, 158, 189; Quran 4:162; Quran 5:12)
Embracing good values standards Charity; Social service/volunteer work; Family integrity; Social solidarity
(Quran 2:177, 215; 273, 274; Quran 4:34; Quran 30:21; Quran 66:6)
Negative indicators Corruption Rate; Criminal Rate; Violence Rate; Illegal activities
(Quran 2:188; Quran 4:93; Quran 5:30, 32; Quran 17:33; Quran 29:45)
Safeguarding of live
(an-nafs)
Fulfilment of Basic Needs Food, clean water, shelter, electricity, facilities, health, housing; Material
wellbeing; ecosystem
(Quran 6: 14; Quran 16:10, 14, 66, 68-69, 80, 81; Quran 20:81; Quran 50:11)
Fulfilment of Moral Needs Good governance; Human rights; Justice; Political freedom
(Quran 4:135; Quran 5:8; Quran 57:25)
Fulfilment of Social Needs Equity; Social justice; Marriage/Family institution; Community life
(Quran 4:25, 135; Quran 7:189; Quran 30:21; Quran 59:7)
Protection from threats Public security; Political stability and security; Medical facilities; Drug
prevalence; Smoking prevalence; Environment
(Quran 2:266)
Safeguarding of
intellect
(al-‘aql)
Enrichment of Intellect Reading habits (Dar, 2004); Library and research Facilities; Freedom of thought
and expression; High quality of religious and science education at affordable
price; Reward for Creative work; Number of education institute
(Quran 3:18; Quran 39:9; Quran 58:11)
Developing the Intellect Education; Healthcare; Environment
(Quran 26:79-80; Quran 30:41; Quran 58:11)
Safeguarding of
posterity
(al-nasl)
Protection of future generation Environmental sustainability; Economic structure and sustainability
(Quran 2:11; Quran 7:128; Quran 30:41)
Protection of progeny Reproductive health; Child mortality
(Quran 5:6; Quran 10:57; Quran 16:69)
Protection of family-society Divorce rate; Conflict and security
(Quran 4:34, 35, 128)
Development of future generations Education; Health; Literacy; Life expectancy index; Fertility rate; Life
satisfaction; Family integrity (Quran 2:31, 266; Quran 4:9; Quran 58:11)
Property growth Economic growth; GDP per capita growth
Property equitable and distribution GINI ratio; Poverty rate (Quran 51:19)
17
Table 2: Dimensions and Elements Components of the Maqasid Shariah for the Construction of the Maslahah-based Development Index (M-
Dex)
Maqasid Component Dimension Element in Dimension Item in Element Dimension Index Source of data for
measurement
Safeguarding of faith
(ad-din)
Moral and Values Standard Level of Corruption Overall ranking in corruption
index
Corruption Perceptions
Index
http://www.transparency.or
g/
Level of Criminal Overall ranking in crime
index
Criminal Index http://www.numbeo.com/cr
ime/rankings_by_country.js
p
http://www.unodc.org/unod
c/en/data-and-
analysis/statistics/crime/cts-
data-collection.html
Safeguarding of live
(an-nafs)
Fulfilment of Moral Needs Socio-political Security Freedom from corruption
Fiscal freedom
Freedom from business
Freedom from labour
Freedom from monetary
Freedom from trade
Freedom from investment
Freedom from financial
Socio political freedom http://www.heritage.org/ind
ex/explore.aspx?nomobile&
view=by-region-country-
year
Protection from public
threats
Environment Carbon dioxide emissions
Safety and healthy
environment
https://data.undp.org/datase
t/Table-13-
Environment/ki8j-r4i6
Safeguarding of intellect
(al-‘aql)
Developing the Intellect
(Knowledge)
Education Indication of human capital
formation in a country while
expected years of schooling
gives an indication of the
number of years of schooling
that a child of school
entrance age can expect to
receive if prevailing patterns
of age specific enrolment
rates were to apply
Expected years of schooling
for schooling age children
https://data.undp.org/datase
t/Expected-Years-of-
Schooling-of-children-
years-/qnam-f624
Mean years of schooling for
adults aged 25 and older
https://data.undp.org/datase
t/Mean-years-of-schooling-
of-adults-years-/m67k-vi5c
18
Safeguarding of posterity
(al-nasl)
Protection of progeny Child mortality Probability dying of children
between birth and exact age
5. It is expressed as average
annual deaths per 1000 births
(UNDESA)
Child mortality https://data.undp.org/datase
t/Under-five-mortality-per-
1-000-live-births-/a4ay-
qce2
Development of future
generations
Life expectancy index Achievement of a country in
life expectancy
Life expectancy index
https://data.undp.org/datase
t/Life-expectancy-at-birth-
years-/7q3h-ym65
http://data.un.org/Data.aspx
?d=WDI&f=Indicator_Cod
e%3aSP.DYN.TFRT.IN
Fertility rate The average number of
children a hypothetical
cohort of women would have
at the end of their
reproductive period if they
were subject during their
whole lives to the fertility
rates of a given period they
were not subject to mortality.
It is expresses as children per
women (UNDESA).
Fertility rate
Safeguarding of wealth
(al-mal)
Property growth GNI per capita adjusted for
PPP
GNI per capita adjusted for
PPP
https://data.undp.org/datase
t/GNI-per-capita-in-PPP-
terms-constant-2005-
internat/u2dx-y6wx
19
4. MEASURING THE MASLAHAH-BASED DEVELOPMENT INDEX (M-DEX)
The M-Dex is a summary measure of key dimensions of human development. M-Dex serves
as an important benchmark for formulating policies and programmes towards achieving a
high-income, inclusive and sustainable nation. The M-Dex attempts to access the impact of
policy measures in enhancing the well-being of the people and will serve as a guide to policy
makers to formulate appropriate policies in moving forward. The components and indicators
of M-Dex were selected based on Maqasid Shariah component as illustrated in Figure 3.1.
One of the goals of constructing M-Dex is to classify or rank countries by levels of economic
development. This paper will absolutely be parallel with the methodology employed in the
United Nations’ Human Development Index (HDI) computation. There are two steps to
calculate the M-Dex. First, the data of each dimension will be normalised, and second, their
geometric mean of the component indices will be taken.
Step1 - Creating the Dimension Indices
Minimum and maximum values (goalpost) are set in order to transform the indicators into
indices between 0 and 1. The maximum is the highest observed value that can be
appropriately conceived of as a subsistence value. The low value for income can be justified
by the considerable amount of unmeasured subsistence and nonmarket production in
economies close to minimum (Human Development Report, 2013). Having defined the
minimum and maximum values, the sub-indices are calculated as follows:
Dimension index Actual Value Minimum Value
Maximum Value Minimum Value
Corruption Index (CoI) and Criminal Index (CrI) could serve as proxies to
safeguarding of faith (ad-din). Muslim and non-Muslim society should avoid themselves from
atrocious moral and values. Data on freedom score (FS) are used to estimate freedom score of
a country with similar civil and political conditions as safeguarding of life (an-nafs) proxies to
express absence of freedom and to complete enjoyment of freedom (Dar, 2004). Maximum
and minimum potentials for each country are standardised. The achievement on the freedom
score for each country is normalised on a scale from 0 to 1. The data on environment such as
carbon dioxide emission (CO2) per capita will be used in this study as a proxy to safeguarding
of life. The value of this proxy shows the negative measurement. The higher value is the
carbon dioxide emission; the worse is the environmental degradation for each country.
The 2010 Human Development Report introduces some changes to the indicators
measuring the knowledge indicator (Gaye, 2011). This is in response to some of the criticisms
against the index and also to take advantage of improvement in data availability. Prior to the
2010, the knowledge component of the HDI was measured by adult literacy rate and
combined primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of education. In 2010 onwards, indicators in
measuring knowledge have been replaced with expected years of schooling for schooling age
children and mean years of schooling for adults aged 25 and older. This study will use the
same indicators for education (ED) introduced by UNDP.
The proxy for safeguarding of posterity introduces child mortality (CM) to protect
progeny. Life expectancy rate (LER) measures the relative achievement of a country in life
expectancy, which is the number of years a new-born infant could expect to live if prevailing
patterns of age-specific mortality rates at the time of birth stay the same throughout the
20
infant’s life (Human Development Report, 2013). Total fertility rate (FR) is the number of
children that would be born to each woman if she were to live to the end of her child-bearing
years and bear children at each age in accordance with prevailing age specific fertility rates.
The final Maqasid component to safeguarding of wealth (al-mal) uses GNI per capita adjusted
for PPP as a property and ownership to protect wealth. The GNI index is calculated as
follows:
( )
21
Protection
from
progeny
Developing the Intellect Protection
from public
threats
Fulfillment
of Moral
Needs
GNI per capita
adjusted
for PPP
Fertility
Rate
Life expectancy
index
Child
Mortality
Mean years of
schooling
for adults aged 25
and older
Expected years of
schooling
for schooling
age
children
Safety and healthy
environment
(Carbon dioxide
emission)
Socio-political
freedom
Criminal
Index Corruption
Index Dimensions
Index
Dimensions Moral and Value
Standard
Maqasid
component
Development of future
generations
Property
growth
Safeguarding of
wealth
(ad-mal)
Safeguarding of
posterity
(an-nasl)
Safeguarding of
intellect
(al-‘aql)
Safeguarding of life
(an-nafs) Safeguarding of faith
(ad-din)
Maslahah-based Development Index (M-Dex)
Figure 6: Calculating the Maslahah-based Development Index (M-Dex): Graphical Presentation
22
Step 2 - Aggregating the sub-indices to produce the Maslahah-based Development Index
Since the HDI was introduced in 1990, the index has been the arithmetic mean of the three
component indices. This method of aggregation allows for perfect substitutability that has
poor performance in one dimension that could be compensated for by good performance in
another. The revised HDI uses a geometric mean of the component indices. Geometric mean
produces lower index values for all countries with the largest changes occurring in countries
with uneven development across dimensions. This is because the geometric mean takes into
consideration differences in achievement across dimensions (Gaye, 2011). The M-Dex is
calculated based on aggregating the sub-indices introduced by HDI as follow:
(IFaith1/5
. ILife1/5
. IIntellect1/5
. IPosterity1/5
. IWealth1/5
)
In total, 21 of the 186 countries have to be excluded for non-availability of data in one or
more of the eleven indicators considered. In other words, the M-Dex is based on 165 countries
including 51 OIC countries.
5. DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
The constructed M-Dex is reported in Table 3(a) and Table 3(b) (Appendices). The first
column presents the ranking of countries on the basis of the M-Dex, while the next column
lists down the countries on the basis of the HDI rank. The remaining ten columns present
country listing on the basis of their ranks in each of the ten constituents of the M-Dex.
Australia comes as the first ranking in the M-Dex rank, unlike Norway in the HDI rank.
Canada, Finland, Denmark, New Zealand, and Brunei Darussalam follow closely in M-Dex.
Australia scores high in freedom rank and is in higher rank in education compared to Norway.
Denmark shows high score in terms of being free from corruption, the lowest carbon dioxide
emission, and more freedom compared to Australia and Norway. A number of countries
witness an improved rank in the M-Dex compared to their HDI rank. For instances,
Singapore, Chile, and Malaysia rank 19, 38, and 60 on the HDI, respectively, as compared to
their respective ranks of 16, 17, and 43 in the M-Dex rank. This is attributable to their low
ranking in the carbon dioxide emission, and corruption index but high freedom with the low
rank and high GNI per capita for PPP. Another case in point is the United Kingdom (UK) that
ranks 26 in the HDI with deterioration in rank to 34 in the M-Dex. It is observed that the UK,
though is lower in corruption and has high rank freedom index rank, education, and GNI
indices, is penalised for its high carbon dioxide emission of 8.5 metric tons per capita and low
fertility rate of 1.7 births per women.
The United States (US), which ranks 3 in the HDI, ranks 15 in the M-Dex, penalised
for its high carbon dioxide emission of 18 metric ton per capita and low fertility rate of 1.9
births per women. Not only that, even the US reports high GNI and high education rank.
Japan also appears to have high rank in HDI, namely 10 and ranked 18 in M-Dex. Japan has
low corruption and crime and high in socio-political freedom, but the carbon dioxide emission
is reported to be 9.5 metric tons per capita. Korea (Republic of) also reports lower rank to 30
in M-Dex compared to rank 12 in HDI due to the high carbon dioxide emission of 10.5 metric
tons per capita. In contrast, Qatar shows high rank in carbon dioxide emission 49.10 metric
ton per capita, but its GNI per capita rank is high, and Qatar has lower crime compared to
Australia and lower corruption compared to Brunei Darussalam. Parenthetically, the countries
ranked at the low rank in the HDI rank are also quite low in the M-Dex. These countries
include Zimbabwe, Eritrea, Yemen, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Papua New Guinea, and Guinea-
Bissau. Zimbabwe, Eritrea, Uzbekistan, and Venezuela show the high rank of corruption and
criminal and report low ranking in terms of freedom.
The OIC members
Table 3 (Appendices) reports the M-Dex score and rank for the OIC members and comparison
with HDI. In general, we witness significantly different composition between M-Dex and
HDI rank for the high score group, specifically the top ten scores. Brunei Darussalam and
Qatar have improved rank in the M-Dex compared to HDI. On the contrary, the position of
United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia decreases from the top 3 to the fifth rank and from
sixth rank to eight in M-Dex, respectively, compared to HDI. The position Qatar remains
stable. Guinea-Bissau, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Yemen are in the lowest rank group of M-
Dex.
Most of the Middle East countries still dominate high score group in the M-Dex.
Meanwhile, lower group remains dominated by African countries. The role of material
welfare in the development of M-Dex is important (Anto, 2011). Most of the Middle East
countries such as Qatar and Bahrain are relatively high-income countries. Meanwhile, most of
the African countries are relatively poor countries. Brunei, Qatar, and United Arab Emirates
report lower rank in corruption index and have high rank in socio-political freedom. The
inclusion of high faith might explain this phenomenon. As conveyed in both Quran and
Hadith, there is a strong precedence for high moral standards, ethics, values, and norms of
behaviour governing many aspect of life (Rehman et al., 2010). Corrupt practices are un-
Islamic, and they are specifically prohibited in Islam. The OIC members show low to
moderate influence of religion or faith, and faith plays a minimal role in the affairs of the
countries.
A relative substantial improvement from HDI rank to the M-Dex could be found in the
case of Maldives and Kyrgyzstan from rank 19 to rank 11 and from rank 26 to rank 14 ranks,
respectively. Maldives and Kyrgyzstan show low corruption. Burkine Faso, Guinea,
Mozambique, and Niger also show improved rank from HDI to M-Dex rank, namely from
rank 48 to rank 17, from rank 46 to rank 41 ranks, from rank 50 to rank 37, and from rank 51
to rank 44, respectively. These OIC members have the barest minimum rate of carbon dioxide
emission in the world (0.10 metric tons per capita). Seven OIC member countries record high
levels of carbon dioxide emission, namely Qatar, Kuwait, Brunei Darussalam, United Arab
Emirates, Bahrain, Oman, and Saudi (49.10, 30.10, 27.50, 25.0, 21.40 17.30 and 16.60 metric
tons per capita, respectively). In fact, Qatar, Brunei Darussalam, United Arab Emirates,
Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia also rank highest in the world in that order in terms of carbon
dioxide emission. The OIC members with the highest carbon dioxide emission are mostly
Middle East countries, and they have high ranks in HDI and M-Dex.
Other OIC countries show a good ranking in M-Dex is Malaysia. Malaysia rank 60 on
the HDI and rank 43 as compared to M-Dex. Malaysia has launched the Malaysian Shariah
Index, a product that complements Islamic governance through a more comprehensive
Shariah requirement yardstick. The index evaluated and assessed the government’s
seriousness in achieving the five aspects as required by the Maqasid Shariah. The uniqueness
of the index was the comprehensive measurement covered eight major areas, namely legal,
politics, economy, education, health, culture, infrastructure and environment, and social. The
measurement of this index fulfilled two important functions, namely evaluating the
seriousness of government efforts from year to year in meeting Islamic standards concerning
policies and programs. Secondly, the index was to identify improvements that needed to be
given focus to achieve better benefits following the adoption of universal values in Islam.
6. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Sustainable development should be carried out in a way that brings betterment to the current
generation without depriving the future generations. Islam has given guidelines for
sustainable development and human well-being, including faith (ad-din), life (an-nafs),
intellect (al-‘aql), posterity (an-nasl), and wealth (al-mal) for the current and future
generations. Based on all discussion above, HDI achievement measures the aspects of health,
educational and economic level only. The performance is merely from the physical aspects
and spiritual features do not take into account. This study proposes and explores a new
approach to construct a specific model for measuring economic development in Islamic
perspective in leading a better measurement of human development. The M-Dex is considered
a complementary framework to HDI within the framework of the Maqasid Shariah, which is
basically concerned with promoting and ensuring human well-being for OIC and non-OIC
members. The significant differences in the HDI and M-Dex ranks suggest that M-Dex has an
improvement and is more comprehensive and accurate measurement over the existing
measures of human welfare.
Predominantly, countries with high corruption and low socio-political freedom fall in
rank. In general, the contributions of higher GNI indicate its important role in developing the
welfare of the countries. The lack of economic, financial, political, legal, and social
developments can be attributed to the problem in developing the countries. For instances, are
inefficient institutions, lack of good governance, atrocious economic policies, corruption,
bribe, crime, and unequal distribution. However, it may be difficult to sustain the
development in the long run because of a rise in inequities, family disintegration, juvenile,
delinquency, and social unrest.
A task for further research would be to improve the indicators and quality of the
existing data to make them internationally comparable. Another area for further research is
the exploration of the precise meaning of some indicators. Some variables that should be
included in this research face insufficient data. For instances are the debt indicator, divorce
rate, pollution index, Gini coefficient, and poverty gap at national poverty line. OIC countries
should establish a committee to develop, regulating and monitoring the Islamic development
index. This index can be a benchmark for Muslims countries and evaluates the government’s
seriousness and commitment to adhering Islamic virtues in governance and identifies
improvement to focus on. The index proposed not only to promote good governance but also
benefit the people regardless of their religion.
We suggest using System Dynamics approach to look the behaviour of all indicators to
the future M-Dex. All of the variables or indicators used in this research are all interdependent
and support each other (Chapra, 2008). We propose this method due to its inherent ability to
properly represent elements of dynamic complexity. This methodology could help
government to facilitate the policies and budgetary decision that may promote human-centred
development. With progress in ensuring the enrichment of all these ingredients, it may be
possible for the objectives in Maqasid Shariah to shine with its full brightness and help realise
real human well-being. It is possible for the Muslim world to reflect what the Quran says
about blessing for mankind (Quran 21:107). Concentration only on economic development
with neglect of other requisites for realising the Islamic vision may enable the Muslim world
to have a relatively higher rate of growth in the short term.
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APPENDICES
Table 3(a): Constituents of M-Dex and HDI
Countries
Maslahah-
Based
Development
Index
(M-Dex)
Human
Development
Index
Safeguarding
of Faith
Index
Safeguardi
ng of Life
Index
Carbon
Dioxide
Emission
(Metric
Tons))
Safeguarding
of Intellect
Index
Safeguarding
of Posterity
Index
Child
Mortality
Rate
Life
Expectancy
Rate
Fertility
Rate
(Birth/
Women)
GNI Per
Capita
Adjusted
For PPP
Safeguardi
ng of
Wealth
Index
Australia 0.70739 0.93800 0.84033 0.65228 18.60 0.93355 0.40159 5.0 78 2.8 34340 0.86196
Canada 0.69187 0.91100 0.86670 0.61090 16.30 0.76295 0.45303 6.0 50 4.9 35369 0.86632
Finland 0.67925 0.89200 0.97705 0.52250 10.60 0.81239 0.40830 3.0 73 1.4 32510 0.85388
Denmark 0.67229 0.90100 1.00000 0.51181 8.40 0.77978 0.40090 4.0 80 1.7 33518 0.85838
New Zealand 0.67097 0.91900 0.99516 0.53536 7.80 0.73308 0.42920 6.0 49 1.8 24358 0.81126
Brunei
Darussalam 0.66654 0.85500
0.63807 0.66695 27.50
0.82056 0.41670 7.0 56 5
45690 0.90412
Hong Kong,
China (SAR) 0.65056 0.90600
0.77043 0.55612 5.50
0.68663 0.43826 3.0 52 2
45598 0.90382
Qatar 0.64778 0.83400 0.70560 0.90024 49.10 0.48634 0.36922 8.0 58 1.9 87478 1.00000
Luxembourg 0.64017 0.87500 0.82865 0.63484 21.50 0.61332 0.36529 3.0 74 2.6 48285 0.91227
Norway 0.62967 0.95500 0.90602 0.50188 10.50 0.57574 0.41390 3.0 82 2.7 48688 0.91350
Germany 0.62927 0.92000 0.81375 0.50557 9.60 0.77339 0.35784 4.0 68 7.6 35431 0.86658
Belgium 0.62915 0.89700 0.77101 0.48746 9.80 0.84482 0.36184 4.0 69 4.9 33429 0.85799
Austria 0.62689 0.89500 0.71232 0.48467 8.10 0.82817 0.38890 4.0 75 5 36438 0.87071
Iceland 0.62419 0.90600 0.81574 0.47512 7.00 0.77274 0.37757 2.0 77 5.1 29176 0.83790
United States 0.62307 0.93700 0.75145 0.60921 18.00 0.55797 0.40994 8.0 74 1.9 43480 0.89680
Singapore 0.62208 0.89500 0.91990 0.56109 6.70 0.50458 0.38673 3.0 81 6.5 52613 0.92494
Chile 0.62004 0.81900 0.72891 0.48723 4.40 0.82422 0.42334 9.0 76 6.1 14987 0.73956
Japan 0.61769 0.91200 0.76062 0.49895 9.50 0.70035 0.39613 3.0 76 2.6 32545 0.85403
Botswana 0.61397 0.63400 0.67971 0.42081 2.50 0.69799 0.60718 48.0 55 1.8 13102 0.71972
Ireland 0.61386 0.91600 0.74415 0.52487 9.90 0.67123 0.39803 4.0 67 2.3 28671 0.83533
Bahamas 0.61129 0.79400 0.73603 0.45882 6.50 0.75589 0.40354 16.0 49 1.5 27401 0.82864
Estonia 0.61002 0.84600 0.70181 0.56039 13.60 0.79199 0.35608 5.0 74 2.1 17402 0.76162
France 0.60646 0.89300 0.52896 0.64110 5.90 0.80251 0.38985 4.0 57 3.3 19154 0.77578
Barbados 0.60616 0.82500 0.72850 0.41911 5.00 0.76201 0.41809 20.0 67 1.8 30277 0.84337
Sweden 0.60607 0.91600 0.77580 0.43904 5.30 0.78965 0.39992 3.0 76 2.2 17308 0.76082
Bahrain 0.60686 0.79600 0.97040 0.46226 21.40 0.54895 0.38193 10.0 72 2.2 36143 0.86951
Switzerland 0.60476 0.91300 0.89276 0.50761 5.30 0.50374 0.39977 5.0 81 6.1 40527 0.88642
Cyprus 0.60118 0.84800 0.66669 0.46695 7.90 0.81050 0.38518 4.0 77 5.1 23825 0.80799
Netherlands 0.59705 0.92100 0.87903 0.51970 10.60 0.63570 0.29887 4.0 53 2.6 37282 0.87410
Korea (Republic
of) 0.58908 0.90900
0.59251 0.50076 10.50
0.78617 0.36507 5.0 64 6.2
28231 0.83304
Kuwait 0.58906 0.79000 0.47938 0.66045 30.10 0.64612 0.37465 11.0 75 4.1 52793 0.92545
Israel 0.58275 0.90000 0.64450 0.42764 5.20 0.66915 0.44324 5.0 51 3.9 26224 0.82216
United Arab
Emirates 0.58180 0.81800
0.71640 0.65320 25.00
0.40607 0.39232 7.0 80 2.2
42716 0.89418
United Kingdom 0.57760 0.87500 0.78293 0.50555 8.50 0.47639 0.39922 5.0 74 1.7 32538 0.85400
Trinidad and
Tobago 0.57331 0.76000
0.41276 0.73046 37.40
0.57271 0.45071 27.0 77 1.2
21941 0.79583
Latvia 0.57061 0.81400 0.57277 0.40601 3.30 0.77789 0.45376 10.0 62 4.2 14724 0.73695
Poland 0.56600 0.82100 0.63807 0.45423 8.30 0.65270 0.40150 6.0 79 1.9 17776 0.76476
Spain 0.56330 0.88500 0.62984 0.45421 7.20 0.61549 0.39251 5.0 52 1.5 25947 0.82059
Malta 0.56232 0.84700 0.60273 0.44120 6.20 0.62385 0.42865 6.0 58 2.8 21184 0.79065
Mauritius 0.56009 0.73700 0.56174 0.46220 3.10 0.67976 0.43259 15.0 55 3.5 13300 0.72193
Czech Republic 0.55679 0.87300 0.52599 0.51126 11.20 0.73795 0.33848 4.0 71 1.6 22067 0.79668
Hungary 0.55625 0.83100 0.58229 0.43192 5.40 0.71539 0.39461 6.0 74 1.8 16088 0.75003
Malaysia 0.55491 0.76900 0.54818 0.44765 7.60 0.66566 0.44365 6.0 62 1.8 13676 0.72605
Uruguay 0.55337 0.79200 0.75477 0.41577 2.50 0.52122 0.43920 11.0 60 2.4 13333 0.72230
Lithuania 0.54593 0.81800 0.51752 0.55783 4.50 0.49677 0.42006 7.0 77 1.5 24092 0.80964
Oman 0.54656 0.73100 0.61371 0.44961 17.30 0.61652 0.37659 9.0 74 4.8 16858 0.75693
Portugal 0.54562 0.81600 0.65665 0.40739 5.30 0.62790 0.36841 4.0 74 1.8 19907 0.78147
Greece 0.54392 0.86000 0.44236 0.39897 8.70 0.75957 0.45190 5.0 56 2 20511 0.78588
Saudi Arabia 0.54391 0.78200 0.50514 0.50869 16.60 0.58475 0.39587 18.0 73 4.7 22616 0.80030
Bhutan 0.53916 0.53800 0.67375 0.31815 1.00 0.72450 0.50181 56.0 63 2.4 5246 0.58460
Costa Rica 0.53741 0.77300 0.47821 0.41482 1.80 0.77207 0.35696 10.0 51 5.8 26158 0.82178
Italy 0.53765 0.88100 0.57394 0.39351 7.40 0.71238 0.40260 4.0 76 1.4 10863 0.69205
Bulgaria 0.53619 0.78200 0.45270 0.43129 6.60 0.74631 0.43445 13.0 63 3 11474 0.70013
Dominica 0.53397 0.74500 0.62102 0.37717 1.90 0.67572 0.39542 12.0 69 1.8 10977 0.69359
Croatia 0.53337 0.80500 0.52610 0.39731 5.30 0.69245 0.40098 6.0 79 1.2 15419 0.74376
Slovenia 0.52989 0.89200 0.61149 0.43220 8.50 0.54923 0.35572 3.0 71 2.4 23999 0.80907
Slovakia 0.52817 0.84000 0.51717 0.45507 6.90 0.51971 0.43090 8.0 78 1.5 19696 0.77990
Seychelles 0.52713 0.80600 0.58527 0.38698 7.80 0.55843 0.40209 14.0 80 2 22615 0.80030
Brazil 0.52622 0.73000 0.46723 0.34450 2.10 0.74762 0.49158 19.0 82 4.8 10152 0.68206
Saint Lucia 0.52372 0.72500 0.73684 0.41765 2.30 0.49903 0.39692 16.0 62 1.5 7971 0.64636
South Africa 0.52104 0.62900 0.47038 0.43684 8.90 0.55429 0.50046 57.0 74 3.9 9594 0.67371
Romania 0.51854 0.78600 0.48008 0.40940 4.40 0.63118 0.43541 14.0 65 1.4 11011 0.69405
Montenegro 0.51663 0.79100 0.48639 0.38214 3.10 0.71530 0.40315 8.0 79 3.2 10471 0.68663
Cape Verde 0.51329 0.58600 0.62405 0.36279 0.60 0.64564 0.46047 36.0 72 2.7 3609 0.52938
Turkey 0.51200 0.72200 0.54911 0.39300 4.00 0.47403 0.47349 18.0 70 3.4 13710 0.72641
Namibia 0.50935 0.60800 0.53042 0.35599 1.80 0.63643 0.47251 40.0 81 1.5 5973 0.60376
Georgia 0.50828 0.74500 0.53965 0.41650 1.20 0.60946 0.42874 22.0 68 3.3 5005 0.57766
Armenia 0.50749 0.72900 0.38339 0.40695 1.80 0.77957 0.46697 20.0 74 4.9 5540 0.59265
Jordan 0.50568 0.70000 0.46700 0.40552 3.70 0.71980 0.37932 22.0 68 2.9 7713 0.64150
Bosnia and
Herzegovina 0.50600 0.73500
0.49784 0.43193 8.30
0.60805 0.43207 8.0 78 4.5
5272 0.58533
Fiji 0.50201 0.70200 0.64750 0.33557 1.50 0.64602 0.41466 17.0 83 5.3 4087 0.54774
Jamaica 0.50174 0.73000 0.41393 0.41994 4.50 0.73850 0.39905 24.0 73 5 6701 0.62074
Maldives 0.50165 0.68800 0.55472 0.30497 3.00 0.62929 0.46853 15.0 71 2.3 7478 0.63693
The former
Yugoslav
Republic of
Macedonia
0.49958 0.74000 0.48750 0.44104
5.80 0.49800 0.43357
12.0 82 4.9 9377 0.67034
China 0.49316 0.69900 0.44691 0.34468 5.30 0.73304 0.39998 18.0 70 4.2 7945 0.64587
Mexico 0.49213 0.77500 0.35659 0.31046 4.30 0.86728 0.40523 17.0 75 1.9 15347 0.74307
Argentina 0.49228 0.81100 0.35776 0.41902 4.80 0.72366 0.37063 14.0 81 3.5 12947 0.71796
Mongolia 0.48884 0.67500 0.41883 0.38730 4.10 0.68249 0.45568 32.0 77 2 4245 0.55334
Algeria 0.48782 0.71300 0.38596 0.31037 3.20 0.84518 0.42919 36.0 75 4.7 7418 0.63574
El Salvador 0.48648 0.68000 0.41416 0.38366 1.00 0.69931 0.40710 16.0 70 1.3 5915 0.60232
Colombia 0.48476 0.71900 0.38339 0.40500 1.50 0.61961 0.42193 19.0 82 2.3 8711 0.65946
Ghana 0.48368 0.55800 0.51103 0.34731 0.40 0.67280 0.53182 74.0 56 1.4 1684 0.41685
Gabon 0.48272 0.68300 0.35951 0.34098 1.70 0.64950 0.46170 74.0 69 1.5 12521 0.71302
Serbia 0.48217 0.76900 0.46578 0.39750 6.80 0.53691 0.38969 7.0 79 5.8 9533 0.67277
Swaziland 0.47819 0.53600 0.43325 0.33149 1.10 0.52345 0.57291 78.0 60 2.7 5104 0.58055
Kyrgyzstan 0.47601 0.62200 0.65024 0.34595 1.20 0.56416 0.43478 38.0 63 2.1 2009 0.44290
Peru 0.47399 0.74100 0.41288 0.39614 1.40 0.50796 0.43032 19.0 84 2.3 9306 0.66922
India 0.47325 0.55400 0.39453 0.32438 1.50 0.69639 0.51669 63.0 79 1.7 3285 0.51550
Azerbaijan 0.47189 0.73400 0.26201 0.38937 5.40 0.71049 0.49691 46.0 81 3.2 8153 0.64969
Ecuador 0.46781 0.72400 0.36990 0.28199 1.90 0.78005 0.43241 20.0 58 1.5 7471 0.63679
Albania 0.46727 0.74900 0.32225 0.37833 1.30 0.74047 0.38340 18.0 66 2.6 7822 0.64357
Panama 0.46470 0.78000 0.36780 0.37035 2.00 0.53803 0.40822 20.0 81 1.4 13519 0.72434
Burkina Faso 0.46429 0.34300 0.42664 0.33641 0.10 0.55483 0.73806 176.0 49 5 1202 0.36708
Bolivia
(Plurinational
State of)
0.46007 0.67500 0.35980 0.28146
1.30 0.74865 0.48538
54.0 66 2.5 4444 0.56011
Dominican
Republic 0.45950 0.70200
0.28956 0.35672 2.20
0.63173 0.47857 27.0 55 1.4
8506 0.65595
Tunisia 0.45941 0.71200 0.45684 0.34364 2.40 0.45073 0.44580 16.0 73 1.3 8103 0.64878
Benin 0.45655 0.43600 0.39687 0.32761 0.50 0.68595 0.56502 115.0 75 5.8 1439 0.39364
Kazakhstan 0.45546 0.75400 0.22979 0.50683 15.10 0.63269 0.38755 33.0 70 3.1 10451 0.68635
Suriname 0.45449 0.68400 0.38853 0.33911 4.70 0.49141 0.47246 31.0 59 1.5 7327 0.63392
Thailand 0.45397 0.69000 0.37165 0.40176 4.20 0.41745 0.48208 13.0 59 4 7722 0.64167
Belarus 0.45317 0.79300 0.28595 0.33508 6.50 0.76407 0.36112 6.0 49 1.5 13385 0.72287
Morocco 0.44979 0.59100 0.40353 0.34901 1.50 0.50832 0.46077 36.0 51 2.1 4384 0.55810
Egypt 0.44926 0.66200 0.33230 0.33438 2.70 0.62666 0.44631 22.0 75 1.4 5401 0.58890
Lebanon 0.44626 0.74500 0.25892 0.37498 4.10 0.67610 0.37914 22.0 74 4.5 12364 0.71116
Russian
Federation 0.44562 0.78800
0.25886 0.40856 12.00
0.54340 0.41641 12.0 80 2.1
14461 0.73429
Djibouti 0.43799 0.44500 0.39629 0.30791 0.60 0.51309 0.55243 91.0 80 1.8 2350 0.46605
Indonesia 0.43559 0.62900 0.33259 0.33594 1.70 0.59809 0.42657 35.0 69 1.8 4154 0.55014
Rwanda 0.43451 0.43400 0.57516 0.35992 0.10 0.46086 0.45073 91.0 53 2.5 1147 0.36016
Mauritania 0.43396 0.46700 0.30620 0.29896 0.60 0.57025 0.64859 111.0 59 1.4 2174 0.45456
Guatemala 0.43363 0.58100 0.20854 0.31739 0.90 0.67751 0.49625 32.0 74 1.5 10695 0.68975
Iran (Islamic
Republic of) 0.43373 0.74200
0.29855 0.34513 7.40
0.66255 0.40611 26.0 67 2
4235 0.55299
Sri Lanka 0.43166 0.71500 0.40236 0.34599 0.60 0.41632 0.44398 17.0 82 2.6 5170 0.58244
Angola 0.42921 0.50800 0.18938 0.27912 1.40 0.69497 0.69339 161.0 77 6.1 4812 0.57185
Cuba 0.42894 0.78000 0.50613 0.18815 2.80 0.70064 0.36724 6.0 74 2.1 5539 0.59262
Philippines 0.42597 0.65400 0.38923 0.33505 0.90 0.38342 0.52413 29.0 52 3.1 3752 0.53512
Moldova
(Republic of) 0.42156 0.66000
0.37200 0.32402 1.30
0.51378 0.41581 19.0 73 1.5
3319 0.51702
Cameroon 0.41650 0.49500 0.21321 0.29589 0.30 0.73906 0.59684 136.0 65 2.6 2114 0.45043
Ethiopia 0.41564 0.39600 0.34223 0.27762 0.10 0.61931 0.61569 106.0 68 2.5 1017 0.34241
Senegal 0.41563 0.47000 0.45736 0.31483 0.40 0.40361 0.51538 75.0 75 4.6 1653 0.41411
Sao Tome and
Principe 0.41156 0.52500
0.47132 0.27692 0.80
0.42073 0.49790 80.0 75 1.9
1864 0.43185
Malawi 0.40978 0.41800 0.40522 0.31065 0.10 0.54591 0.55654 92.0 82 2.1 774 0.30210
Côte d'Ivoire 0.40741 0.43200 0.27170 0.30699 0.40 0.57475 0.57291 123.0 70 1.4 1593 0.40865
Gambia 0.40706 0.43900 0.27042 0.33229 0.30 0.53660 0.55065 98.0 71 2.5 1731 0.42092
Honduras 0.40512 0.63200 0.23096 0.33923 1.20 0.58633 0.45535 24.0 57 5.6 3426 0.52170
Zambia 0.40083 0.44800 0.42233 0.33071 0.20 0.34731 0.55386 111.0 74 1.2 1358 0.38509
Nepal 0.40075 0.46300 0.32529 0.28322 0.10 0.59431 0.52608 50.0 52 1.8 1137 0.35887
Liberia 0.40063 0.38800 0.42285 0.27808 0.20 0.63868 0.59345 100.0 82 1.8 480 0.23157
Bangladesh 0.39707 0.51500 0.24870 0.29757 0.30 0.64167 0.48851 48.0 74 1.9 1785 0.42545
Guyana 0.39594 0.63600 0.24503 0.32164 2.00 0.55090 0.43100 30.0 80 4.9 3387 0.52001
Pakistan 0.39441 0.51500 0.26802 0.31871 1.00 0.44844 0.52012 87.0 76 2.3 2566 0.47903
Tanzania (United
Republic of) 0.39285 0.47600
0.33855 0.32623 0.20
0.38886 0.56186 76.0 65 1.4
1383 0.38778
Comoros 0.39224 0.42900 0.27462 0.26800 0.20 0.69873 0.53443 86.0 81 1.5 986 0.33784
Kenya 0.39136 0.51900 0.24812 0.31605 0.30 0.55616 0.52136 85.0 48 2.4 1541 0.40375
Mozambique 0.38956 0.32700 0.31425 0.30897 0.10 0.45155 0.62898 135.0 74 3.8 906 0.32534
Mali 0.38864 0.34400 0.27462 0.32089 0.50 0.47983 0.66261 178.0 53 2.4 853 0.31644
Paraguay 0.38639 0.66900 0.19546 0.34925 0.70 0.52515 0.42760 25.0 80 2.2 4497 0.56186
Nigeria 0.38583 0.47100 0.21385 0.31463 0.60 0.43895 0.64391 143.0 77 6.9 2102 0.44958
Nicaragua 0.38571 0.59900 0.26324 0.32507 0.80 0.49216 0.42392 27.0 75 1.6 2551 0.47816
Equatorial
Guinea 0.38506 0.55400 0.12657 0.31133 7.30 0.42983 0.62927 121.0 58 1.3 21715 0.79430
Lao People's
Democratic
Republic
0.38423 0.54300 0.23504 0.28358
0.30 0.52702 0.50585
54.0 76 2 2435 0.47129
Ukraine 0.38382 0.74000 0.21263 0.33067 7.00 0.49969 0.38579 13.0 74 2.5 6428 0.61459
Madagascar 0.37913 0.48300 0.26931 0.34816 0.10 0.54591 0.49040 62.0 80 1.8 828 0.31205
Congo 0.37704 0.53400 0.17981 0.24866 0.50 0.60597 0.56382 93.0 75 2.1 2934 0.49881
Sierra Leone 0.37387 0.35900 0.31186 0.27248 0.20 0.35445 0.75501 174.0 66 2.1 881 0.32121
Guinea 0.37344 0.35500 0.19955 0.28769 0.10 0.61433 0.62224 130.0 75 1.2 941 0.33094
Central African
Republic 0.36933 0.35200
0.22313 0.28322 0.10
0.54101 0.68874 159.0 79 1.5
722 0.29183
Viet Nam 0.36772 0.61700 0.32301 0.30086 1.50 0.35842 0.38559 23.0 73 3.6 2970 0.50061
Cambodia 0.36412 0.54300 0.13906 0.33061 0.30 0.61988 0.50012 51.0 81 3.3 2095 0.44909
Iraq 0.36352 0.59000 0.10016 0.40479 3.40 0.67486 0.44002 39.0 69 2.6 3557 0.52724
Togo 0.36123 0.45900 0.30053 0.27528 0.20 0.38558 0.58624 103.0 83 4.3 928 0.32889
Burundi 0.35285 0.35500 0.16381 0.28048 0.60 0.66650 0.71428 142.0 55 1.4 544 0.25004
Niger 0.35170 0.30400 0.36196 0.30281 0.10 0.28978 0.58934 143.0 69 2.3 701 0.28747
Uganda 0.35137 0.45600 0.23825 0.34313 0.10 0.36819 0.49037 99.0 49 1.7 1168 0.36284
Haiti 0.35109 0.45600 0.12832 0.27238 0.30 0.64778 0.67335 165.0 69 1.9 1070 0.34990
Turkmenistan 0.34849 0.69800 0.10683 0.33750 9.70 0.43634 0.50827 56.0 73 1.3 7782 0.64281
Chad 0.34623 0.34000 0.13123 0.26124 0.80 0.56000 0.69327 173.0 75 1.8 1258 0.37380
Venezuela
(Bolivarian
Republic of)
0.34195 0.74800 0.13731 0.26437
6.10 0.41435 0.44395
18.0 81 2.8 11475 0.70014
Guinea-Bissau 0.34136 0.36400 0.12890 0.28816 0.20 0.52683 0.68466 150.0 80 4.9 1042 0.34599
Papua New
Guinea 0.33949 0.46600 0.21788 0.30317 0.30 0.31262 0.46632 61.0 76 1.4 2386 0.46829
Tajikistan 0.33923 0.62200 0.17164 0.30409 0.50 0.41594 0.45906 63.0 74 6 2119 0.45077
Uzbekistan 0.31827 0.65400 0.11266 0.30450 4.60 0.36960 0.50340 52.0 73 2.9 3201 0.51167
Congo
(Democratic
Republic of the)
0.31791 0.30400 0.18039 0.25030
2.80 0.59168 0.70978
170.0 75 2.9 319 0.17125
Yemen 0.30000 0.45800 0.11990 0.32319 1.00 0.26592 0.55054 77.0 74 5.4 1820 0.42832
Eritrea 0.28832 0.35100 0.14023 0.20427 0.10 0.55660 0.50701 61.0 69 2.4 531 0.24647
Zimbabwe 0.24805 0.39700 0.16264 0.16728 0.70 0.30898 0.52389 80.0 74 3.1 424 0.21325
Table 3(b): Constituents of M-Dex and HDI Ranks
Countries M-Dex
Rank HDI Rank
Corruption
Index
Rank
Crime Index
Rank
Socio-
Political
Freedom
Index Rank
Carbon
Dioxide
Emission
(Metric
Tons)
Rank
Education
Index
Rank
Child
Mortality
Index Rank
Life
Expectancy
Index
Rank
Fertility Rate
(Birth/Women)
Rank
GNI Per
Capita
Adjusted
For PPP
Rank
Australia 1 2 9 108 3 158 2 21 35 58 16
Canada 2 11 10 80 6 154 36 30 159 23 15
Finland 3 21 3 71 16 148 8 2 84 150 21
Denmark 4 15 1 66 9 136 11 14 23 126 17
New Zealand 5 6 2 100 4 130 1 36 163 124 30
Brunei Darussalam 6 29 37 64 39 162 38 38 142 18 6
Hong Kong, China
(SAR) 7 13 17 47 21 112 28 3 155 101 7
Qatar 8 34 29 53 25 165 96 44 136 110 1
Luxembourg 9 25 11 39 15 160 68 5 65 68 5
Norway 10 1 5 51 29 146 5 6 5 62 4
Germany 11 5 12 48 19 142 12 16 114 1 14
Belgium 12 17 16 103 38 144 13 11 104 22 18
Austria 13 18 26 42 2 133 31 10 53 17 12
Iceland 14 14 13 33 1 123 4 1 39 16 23
United States 15 3 19 134 10 157 10 46 80 112 8
Singapore 16 19 6 65 24 120 48 7 14 3 3
Chile 17 38 23 93 7 96 44 47 49 6 51
Japan 18 10 18 26 23 141 30 4 47 67 19
Botswana 19 105 30 116 28 79 105 112 145 114 60
Ireland 20 7 21 68 18 145 3 17 117 83 24
Bahamas 21 47 22 84 33 117 87 65 164 132 26
Estonia 22 32 28 49 13 152 24 22 78 94 45
France 23 20 24 126 62 114 20 15 141 47 43
Barbados 24 36 15 107 37 103 17 82 115 113 22
Sweden 25 8 4 109 11 106 22 9 48 90 46
Bahrain 26 46 56 41 12 159 71 49 92 88 13
Switzerland 27 9 7 58 5 105 25 27 13 7 10
Cyprus 28 30 32 74 40 132 40 12 42 15 33
Netherlands 29 4 8 87 17 149 7 19 150 69 11
Korea (Republic of) 30 12 45 32 32 147 6 25 124 4 25
Kuwait 31 51 69 57 65 163 55 52 56 37 2
Israel 32 16 36 119 50 104 26 24 157 39 27
United Arab Emirates 33 40 43 37 26 161 27 41 26 91 9
United Kingdom 34 26 14 92 14 137 15 28 67 129 20
Trinidad and Tobago 35 62 88 163 71 164 102 96 41 164 37
Latvia 36 42 49 112 53 88 41 51 129 36 52
Poland 37 37 38 89 56 134 35 37 29 109 44
Spain 38 23 39 75 45 125 14 26 153 144 29
Malta 39 31 44 38 46 116 37 35 137 59 39
Mauritius 40 73 51 127 8 85 65 64 148 44 59
Czech Republic 41 27 58 76 27 150 32 13 97 130 36
Hungary 42 35 46 73 47 110 33 33 73 118 48
Malaysia 43 60 53 157 55 129 88 34 130 122 55
Uruguay 44 49 20 110 34 80 29 53 131 81 58
Lithuania 45 39 27 78 22 98 100 39 43 139 31
Oman 46 76 60 59 44 156 69 48 83 28 47
Portugal 47 41 33 79 66 107 23 20 75 125 41
Greece 48 28 80 124 112 139 16 23 143 100 40
Saudi Arabia 49 55 76 69 81 155 58 74 87 30 34
Bhutan 50 123 31 1 117 50 93 118 125 76 99
Costa Rica 51 59 48 156 49 69 62 50 156 10 28
Italy 52 24 68 123 82 127 18 18 50 152 68
Bulgaria 53 54 62 98 59 119 53 57 126 54 65
Dominica 54 66 41 155 63 71 82 54 103 117 67
Croatia 55 45 57 70 76 108 57 31 30 162 49
Slovenia 56 22 42 61 74 138 9 8 95 80 32
Slovakia 57 33 61 81 41 122 43 45 37 143 42
Seychelles 58 44 47 17 119 131 51 62 24 105 35
Brazil 59 77 72 153 99 75 56 77 6 27 72
Saint Lucia 60 80 25 50 30 77 83 67 128 142 81
South Africa 61 108 113 162 73 140 81 120 70 40 73
Romania 62 53 70 63 58 97 46 61 123 156 66
Montenegro 63 50 66 54 69 86 39 43 32 50 70
Cape Verde 64 116 40 22 64 35 86 105 93 61 112
Turkey 65 82 54 82 68 91 80 75 102 45 54
Namibia 66 112 59 86 83 70 114 109 16 141 93
Georgia 67 67 55 40 20 53 75 86 111 48 102
Armenia 68 79 94 96 36 68 97 81 81 21 95
Jordan 69 89 65 105 31 90 85 87 113 56 86
Bosnia and Herzegovina 70 74 71 104 101 135 73 42 36 32 98
Fiji 71 88 121 90 103 63 94 69 2 14 110
Jamaica 72 78 85 135 51 99 77 91 91 20 91
Maldives 73 93 52 2 142 84 91 63 94 84 87
The former Yugoslav
Republic of Macedonia 74 71 67 62 42 113 72 56 8 26
75
China 75 90 79 56 131 109 107 73 100 35 82
Mexico 76 58 108 139 48 95 61 70 63 108 50
Argentina 77 43 105 146 153 102 21 60 19 43 61
Mongolia 78 98 109 115 75 92 70 101 40 104 107
Algeria 79 85 93 128 139 87 67 104 57 29 89
El Salvador 80 96 84 125 52 48 101 66 99 158 94
Colombia 81 83 96 136 35 61 66 78 4 82 77
Ghana 82 118 63 114 77 28 113 127 144 151 136
Gabon 83 95 107 27 98 66 79 126 105 137 62
Serbia 84 61 75 97 93 121 64 40 31 11 74
Swaziland 85 124 81 24 102 52 124 131 132 63 101
Kyrgyzstan 86 109 35 149 89 54 90 107 127 95 131
Peru 87 70 87 144 43 59 76 80 1 87 76
India 88 120 160 102 114 64 153 124 34 127 117
Azerbaijan 89 75 124 85 86 111 106 110 15 49 79
Ecuador 90 81 102 148 152 72 63 83 138 136 88
Albania 91 64 114 117 57 56 111 72 119 64 83
Panama 92 57 64 14 165 74 19 84 17 154 56
Burkina Faso 93 161 83 36 85 4 159 164 160 19 144
Bolivia (Plurinational
State of) 94 97 82 113 149 58 54 116 120 71
105
Dominican Republic 95 87 34 145 87 76 60 94 146 148 78
Tunisia 96 86 78 111 104 78 47 68 85 160 80
Benin 97 146 95 30 100 31 139 148 55 9 140
Kazakhstan 98 63 140 131 67 153 34 102 101 51 71
Suriname 99 94 100 12 130 101 92 99 134 145 90
Thailand 100 92 104 95 61 94 95 58 135 38 85
Belarus 101 48 120 55 148 118 45 29 161 133 57
Morocco 102 114 91 77 88 62 128 106 158 97 106
Egypt 103 100 112 121 120 81 99 85 59 149 97
Lebanon 104 68 128 118 90 93 59 88 79 33 63
Russian Federation 105 52 133 130 134 151 52 55 22 98 53
Djibouti 106 144 97 7 122 38 163 137 28 116 125
Indonesia 107 107 73 94 105 67 78 103 108 119 109
Rwanda 108 147 50 34 60 1 119 138 149 74 146
Mauritania 109 136 117 28 129 39 152 146 133 153 126
Guatemala 110 117 122 164 84 46 122 100 82 138 69
Iran (Islamic Republic
of) 111 69 143 138 158 128 50 93 116 102
108
Sri Lanka 112 84 92 91 80 36 84 71 7 70 100
Angola 113 130 149 129 151 60 132 159 38 5 103
Cuba 114 56 101 120 70 82 74 32 77 93 96
Philippines 115 102 99 137 96 47 108 97 154 52 111
Moldova (Republic of) 116 101 103 99 111 57 104 79 86 140 116
Cameroon 117 131 141 5 128 25 118 153 121 65 128
Ethiopia 118 152 110 52 140 11 147 145 112 72 150
Senegal 119 135 77 18 110 29 150 128 58 31 137
Sao Tome and Principe 120 126 74 8 147 44 121 132 61 111 132
Malawi 121 150 90 83 113 5 130 139 10 96 158
Côte d'Ivoire 122 148 126 141 121 30 161 150 98 147 138
Gambia 123 145 127 20 91 20 146 141 96 73 135
Honduras 124 106 139 160 95 55 112 90 140 12 114
Zambia 125 143 89 3 92 13 148 147 68 165 142
Nepal 126 138 115 88 137 10 143 113 152 123 147
Liberia 127 153 86 19 141 16 127 143 9 120 163
Bangladesh 128 128 134 152 116 23 151 111 66 106 134
Guyana 129 104 135 35 124 73 131 98 25 25 115
Pakistan 130 129 132 147 127 51 157 136 51 86 121
Tanzania (United
Republic of) 131 133 111 142 97 14 141 129 122 157
141
Comoros 132 149 125 23 150 19 133 135 12 135 151
Kenya 133 127 136 161 109 22 116 134 165 78 139
Mozambique 134 163 118 6 118 6 140 152 69 41 154
Mali 135 160 130 15 107 32 155 165 151 79 156
Paraguay 136 99 148 151 78 41 98 92 21 89 104
Nigeria 137 134 144 150 115 37 142 156 44 2 129
Nicaragua 138 113 131 101 106 43 120 95 64 131 122
Equatorial Guinea 139 119 98 44 160 126 123 149 139 159 38
Lao People's
Democratic Republic 140 122 156 106 138 26 126 117 45 103
123
Ukraine 141 72 146 122 154 124 42 59 74 75 92
Madagascar 142 132 129 16 72 2 129 123 27 121 157
Congo 143 125 150 67 157 34 135 140 54 92 120
Sierra Leone 144 155 119 29 145 18 158 163 118 99 155
Guinea 145 157 153 45 132 8 115 151 60 163 152
Central African
Republic 146 158 142 60 136 9 160 158 33 134
159
Viet Nam 147 111 116 133 135 65 103 89 89 42 119
Cambodia 148 121 137 72 94 21 134 114 11 46 130
Iraq 149 115 165 140 54 89 137 108 106 66 113
Togo 150 139 123 21 144 17 125 144 3 34 153
Burundi 151 156 147 10 143 40 144 154 147 146 161
Niger 152 165 151 9 123 7 149 155 109 85 160
Uganda 153 142 161 154 79 3 154 142 162 128 145
Haiti 154 141 138 159 146 27 117 160 110 107 148
Turkmenistan 155 91 163 13 159 143 89 119 90 161 84
Chad 156 162 158 31 156 45 156 162 52 115 143
Venezuela (Bolivarian
Republic of) 157 65 157 165 163 115 49 76 18 60
64
Guinea-Bissau 158 154 159 43 133 15 138 157 20 24 149
Papua New Guinea 159 137 145 25 125 24 162 122 46 155 124
Tajikistan 160 110 152 4 126 33 110 125 71 8 127
Uzbekistan 161 103 164 158 155 100 109 115 88 57 118
Congo (Democratic
Republic of the) 162 164 106 46 161 83 164 161 62 55
165
Yemen 163 140 162 11 108 49 145 130 72 13 133
Eritrea 164 159 155 143 162 12 165 121 107 77 162
Zimbabwe 165 151 154 132 164 42 136 133 76 53 164
Table 4.2: The OIC Member Countries – M-Dex and HDI Ranks
Countries
Maslahah-Based
Development
Index (M-Dex)-
Ranking
Human
Development
Index-Ranking
Corruption
Index Rank
Crime
Index
Rank
Socio-
Political
Freedom
Index
Rank
Safety And
Healthy
Environmen
t (Metric
Tonnes)
Rank
Education
Index Rank
Child
Mortality
Index
Rank
Life
Expectancy
Index Rank
Fertility
Rate (Birth/
Women)
Rank
GNI Per
Capita
Adjusted
For PPP
Rank
Brunei Darussalam 1 1 3 29 5 49 3 3 47 5 3
Qatar 2 2 1 26 2 51 21 4 46 37 1
Bahrain 3 4 8 23 1 47 11 6 27 31 7
Kuwait 4 5 11 27 10 50 6 7 11 15 2
United Arab Emirates 5 3 4 22 3 48 1 2 5 30 4
Malaysia 6 7 6 50 8 42 17 1 43 41 9
Oman 7 13 9 28 6 46 10 5 22 9 5
Saudi Arabia 8 6 13 30 14 45 7 10 24 11 6
Turkey 9 14 7 32 12 36 14 11 31 17 8
Jordan 10 17 10 35 4 35 15 14 37 21 22
Maldives 11 19 5 1 44 32 19 8 28 28 18
Algeria 12 15 18 40 43 33 9 21 13 10 19
Gabon 13 21 22 15 21 27 13 30 34 44 10
Kyrgyzstan 14 26 2 46 18 24 16 23 42 33 34
Azerbaijan 15 12 30 33 16 40 23 25 3 18 14
Albania 16 9 24 37 9 25 26 12 40 23 16
Burkina Faso 17 48 16 21 15 2 49 50 50 6 42
Tunisia 18 16 14 36 23 30 4 9 23 49 15
Benin 19 41 21 18 22 15 35 40 12 3 40
Kazakhstan 20 8 38 41 11 44 2 19 32 19 13
Suriname 21 20 19 8 40 39 20 18 44 45 20
Morocco 22 28 17 31 17 26 30 22 49 34 23
Egypt 23 22 23 39 31 31 22 15 15 46 21
Lebanon 24 10 29 38 19 37 8 13 21 13 11
Djibouti 25 39 20 5 33 19 51 35 7 38 29
Indonesia 26 25 12 34 24 28 12 20 35 40 24
Mauritania 27 35 25 16 39 20 43 39 45 48 30
Iran (Islamic Republic
Of) 28 11 39 42 50 41 5 16 38 35 12
Cameroon 29 32 40 3 38 12 28 44 41 24 32
Senegal 30 34 15 11 27 13 41 31 14 12 38
Côte D'ivoire 31 42 33 44 32 14 50 41 30 47 39
Gambia 32 40 32 12 20 10 38 36 29 25 37
Bangladesh 33 30 37 45 28 11 42 26 17 36 36
Guyana 34 24 36 20 35 29 31 17 6 8 26
Pakistan 35 31 31 48 37 23 48 34 9 27 28
Comoros 36 43 34 14 47 9 32 33 2 43 45
Mozambique 37 50 27 4 30 3 36 43 19 16 48
Mali 38 47 35 10 25 16 45 51 48 26 50
Nigeria 39 33 41 47 29 18 37 45 8 1 33
Sierra Leone 40 45 26 17 46 8 47 49 39 32 49
Guinea 41 46 44 25 41 5 27 42 16 51 46
Iraq 42 29 51 43 7 34 33 24 33 22 25
Togo 43 36 28 13 45 7 29 38 1 14 47
Niger 44 51 43 6 34 4 40 46 36 29 51
Uganda 45 38 45 49 13 1 44 37 51 42 43
Turkmenistan 46 18 49 9 51 43 18 28 26 50 17
Chad 47 49 47 19 49 21 46 48 10 39 41
Guinea-Bissau 48 44 46 24 42 6 34 47 4 7 44
Tajikistan 49 27 42 2 36 17 25 29 18 2 31
Uzbekistan 50 23 50 51 48 38 24 27 25 20 27
Yemen 51 37 48 7 26 22 39 32 20 4 35