Making, Managing and Analysing Making, Managing and Analysing Recordings of Interviews and Recordings of Interviews and

Focus GroupsFocus Groups

Duncan BranleyDuncan BranleyGoldsmiths’ College, University of LondonGoldsmiths’ College, University of London

20 January 200520 January 2005duncan@gold.ac.ukduncan@gold.ac.uk

ContentsContents

• What do you want to do with your recordings?What do you want to do with your recordings?• Recording and working with sound.Recording and working with sound.• Equipment for interviews and focus groups.Equipment for interviews and focus groups.• Transferring your recordings onto computer.Transferring your recordings onto computer.• Improving your recordings.Improving your recordings.• Transcribing.Transcribing.• Moving transcriptions to NVivo.Moving transcriptions to NVivo.• Automatically coding for turn-takers in NVivo.Automatically coding for turn-takers in NVivo.

What do you want to do with your What do you want to do with your recordings?recordings?

• In-depth, qualitative exploration - longer term.In-depth, qualitative exploration - longer term.• Overview for commissioned research – short Overview for commissioned research – short

timeframe.timeframe.• Archiving – formats and metadata.Archiving – formats and metadata.• Publishing on CD or the webPublishing on CD or the web

• Quality – broadcast v research interviews.Quality – broadcast v research interviews.

What is sound?What is sound?• Energy felt as vibrations.Energy felt as vibrations.• Converted to electrical signal.Converted to electrical signal.• Heard or recorded.Heard or recorded.• Frequency – PitchFrequency – Pitch

• Hertz (Hz) and kiloHertz (kHz) Hertz (Hz) and kiloHertz (kHz) – waves/second.– waves/second.

• Amplitude – volumeAmplitude – volume• Human ear hears:Human ear hears:

• Range 16Hz - 20kHzRange 16Hz - 20kHz

• Range of normal speech 250Hz Range of normal speech 250Hz – 8kHz– 8kHz

• Recorder’s frequency Recorder’s frequency responseresponse

(Images source: (Images source: www.howstuffworks.com)www.howstuffworks.com)

Analogue & Digital RecordingAnalogue & Digital Recording• Analogue – exact replica - Analogue – exact replica -

magneticmagnetic• Digital takes snapshots or Digital takes snapshots or

‘samples’‘samples’• Sampling Sampling rate/secondrate/second• Sampling Sampling precisionprecision or or

resolutionresolution• Each block is one sampleEach block is one sample• Higher values match sound Higher values match sound

wave betterwave better

• Channels: number of Channels: number of signalssignals (Images source: (Images source:

www.howstuffworks.com)www.howstuffworks.com)

Digital Recording and File SizeDigital Recording and File Size

• How many samples in 1 second?How many samples in 1 second?• CD: 44,100 – upper hearing range 20,000 HzCD: 44,100 – upper hearing range 20,000 Hz

• Sampling precision: Sampling precision: • 8 bit (256 possible values) or 16 bit (65,536) 8 bit (256 possible values) or 16 bit (65,536) • 8 bits = 1 byte, 16 bits = 2 bytes8 bits = 1 byte, 16 bits = 2 bytes

• Channels: monaural (mono) or stereoChannels: monaural (mono) or stereo• 1 minute of stereo sound at CD quality:1 minute of stereo sound at CD quality:

• 44,100 samples/channel/second x 2 bytes/sample x 60 44,100 samples/channel/second x 2 bytes/sample x 60 seconds x 2 channels = 10,584,000 bytes = 10,336 KB = seconds x 2 channels = 10,584,000 bytes = 10,336 KB = 10.1 MB10.1 MB

• mp3 and RealAudio – compression 1/10 – 1/14mp3 and RealAudio – compression 1/10 – 1/14

Recording and Working with SoundRecording and Working with Sound

• Sound converted:Sound converted:• From analogue to digital to record (ADC)From analogue to digital to record (ADC)• From digital to analogue to play (DAC)From digital to analogue to play (DAC)

• Compressing digital audio files saves space:Compressing digital audio files saves space:• Uncompressed: WAV (PC), AIFF (Mac)Uncompressed: WAV (PC), AIFF (Mac)• Compressed:Compressed:

• Space: double highest frequency of source:Space: double highest frequency of source:• Speech: 250 Hz - 8,000 Hz =>16,000 or 22,050Speech: 250 Hz - 8,000 Hz =>16,000 or 22,050• Telephone: 400 Hz - 3,400 Hz => 8,000Telephone: 400 Hz - 3,400 Hz => 8,000• See “Ready Reckoner”See “Ready Reckoner”

Analogue and Digital Audio ComparedAnalogue and Digital Audio Compared

• Sound qualitySound quality• Not necessarily better – depends on sampling rateNot necessarily better – depends on sampling rate• Main problem with analogue recordings: hissMain problem with analogue recordings: hiss

• CopiesCopies• Each analogue copy degrades, digital doesn’t.Each analogue copy degrades, digital doesn’t.

• Unless compress already compressed file.Unless compress already compressed file.

• Confidentiality – blanking identifiersConfidentiality – blanking identifiers

• StorageStorage• Media degradation v file format obsolescenceMedia degradation v file format obsolescence

Recording Equipment (1)Recording Equipment (1)

• Practice beforehand – only one go at interviewPractice beforehand – only one go at interview• If disaster, write details of research encounter asapIf disaster, write details of research encounter asap

• Consumer products v professionalConsumer products v professional• Easily replaceable suppliesEasily replaceable supplies• Ubiquity may reduce alienationUbiquity may reduce alienation

• ALL equipment should have:ALL equipment should have:• Recording indicatorRecording indicator• Ability to pause and resume easilyAbility to pause and resume easily• Mike-in connectionMike-in connection

• Line-in may not produce loud enough signalLine-in may not produce loud enough signal

Recording Equipment (2)Recording Equipment (2)• Cassette recorders Cassette recorders

• use at least Chrome CrOuse at least Chrome CrO2 2 tape.tape.• turning tape may be a distraction, but longer = lower qualityturning tape may be a distraction, but longer = lower quality

• DictaphonesDictaphones• Convenient but not too good quality – often monoConvenient but not too good quality – often mono

• MinidiscMinidisc• Longer recording time 74-80 mins + LPLonger recording time 74-80 mins + LP• Better quality recording – less mechanical noiseBetter quality recording – less mechanical noise

• MicrophoneMicrophone• External usually produces better resultsExternal usually produces better results• Best if a microphone-in connection – if just line-in may not produce Best if a microphone-in connection – if just line-in may not produce

loud enough signal.loud enough signal.• Lead rather than direct plug-in – lessens machine noise.Lead rather than direct plug-in – lessens machine noise.

Preparing Before you ArrivePreparing Before you Arrive

• Check batteries or other power supply – and Check batteries or other power supply – and carry sparescarry spares

• Have spare media – unwrapped and labelledHave spare media – unwrapped and labelled• Have a checklist of how to use the recorderHave a checklist of how to use the recorder

• Carry the instruction bookCarry the instruction book

• Cassette recorders and dictaphonesCassette recorders and dictaphones• Wind to beginning of recordable sectionWind to beginning of recordable section

Preparing the Recording EnvironmentPreparing the Recording Environment• Sound from speaker – moves in all directionsSound from speaker – moves in all directions

• Hard surfaces reflect – delay > echoHard surfaces reflect – delay > echo• Soft furnishings, smaller room and in cornerSoft furnishings, smaller room and in corner

• Background noiseBackground noise• Ambient noise in roomAmbient noise in room• Outside intrusionsOutside intrusions• You and your participants – moving, eatingYou and your participants – moving, eating

• MicrophoneMicrophone• Position as close to interviewees as possible – best 30 cm – 1 mPosition as close to interviewees as possible – best 30 cm – 1 m• If focus group, place in middle to pick up all sounds – stereo usefulIf focus group, place in middle to pick up all sounds – stereo useful• Place on stand – naturalises, but beware vibrationsPlace on stand – naturalises, but beware vibrations

• Check the recording level – although you may not be able toCheck the recording level – although you may not be able to• This will amplify the signal from the microphoneThis will amplify the signal from the microphone

Recording Telephone InterviewsRecording Telephone Interviews

• Same advice – but some extra issuesSame advice – but some extra issues• Permission to record – ethical and legalPermission to record – ethical and legal• ‘‘Thinner’ recorded sound – frequencies 400 - 3,400 Hz onlyThinner’ recorded sound – frequencies 400 - 3,400 Hz only• Could record from handset/speaker, but not good quality.Could record from handset/speaker, but not good quality.• Rather – RJ-11 connector – Rather – RJ-11 connector –

• As easy as connecting a computer to a modemAs easy as connecting a computer to a modem

• Position between telephone and handset – balanced signalPosition between telephone and handset – balanced signal• Telephone and line > your voice louderTelephone and line > your voice louder• Also may not work with advanced systemsAlso may not work with advanced systems

• Then connect recorderThen connect recorder• Might want a Y splitter too – to use two recordersMight want a Y splitter too – to use two recorders

During Interviews and Focus GroupsDuring Interviews and Focus Groups

• Concentrate on the interview!Concentrate on the interview!• Monitor the recorder from time to time to Monitor the recorder from time to time to

ensure that it’s still working.ensure that it’s still working.

After Interviews and Focus GroupsAfter Interviews and Focus Groups

• Don’t stop recording until interview is really finishedDon’t stop recording until interview is really finished• You may get some really interesting material towards the endYou may get some really interesting material towards the end

• When finished prevent over-writing by disabling mediaWhen finished prevent over-writing by disabling media• Minidiscs – slide the tabMinidiscs – slide the tab• Cassettes – click the tabs outCassettes – click the tabs out

• Label the recordings so that you know what’s on them laterLabel the recordings so that you know what’s on them later• May want to label using a system to preserve anonymity May want to label using a system to preserve anonymity • Work it out in advanceWork it out in advance

Transferring your Recordings onto Transferring your Recordings onto ComputerComputer

• Connections: what’s making and what’s recording the Connections: what’s making and what’s recording the sound?sound?• Source: Line-out or Headphones/SpeakersSource: Line-out or Headphones/Speakers• PC soundcard: Line-in or MicrophonePC soundcard: Line-in or Microphone

• Set up sources using Windows Play ControlSet up sources using Windows Play Control• Set volume level on sound source.Set volume level on sound source.• Start recording on sound recording softwareStart recording on sound recording software

• Audacity free to download and use.Audacity free to download and use.• May have own with eg soundcard or CD driveMay have own with eg soundcard or CD drive

• Then start playing the source.Then start playing the source.• When play finished stop recording.When play finished stop recording.

ConnectionsConnections

(Images source: http://geraldtomyn.tripod.com/digan.htm)(Images source: http://geraldtomyn.tripod.com/digan.htm)• Miniplug cable – 1/8 inch or 3.5 mm stereo (two rings) jack at each Miniplug cable – 1/8 inch or 3.5 mm stereo (two rings) jack at each

endend• Carries Analogue only.Carries Analogue only.

• Source: Line-out or Headphones/SpeakersSource: Line-out or Headphones/Speakers• PC soundcard: Line-in (arrow PC soundcard: Line-in (arrow intointo curves) or Microphone curves) or Microphone• Connect speakers to PC soundcard line-out to monitor sound.Connect speakers to PC soundcard line-out to monitor sound.

Windows Volume and Recording Windows Volume and Recording ControlsControls

• If you’re not getting any sound this is the first thing to checkIf you’re not getting any sound this is the first thing to check• click on the volume button on the Windows toolbarclick on the volume button on the Windows toolbar

• Recording: you can only have one source selected at a time.Recording: you can only have one source selected at a time.• The volume on both sides affects the loudness of the soundfileThe volume on both sides affects the loudness of the soundfile

• If it is too loud, it will distort; too quiet, you won’t hear it. Test it.If it is too loud, it will distort; too quiet, you won’t hear it. Test it.

Recording with AudacityRecording with Audacity1.1. Start Audacity – creates a new ‘project’Start Audacity – creates a new ‘project’2.2. File | PreferencesFile | Preferences

1.1. Audio I/O – make sure it’s the same as the Volume controls – Audio I/O – make sure it’s the same as the Volume controls – probably your soundcard’s name.probably your soundcard’s name.

2.2. Quality: Sample rate: 22,050 Hz format: 16 bit – don’t need CD Quality: Sample rate: 22,050 Hz format: 16 bit – don’t need CD qualityquality

3.3. File format: WAV (Microsoft 16 bit)File format: WAV (Microsoft 16 bit)

3.3. File | Save As – give it a nameFile | Save As – give it a name4.4. Click the circular red record buttonClick the circular red record button5.5. Start playing the sourceStart playing the source6.6. When finished click the yellow square stop buttonWhen finished click the yellow square stop button7.7. File | SaveFile | Save• To use in other programs you need to export the fileTo use in other programs you need to export the file

• File | Export as either WAV (full quality) or mp3 (slightly lower, but File | Export as either WAV (full quality) or mp3 (slightly lower, but smaller file size).smaller file size).

Improving your Recordings in Improving your Recordings in AudacityAudacity

• Have created a WAV (PC) or AIFF (Mac) file.Have created a WAV (PC) or AIFF (Mac) file.• Keep as original – work with a Keep as original – work with a copycopy..• Could compress: mp3 – fine for speech.Could compress: mp3 – fine for speech.• Can work with parts of file (drag to select):Can work with parts of file (drag to select):

• Make quiet parts louder.Make quiet parts louder.• Effect | Amplify – accept default suggestionEffect | Amplify – accept default suggestion

• Blank identifying information (possibly after transcription) Blank identifying information (possibly after transcription) • Click on silence button (wave with flat line in middle).Click on silence button (wave with flat line in middle).

• Remove hiss – find hiss with no words – be carefulRemove hiss – find hiss with no words – be careful• Effect | Noise Removal – 2 stepsEffect | Noise Removal – 2 steps

• Save brief extracts as separate filesSave brief extracts as separate files• File | Export extract as…File | Export extract as…

• Remember to save your Remember to save your copycopy file. file.

TranscribingTranscribing

• Do you need complete transcriptions?Do you need complete transcriptions?• Summaries in Word or NVivo (with labelled proxy Summaries in Word or NVivo (with labelled proxy

document) – partial transcription.document) – partial transcription.• Useful first step – in field and for familiarisationUseful first step – in field and for familiarisation

• Transcribe cassettes in full: foot-pedal control or Transcribe cassettes in full: foot-pedal control or auto-rewindauto-rewind

• Use Transcriber to tie your transcription to the sound Use Transcriber to tie your transcription to the sound files clause by clause – cp sub-titles.files clause by clause – cp sub-titles.

• Can export to NVivo or a webpage.Can export to NVivo or a webpage.• Transcription not neutral – part of your analysis.Transcription not neutral – part of your analysis.

TranscriberTranscriber• This enables you to create your transcriptions while following This enables you to create your transcriptions while following

your sound files on screen.your sound files on screen.• Start Transcriber and open an audio file – WAV or mp3Start Transcriber and open an audio file – WAV or mp3• Click on the play button and you’ll hear it.Click on the play button and you’ll hear it.• When there’s a pause, press Enter and you’ll create a ‘segment When there’s a pause, press Enter and you’ll create a ‘segment

break’break’• When finished select Signal | Playback Mode | Loop on When finished select Signal | Playback Mode | Loop on

Segment – this enables you to replay each segment while Segment – this enables you to replay each segment while you’re transcribing it. Press Tab to stop and start it and the up you’re transcribing it. Press Tab to stop and start it and the up and down arrows to move between segments.and down arrows to move between segments.

• When finished set back to continuous playback.When finished set back to continuous playback.• To create a new speaker: Segmentation | Create turn or Crtl-TTo create a new speaker: Segmentation | Create turn or Crtl-T• You can double click to enter the full identifier.You can double click to enter the full identifier.• When finished save – and can export to html or NVivo format.When finished save – and can export to html or NVivo format.

Moving Transcriptions to NVivoMoving Transcriptions to NVivo

• From TranscriberFrom Transcriber• Must ensure have NVivoTxt.tcl installed inMust ensure have NVivoTxt.tcl installed in

C:\Program Files\DGA & LDC\Transcriber\converterC:\Program Files\DGA & LDC\Transcriber\converter

• File | Export | Export to NVivo Plain Text format.File | Export | Export to NVivo Plain Text format.• This will create a plain text file with the same name as the This will create a plain text file with the same name as the

soundfile you are working on – except with a .txt ending.soundfile you are working on – except with a .txt ending.

• In NVivo Create a new document by importing this In NVivo Create a new document by importing this file – using the 'Read marked-up title and description file – using the 'Read marked-up title and description paragraphs' option. paragraphs' option.

Automatically Coding in NVivoAutomatically Coding in NVivo

• Document formatted with Heading styles.Document formatted with Heading styles.• NVivo can see structure.NVivo can see structure.• NVivo can use this to code for each turn-taker.NVivo can use this to code for each turn-taker.• Can use for structured, semi-structured and Can use for structured, semi-structured and

unstructured interviews.unstructured interviews.

More InformationMore Information

• Duncan Branley (2004) ‘Making and Duncan Branley (2004) ‘Making and Managing Audio Recordings’ in Clive Seale Managing Audio Recordings’ in Clive Seale (ed) (ed) Researching Society and CultureResearching Society and Culture (2 (2ndnd edition): Sage, London pp 207-228.edition): Sage, London pp 207-228.

• If you have further questions, email If you have further questions, email

duncan@gold.ac.ukduncan@gold.ac.uk