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Mader

Inquiry into Life, Thirteenth Edition

Chapter Outline

CHAPTER 11: HUMAN ORGANIZATION

11.1 Types of Tissues

A tissue is composed of similarly specialized cells that perform a common function in the body.The tissues of the human body can be categorized into four major types: epithelial tissue,

connective tissue, muscular tissue, and nervous tissue. Cancers are classified according to the

type of tissue from which they arise.

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissue consists of tightly packed cells that form a continuous layer. Epithelial

tissue covers surfaces and lines body cavities. It usually has a protective function but it

can also be modified to carry out secretion, absorption, excretion, and filtration.Junctions between Epithelial Cells

The cells of a tissue can function in a coordinated manner when the plasma

membranes of adjoining cells interact. The junctions between cells help

cells function as a tissue.

Connective TissueConnective tissue binds organs together, provides support and protection, fills spaces,

produces blood cells, and stores fat. As a rule, connective tissue cells are widely

separated by a matrix.Loose Fibrous and Dense Fibrous Tissues

Loose fibrous connective tissue supports epithelium and also many internalorgans. Tendons and ligaments are made up of dense fibrous connective

tissue.Adipose Tissue and Reticular Connective Tissue

In adipose tissue, the fibroblasts enlarge and store fat. Reticular connective

tissue forms the support meshwork of lymphoid tissue.

Cartilage

There are three types of cartilage distinguished by the type of fiber in the matrix.Bone

Bone is the most rigid connective tissue. It consists of an extremely hard matrix.

Blood

Blood is unlike other types of connective tissue in that the matrix is not made by

the cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen to tissues; white blood cells fight

infection. Platelets are involved in clotting.

Muscular Tissue

Muscle tissue is composed of cells called muscle fibers that contain actin and myosin

filaments whose interaction accounts for movement. There are three types of muscle

tissue.

Nervous Tissue

Nervous tissue contains nerve cells called neurons. The nervous system has just threefunctions: sensory input, integration of data, and motor output.

Neuroglia

In addition to neurons, nervous tissue contains neuroglia. Their primary function

is to support and nourish neurons.

11.2 Body Cavities and Body Membranes

The human body is divided into two main cavities: the ventral cavity and the dorsal cavity. The

ventral cavity is divided into the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities.

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Body Membranes

Body membranes line cavities and the internal spaces of organs and tubes that open to the

outside. There are different types including mucous membranes, serous membranes,

synovial membranes, and the meninges.

11.3 Organ Systems

Organ systems work together in the body. In a sense, it is arbitrary to assign a particular organ to

one system when it also assists the functioning of many other systems.

Integumentary System

The integumentary system contains the skin. It has a protective function, synthesizes

vitamin D, collects sensory data, and helps regulate body temperature.Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, the blood, and the vessels that the bloodmoves through. Blood transports nutrients and oxygen and removes waste molecules.

Lymphatic and Immune Systems

The lymphatic system protects the body from disease by purifying lymph and storing

lymphocytes. The immune system consists of all the cells in the body that protect us

from disease.

Digestive System

The digestive system consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and

large intestine, along with associated organs. It receives food and digests it into nutrient

molecules.

Respiratory System

The respiratory system consists of the lungs and the tubes that take air to and from them.

The respiratory system moves oxygen and carbon dioxide.Urinary System

The urinary system contains the kidneys, the urinary bladder, and the tubes that carry

urine. The system rids the body of metabolic wastes.Skeletal System

The bones of the skeletal system protect body parts. In addition, the skeletal system

stores minerals and produces blood cells.Muscular System

Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle are responsible for contractions that account for

movement of the body and its parts.

Nervous System

The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, and associated nerves that allow

us to respond to both external and internal stimuli.Endocrine System

The endocrine system consists of the hormonal glands, which secrete chemical

messengers called hormones that have a wide range of effects.

Reproductive System

The reproductive system has different organs in the male and female. It is responsible for

the continuance of the species.

11.4 Integumentary System

The skin and its accessory organs (nails, hair, oil glands, and sweat glands) are collectively called

the integumentary system.Regions of the Skin

The skin has two regions: the epidermis and the dermis. The epidermis is made up ofepithelium. The dermis is a region of fibrous connective tissue beneath the epidermis.

Accessory Organs of the Skin

Nails, hair, and glands are structures of epidermal origin.

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11.5 Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the relative constancy of the bodys internal environment.Negative Feedback

Negative feedback is the primary homeostatic mechanism that keeps a variable close to a

particular value, or set point. A homeostatic mechanism has at least two components: a

sensor and a control center.Mechanical Example

A home heating system is often used to illustrate how a more complicated

negative feedback mechanism works.

Human Example: Regulation of Body Temperature

The sensor and control center for body temperature are located in a part of the

brain called the hypothalamus.Positive Feedback

Positive feedback is a mechanism that brings about an ever greater change in the samedirection.

Homeostasis and Body Systems

All systems of the body contribute toward maintaining homeostasis and, therefore, a

relatively constant internal environment.The Transport Systems

The cardiovascular system and lymphatic system regulate tissue fluid

composition.

The Maintenance Systems

The respiratory system adds oxygen to and removes carbon dioxide from the

blood. The digestive system takes in and digests food. The liver and

kidneys help remove toxins from the blood. The urinary system also

regulates blood volume, salt balance, and pH.The Support Systems

The integumentary, skeletal, and muscular systems protect the internal organs.The Control Systems

The nervous system and the endocrine system regulate the other systems of the

body.

DiseaseDisease is an abnormality or upset in the bodys normal processes.

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