Making peaceMaking peace

Winners and LosersWinners and Losers

From war to ‘peace’From war to ‘peace’

1917-19181917-1918 Allied blockade and battlefield losses take tollAllied blockade and battlefield losses take toll Economic supply lines disruptedEconomic supply lines disrupted Belligerents increasingly exhaustedBelligerents increasingly exhausted Russia, Germany, Austria & others increasingly Russia, Germany, Austria & others increasingly

short of men, materiel, foodstuffsshort of men, materiel, foodstuffs• Willingness to fight saggingWillingness to fight sagging• Governments’ support & legitimacy waningGovernments’ support & legitimacy waning

Similar problems in France: threats of mutinySimilar problems in France: threats of mutiny

The Russian RevolutionThe Russian Revolution

Tsar’s government teeteringTsar’s government teetering February revolution (1917)February revolution (1917)

• Soviets (councils seize power in citiesSoviets (councils seize power in cities• Kadets & then Social Democrats form Kadets & then Social Democrats form

provisional governmentsprovisional governments Lenin and Trotsky engineer October Lenin and Trotsky engineer October

Revolution – in effect a coup d’etatRevolution – in effect a coup d’etat• ‘‘All power to the Soviets.’All power to the Soviets.’• Bolsheviks seize power Bolsheviks seize power

A likely or unlikely revolution?A likely or unlikely revolution?

Orthodox Marxism predicts that Orthodox Marxism predicts that revolution will occur at revolution will occur at the highest the highest phases of capitalismphases of capitalism

Russia before the war wasRussia before the war was• An agrarian societyAn agrarian society• Barely beyond feudalismBarely beyond feudalism• Incipient industrializationIncipient industrialization• At best at the initial phases of capitalismAt best at the initial phases of capitalism

LeninLenin Takes voluntarist approachTakes voluntarist approach

• Left to their own devices, workers develop Left to their own devices, workers develop trade union consciousnesstrade union consciousness

• but not the but not the class consciousness class consciousness needed to needed to drive a revolutiondrive a revolution

If revolution is to occur, a small If revolution is to occur, a small conspiratorial organization must drive it -conspiratorial organization must drive it -

Communist party acts as Communist party acts as vanguard of vanguard of the proletariatthe proletariat

Argues that capitalism is like a chain:Argues that capitalism is like a chain:• breaks at its weakest link, breaks at its weakest link, • triggering revolution elsewhere triggering revolution elsewhere

Before & after the revolutionBefore & after the revolution

Some imagesSome images

Afterward:Afterward:

Bolsheviks sue for peaceBolsheviks sue for peace Accept humiliating terms at Brest-Litovsk Accept humiliating terms at Brest-Litovsk

(1918) – cede substantial territory(1918) – cede substantial territory Civil war through 1920Civil war through 1920

• White Russians White Russians • Foreign interventionsForeign interventions

InternallyInternally: : • War communismWar communism• Problem: What do you do when the world Problem: What do you do when the world

revolution you expect does not occurrevolution you expect does not occur? ?

Germany:Germany: Fights on Fights on

• breakthrough on western front, spring 1918breakthrough on western front, spring 1918• beaten back in counter-attacksbeaten back in counter-attacks

Kaiser’s grip increasingly tenuousKaiser’s grip increasingly tenuous• Frequent changes in governmentFrequent changes in government• Move toward constitutional monarchy (October Move toward constitutional monarchy (October

1918) 1918) • General strikeGeneral strike• Revolutionary outbreaksRevolutionary outbreaks

General staff sues for peaceGeneral staff sues for peace• Kaiser abdicatesKaiser abdicates• Social Democrats take overSocial Democrats take over

Central EuropeCentral Europe

Collapse of Austria-HungaryCollapse of Austria-Hungary War winds downWar winds down Revolution breaks out in HungaryRevolution breaks out in Hungary

Ending the warEnding the war Central powers collapseCentral powers collapse Germany sues for peaceGermany sues for peace War ends with armisticeWar ends with armistice

• Fighting stops without total defeat or Fighting stops without total defeat or invasioninvasion

Germans hope to negotiate as equalsGermans hope to negotiate as equals Allies intent on imposing peaceAllies intent on imposing peace

• Meet in Paris to work it out Meet in Paris to work it out

ProblemsProblems

How to:How to: Establish stable international orderEstablish stable international order Respond to national aspirations while not Respond to national aspirations while not

ignoring strategic considerations, claims ignoring strategic considerations, claims based on history and promises made by based on history and promises made by allies allies

Provide security for FranceProvide security for France Prevent resurgence of German militarismPrevent resurgence of German militarism Compensate victors for damage sufferedCompensate victors for damage suffered

Negotiating the peace (1919-20)Negotiating the peace (1919-20)

Massive conference:Massive conference: 32 countries present, 32 countries present, Dominated by great powers: Dominated by great powers:

• US, UK, France, Italy, JapanUS, UK, France, Italy, Japan Exclusion of GermanyExclusion of Germany Absence of neutralsAbsence of neutrals Absence of the Soviet UnionAbsence of the Soviet Union Multiple negotiations under way:Multiple negotiations under way:

• Discussion of principlesDiscussion of principles• Expert committeesExpert committees• Separate treaties concludedSeparate treaties concluded

The protagonists and their goalsThe protagonists and their goals Woodrow Wilson (U.S.) -- idealist who wanted toWoodrow Wilson (U.S.) -- idealist who wanted to

• Make the world safe for democracyMake the world safe for democracy• Establish a new international order– via League of Establish a new international order– via League of

NationsNations David Lloyd George (Great Britain)David Lloyd George (Great Britain)

• Interest in restoring Britain’s global positionInterest in restoring Britain’s global position Georges Clemenceau( France) -- a realistGeorges Clemenceau( France) -- a realist

• Aging cynic/ French nationalist Aging cynic/ French nationalist • Interest in security for FranceInterest in security for France• ReparationsReparations

Orlando - ItalyOrlando - Italy• Interest in territorial gainsInterest in territorial gains

Japan – interest in replacing Germany in ChinaJapan – interest in replacing Germany in China

Wilson’s Fourteen Points Wilson’s Fourteen Points (January 1918)(January 1918)

Open covenants openly arrived atOpen covenants openly arrived at Freedom of the seasFreedom of the seas Elimination of trade barriersElimination of trade barriers Arms reductionArms reduction Evacuation of occupied territoriesEvacuation of occupied territories National self determination for diverse peoples:National self determination for diverse peoples:

• Return Alsace Lorraine to FranceReturn Alsace Lorraine to France• Re-establish PolandRe-establish Poland• Self-determination for nationalities within Self-determination for nationalities within

Austria-Hungary, Ottoman empireAustria-Hungary, Ottoman empire An international organization to keep the peace An international organization to keep the peace

(League of Nations)(League of Nations)