malleable body: headshaping in greece and the surrounding regions

C H A P T E R 5

T H E M A L L E A B L E B O D Y :

H E A D S H A P I N G I N G R E E C E A N D

T H E S U R R O U N D I N G R E G I O N S

by Kirsi 0. Lorentz

1. The term hcadshaping is pre-ferred here over such terms as "artificial cranial deformation" in that the lancr implies that this cultural practice of body modification was performed to "deform," rather than to shape accord-ing to cultural aesthetics and social norms. For more extensive discussion on terminology, see Lorentz 2003b.

2. Littlcficld, Pomatto, and Kelly 2000.

3. White and Kolkcns 1991; Ubc-laker 1989; Ortner and Putschar 1981; Brown 1981; Kiszely 1978; Dingwall 1931.

4. Lorentz 2003a, 2003b. 5. Dingwall 1931. 6. Lorentz 2003b. 7. Cheverud and Midkiff 1992;

Chcvcrud ct al. 1992, 1993; I Iolliday 1993; Kohn ct al. 1993; Osscnbcrg 1970; Schendel, Walker, and Kamisugi 1980.

8. But sec, e.g., Lorentz 2003b, 2004, 2005, 2007, forthcoming.

9. DingwaU 1931.

Hcadshaping1 is a form o f body modification involving the intentional altering of human cranial form in infancy (Fig. 5.1). Tliis modification is based on the rapid growth and plasticity of the human cranium during the first few years o f life. Hcadshaping is permanent and irreversible once the rapid growth of the cranium ceases. Various devices including cradlcboards, bindings, and headdresses have been used to intentionally modify infant head shape, and different types of hcadshaping arise from the differential restriction o f the growth vectors o f the cranial plates. T h e employment o f hcadshaping indicates a profound understanding o f the human body. It requires a detailed knowledge o f the timing o f cranial growth and devel-opment. Hcadshaping is an ancient form o f body modification far more sophisticated than plastic surgery today in that it docs not cause pain or damage hard tissues. It simplv redirects the growth vectors o f the cranium. A current pediatric practice, the so-called dynamic or thot ic Cranioplasn f2

employed for "correcting" plagiocephaly (cranial asymmetry) is a modern form o f hcadshaping.

Hcadshaping has been practiccd on all continents over periods from prehistory to the present.' It has been used to denote gender, ethnicity, high social status, or other group affiliations.1 Aesthetic reasons for hcadshaping have also been cited." Hcadshaping in its different forms has thus been used as a medium for ascribing various kinds o f identities on the body, with no possibility o f reversal or acquisition in later life."

Physical anthropological studies o f hcadshaping have concentrated on its cffccts on the craniofacial complex, the basicranium, the intracranial vessel form, sutural complexity in the form o f increased intcrdigitation, premature sutural fusion, cranial asvmmctrv, and the expression o f cxtra-sutural bones. Hcadshaping practices and their physical anthropological cffccts have been investigated intensely in the Amcricas, but little work beyond mere identification or brief descriptions has been done in the Mediterranean and the Near East.8

Until recently, no substantial evidence for hcadshaping had been found in prehistoric Grcccc . Br ie f early mentions o f rcccnt practices o f hcadbinding by Dingwall ' cannot be verified at present. Given the evidence for hcadshaping, both archaeological and recent, in the Balkans,

76 K I R S I O . L O R E N T Z

Italy, Turkey, and Cyprus,1" the lack o f evidence from Greece has been a curious lacuna."

M A T E R I A L S A N D M E T H O D S

Figure 5.1. Unmodified cranium ( l e f i ) and headshapcd cranium of the antero-posterior type (right). Scale 1:2. Photos K. O. Loren tz. councsr Deportment of /Vntiquitics1 Cyprus

The discover}' o f a series o f crania o f clcarly abnormal shape from the Neolithic cave cemetery in Tharrounia, Euboia,12 provided the opportunity to investigate the potential presence o f intentional cultural modification o f head form in Greece.11

Skotini Cave, in the locality of Tharrounia, is one o f the most im-portant Neolithic sites in Euboia. The excavations in the cave and the surrounding area took place over a period of five years (1986-1991) , and were conducted under the direction o f A. Sampson. During the 1989 field season, a cemetery located near the Skotini Cave was excavated, dating to the early phases of the Neolithic era.14

The majority o f the graves at this ccmctcry at Tharrounia were affected by various destructive taphonomic processes, including erosion caused bv long-term agricultural activities. The shape o f the burial facilities was pen-tagonal or roughly trapezoidal, constructed bv placing flagstones upright. According to the excavators, the structure and shape arc atypical, differing from the more or less rectangular cist graves of subsequent periods. Al-though the burials at Tharrounia arc contemporaneous with the burials at Kephala, on the island of Kca, they differ in structure, if not shape (Kephala burial facilities have similar trapezoidal and pentagonal, as well as circular, shapes). The large quantities o f pottery found at Tharrounia date from the earlier Neolithic period (phase II).

All excavated burial facilities contained skeletal remains from multiple individuals. The minimum number o f individuals within the recovered skeletal series is 25.15 The number of crania recovered and available for study is 13, and these arc o f varying degrees o f completeness (sec Tabic 5.1).

10. Lorentz 2003a, 2003b. 11. Kiszely 1978; DingwaU 1931;

Lorentz 2003b; Ozbek 2001. 12. Sampson 1993; Stravopodi 1993;

Lorcntz and Manolis, forthcoming. 13.1 am grateful to Sotiris Manolis

of the University of Athens for his kind invitation to study this material. Sherry Fox, the director o f the Wiener Laboratory (ASCSA), conducted the radiography of the material. The research on which this paper is based has benefited at its various stages from funding from the following sources: The Leverhulmc Trust, the Arts and Humanities Research Board, the Brit-ish institute of Archaeology in Ankara (the British Academy), the Rouse Ball Foundation (Trinity College, Cam -bridge), the Smuts Memorial FUIHI (University of Cambridge), the Oskar I Iuttunen Foundation (Finland), and the Dorothy Garrod Fund (University of Cambridge).

14. Sampson 1993. 15. Stravopodi 1993.

H E A D S H A P I N C I N G R E E C E A N D S U R R O U N D I N G R E G I O N S 7 7

T A B L E 5 . 1 . C O M P L E T E N E S S S C O R E S F O R T H E T H A R R O U N I A C R A N I A C A L V A R I A L R E G I O N S A N D I N D I V I D U A L C R A N I A L E L E M E N T S O F T H E C A L V A R I U M

Cranium CalvarioI Store (%)' Cotnplelenets Scores (%) for Separate Element i "

1 5 0 frontal and left parietal 25, right parietal 75

2 75 occipital and parierais 75, frontal 50, temporals 25

3 75 parietals 75, frontal and occipital 50, right temporal 25

4 25 frontal 25, right parietal 50

5 50 left parietal and occipital 50, right parietal 75

6 25 left parietal 75, right parietal 25 7 25 small frontal, parietal, and occipital fragments;

very few joins, overall shape cannot be inferred

8 75 calvarium complete apart Irom .1 large part of left

parietal, and small fragments all over calvarium 9 100 frontal, parietals, occipital, and left temporal 75;

right temporal 50 (facial area very fragmentary and nor restored)

10 100 frontal and parietals 100, occipital almost 100, left temporal 50, right temporal 75 (right zygomatic present, but most facial elements missing)

11 100 frontal, parietals, occipital, and temporals 75 (some facial bones present and joining the restored calvarium)

12 5 0 frontal 75, parietals and left temporal 5 0

13 <25 fragments of all calvarial elements

* The calvarial completeness scores for each cranium relate to the calvaría! portion (braincasc) o f the cranium only, without taking into account the facial region, which in all crania was either fragmentary, or missing (where present, details of the facial region are given in brackets). Providing completeness scores for both individual elements and the calvarium as a whole is useful in explaining why certain observations could only he made on one side of the cranium (e.g., sutural complexity), or for particular crania only (e.g., presence of hcadshaping).

" T h e completeness scores are derived by a procedure similar to that described by Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994, p. 7, allocating an approximate percentage for each bone element (or the calvarium as a whole) based on visual assessment o f completeness. <25% = less than ¼ of the bone element (or calvarium) present; 25% = approximately xA of the bone element (or calvarium) present; 50%: approximately ¢4-½ of the bone element (or calvarium) pres-ent; 75%: approximately o f the bone element (or calvarium) present; 100%: complete or almost complete (more than % of the bone element, or calvarium present).

H E A D S H A P I N G I D E N T I F I C A T I O N , C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A N D A N A L Y T I C A L M E T H O D S

T h e t e r m " h c a d s h a p i n g " 1 6 is used here to d e n o t e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f crania l

f o r m for cul tural reasons . I t s h o u l d b e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f r o m m a l f o r m a t i o n s

a n d d e f o r m a t i o n s d u e t o g e n e t i c causes , t r a u m a , or p a t h o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s .

H e a d s h a p i n g c a n c o m e a b o u t e i t h e r as an u n i n t e n t i o n a l e f f e c t o f cul tural

16. Seen . 1. i n f a n t care p r a c t i c e s — s u c h as c r a d l e b o a r d i n g , o r l ay ing b a b i e s t o s leep


consistently in a ccrtain position on a hard surface—or as an intentional effect o f manipulation o f the infant head using cradlcboards or particular types o f devices.1' In the former case where hcadshaping occurs as an un-intentional secondary cffcct, this docs not rule out its subsequent intentional usage for sociocultural differentiation, following the recognition o f the modification. Thus , the term hcadshaping denotes here both intentional and unintentional modification o f the cranial shape, o f cultural origin.

There arc at least three main hcadshaping types (Fig. 5.2) : the circum-ferential or circular type, the antcro-postcrior type, and the post-brcgmatic type. There is great variation in hcadshaping types and, at times, there is some overlap between their forms.1" T h e circumferential or circular type includes all modifications involving bandaging the head circumfcrentially. S u b n p c s include the differential shapes that result from this proccss; for example, there arc circular-crcct, circular-oblique, and two-band circum-ferential types.1" T h e post-brcgmatic type is so far clcarlv attested only in Cyprus and consists o f the superior flattening o f the calvarium produced presumably by securing particular kinds o f headgear on the superior aspect o f the growing infant head.'1 Antcro-postcrior hcadshaping denotes the flattening or modification o f the occipital part o f the cranium, the frontal part o f the cranium, or both parts; but without a circumfcrcntial involve-ment o f the whole cranial vault. ITic various types and subtypes o f antcro-postcrior modification can be brought about by the use o f cradlcboards, with or without additional accessories, or by securing particular kinds o f headgear on the growing infant head.

Given the overall rarity o f hcadshaping and the complexity o f its expressions, it is important to be able to differentiate between pathologi-cal conditions, unintentional positional causes, and intentional causes for altered head shapes. T h e following information can be employed:

1. Alterations o f cranial shape due to environmental causes (including headshaping) rather than growth disturbances and genetic dcficicncics do not result in reduction o f the brain case volume. Thus, crania with greatly rcduccd volumes may be attributed to pathological causes/" These individuals are often nonviable and die in infancy or childhood, and so these condi-tions are evidenced more often in immature skeletal remains.

2. Pathological premature suture closure, for example in the lambdoidal or sagittal sutures, results in different morphological expressions (sec discussion below) than unintentional or inten-tional occipital flattening, which affects the same sutures.-*

3. Unintentional environmental alterations o f the cranial form are often asymmetrical and do not occur uniformly throughout a population. Positional plagiocephaly is an example o f this phe-n o m e n o n . "

4. Intentional hcadshaping aims at symmetrical shapes (cross-culturally attested) and may be uniform or patterned within a population. Cranial features indicating intentional cranial shape modification include pad and binding impressions, and particu-lar features characteristic o f various types o f hcadshaping.-M

17. Lorcntz 2003a, 2003b. 18. Lorcntz 2003b. 19. Dembo and Imbelloni 1938;

Anton 1989. 20. Lorentz 2003b; Schulte-

Campbell 1983b; Angel 1972. 21. Anton 1989. 22. Anton 1989; White 1996;

Bennett 1965; Kl-Najjar and Dawson 1977.

23. Littlcficld, Pomatto, and Kelly 2000.

24. Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; Anton 1989.

H E A D S H A P I N G I N G R E E C E A N D S U R R O U N D I N G R E G I O N S 7 9

F i p i r e 5 .2 . Types o f cranial modi -fication in Cyprus : c i rcumferent ia l (top, from K n k o m i ) , a n t e r o - p o s t c r i o r (middle, f rom Klt irokit ia) , and pos t -bregmat ic (bottom, from I Iala Sul tan T c k k c ) . Scak 1:2. Photo* K. O. Urcntz1

courtesy Department of Antiquities, Cvprus

Copynghtod mason a!


Figure 5.3. Dcpicrions o f cradle-boards, Bronze Age Cyprus: inv. no. CM Al5 1935, H. 18.9 cm (left); inv. no. C M A 2 6 1935, H. 14.9 cm (right). Photos K. O. Loren fx, courtesy Department of Antiquities, Cyprus

5. Intentional hcadshaping may involve differential degrees of severity of the alteration and/or different types of alterations within the same population.^* When the degree of hcadshap-ing is employed to signal social difference, there arc likely to be classes o f severity (gradation) rather than a continuum.

6. Headshaping as an unintentional secondary effect of culturally specific infant care practices, such as cradleboarding,-''' is likely to be expressed universally within a population, with a con-tinuum of degree of severity without marked cutoff points or a large number of extreme cases (Fig. 5.3).

Thus, it emerges that it may be possible to differentiate between the altered head shapes caused by pathological, environmental, positional, and cultural (unintentional and/or intentional) causes, provided that there is a large enough sample population available. This necessitates attention to detail on two different levels: the individual cranium and the population. At the population level, the degree of severity of hcadshaping, the variation expressed in this degree of severity, the nature of its expression (gradation or continuum), and the prevalence o f hcadshaping all help to distinguish cultural from noncultural head shape modifications.27

Analysis of altered crania also entails some specialized procedures. In addition to complete descriptions, detailed data on the following features that are typically associated with headshaping are important:

, it , . Ti. • , r . u / i 25. Lorentz2003b,2004,2005. 1. Extrasutural bones. Tlic etiology o f cxtrasutural bones (sutural 2 6 K a r a g c o r g h i s 1 9 9 1 . L o r c n l z

bones, supernumerary bones, and ossicles) has been debated. 2004,2005. The main focus of the debate has been the extent to which the 27. Lorentz 2003b.

IIEADSIIAPING IN GREECE AND SURROUNDING RECIONS 8L

Figure 5.4. Lateral view of a cranium, showing the sutural locations for recording extrasutural bone presence and frequency (1, coronal; 2, pter-onic; 3, sagittal; 4, apical; 5, Iamb-doid; 6, astcric; 7, parieto-mastoid; 8, occipito-mastoid; 9, squamosal; 10, parietal notch), according to the method presented by O'Loughlin (2004). Photo K. O. Lorcnn

28. O'Loughlin 2004. 29. O'Loughlin 2004. 30. Mauser and De Stctano 1989. 31. Cohen 1986. 32. White 1996, pp. 401-402.

presence and frequency of extrasutural bones is attributable to genetic factors, environmental factors (such as headshaping), or both. Previous studies of the relationship between extrasutural bones and headshaping have provided ambiguous results, likely due their failure to investigate different headshaping types sepa-rately. The most recent study bv O'Loughlin'4 indicates that both antcro-postcrior and circumferential types of headshaping affect the frequency of some types of extrasutural bones. In par-ticular, these headshaping types exhibited significantly greater frequencies of lambdoid ossicles in O'Loughlln's study. Presence and frequency of extrasutural bones can be assessed by record-ing the number of extrasutural bones in the different cranial sutures, using the method presented by O'Loughl in .These include extrasutural bones at the coronal, ptcrionic, sagittal, apical, lambdoid, astcrionic, parietomastoid, occipitomastoid, squamosal, and parietal notch regions (see Fig. 5.4). Hauser and Stefano 3" present even more detailed divisions of the cranial sutures, allowing scoring of fragmentary cranial material. Cranial synostoses. Craniosvnostosis involves the premature fusion of one or more of the calvarial sutures.51 Following the method presented by W h i t e " premature cranial synostosis can be scored as present or absent. Premature synostosis is identi-fied by a marked differential fusion between one suture (or sutural region) and the other major vault sutures (i.e., the suture scored as displaying premature synostosis must be obliterated both endocraniallv and ectocranially when the other sutures arc still open).

8 2 K I R S I O . L O R E N T Z

3. Sutural ¡ntcrdigitation. Intcrdigltation refers to another aspect o f relative complexity o f the cranial sutures, In addition to the prcscncc and frequency of cxtrasutural bones. As in the case of cxtrasutural bones, it Is debated whether the extent o f sutural ¡ntcrdigitation is attributable to genetic factors, environmental factors (mechanical loading, such as hcadshaping), or both. , ;

A study by Anton, Jaslow, and Swartz" Indicates that different types o f hcadshaping may have differential cffccts on the extent of sutural intcrdlgitation. However, their results arc ambiguous, and more studies arc needed.The rcscarchers quantified mea-sures o f sutural complexity (intcrdlgitation and number and size of cxtrasutural bones) from digitized tracings o f 13 sutures and compared these among three groups of crania showing antcro-postcrior hcadshaping, circumferential hcadshaping, or no mod-ification. This method requires complete crania, however, and as such is not applicable to fragmentan' materials, including scries like Tharrounia. T h e degree o f intcrdlgitation can be assessed in incomplete crania by scoring sixteen separate portions o f the coronal (six, three on each side), sagittal (four), and lambdoidal (six, three on each side) sutures, according to the method pre-sented in Hauscr and Stcfano.1: Using this method potentially allows for the comparative assessment of sutural complexity on fragmentan crania, where obtaining ¡ntcrdigitation data on the full length of a suture may not be possible.

4. Asymmetries. Some rcscarchcrs have referred to a possible increase in cranial asymmetry in conncction to antcro-postcrior hcadshaping achieved by cradlcboarding.36 Kohn, Leigh, and Chcvcrud explored the vault modification o f Hopi crania using finite element scaling, and found significant correlation of size asymmetry with direction of modification in the cranial vault.17

However, few satisfactory metric or morphomctric methods18

have been developed allowing quantitative analysis o f incom-plete crania. T h e method presented by Zoncnshayn, Kronbcrg, and Souwcidanc39 may provide a way fonvard. It is based on semiautomatcd, computerized analysis o f digital images o f the superior aspect of the cranium, surrounded by a headband with nasion and inion indicated. Cranial index of symmetry (CIS) can be calculated based on the shape and area o f each hemi-sphere. This method is applicable to both complete and incom-plete crania, as well as living populations, potentially allowing quantitative comparisons o f cranial asymmetry between archae-ological and living populations exhibiting cranial shape modifi-cations (such as hcadshaping, or positional plagioccphaly).

Various other methods of shape analysis can also be applied to the analysis o f headshaping. One o f the recent methods is presented by Friess and Bavlac.40 It uses elliptic Fourier analysis o f Procrustes aligned outlines. The problem with this method, as with many other shape analysis methods, is that it is only applicable to relatively complete crania.""

33. Anton, Jaslow, and Swartz 1992. 34. Anton, Jaslow, and Swartz 1992. 35. I lauscr and Dc Stcfano 1989. 36. Kohn, Leigh, and Cheverud

1995. 37. Kohn, Leigh, and Cheverud

1995. 38. Kohn, Leigh, and Cheverud

1995. 39. Zoncnshayn, Kronbcrg, and

Souwcidanc 2004. 40. Friess and Baylac 2003. 41. T h e Tharrounia series, like many

o f the Mediterranean and Near Eastern series, includes mainly incomplete crania.

H E A D S H A P I N C IN G R E E C E AND S U R R O U N D I N G R E G I O N S 83

Figure 5.5. Antero-postcrior head-shaping at Tharrounia. Cranium 9, left lateral (top) and superior (bottom) view». Scalc 1:2. Photos K. 0 . Lorcntz

R K S U L T S

42. Lorenrz and Manolis, forth-coming.

43. Lorenr/. and Manolis, forth-coming.

All of the crania within the Tharrounia series that arc sufficiently complete for headshaping assessment—11 out of a total of 13—display some extent of antcro-posterlor headshaping.42 The subtype of antero-posterior head-shaping present at Tharrounia can be characterized as occipital flattening, with occasional slight involvement of the frontal (for example, in crania 8, 9,10, and 12).4'

Tharrounia cranium 9 is a typical example of an antero-posteriorly modified cranium within the series (Fig. 5.5). This cranium has been modified by pronounced headshaping. The curvature of the parietals is clearly increased. The superior aspect of the cranium appears sphenoid, and the sagittal suture is depressed, especially in the posterior half. The occipital squama curvature is decreased, and there Is a depressed area on the


Figure 5.6. Posterior view o f a cra-nium from Khirokitia with an cxtra-sutural bone band in the lambdoid suture. Sealc 1:2. Photo K- O. Lorcntz1

courtesy Department of Antiquities, Cyprus

occipital forming a clcar concavity, a possible pad or binding impression. The frontal involvement is not clcar. There is a small cxtrasutural bone at lambda (apical cxtrasutural bone), and at least two, but possibly three or four, joining cxtrasutural bones in a row in the right pan of the lambdoidal suture, where fragmentation complicates further analysis.

The expression of these cxtrasutural bones is similar to the conjoining cxtrasutural bones in the cxtrasutural bone bands occurring in the antcro-postcriorlv shaped crania in the Neolithic Khirokitia scries in Cyprus (Fig. 5.6).41 The width of the probable band o f cxtrasutural bones on cranium 9 is ca. 27 mm. There is no clcar post-coronal depression.

Due to the incomplete nature of the crania available for analysis from Tharrounia, only broad estimates of age and sex could be performed (sec Tabic 5.2). It seems that hcadshaping was practiccd universally so that all individuals received the treatment in infancy at Ncolithic Tharrounia. However, there are clcar differences in the intensity or extent of hcadshap-ing among the crania.

Tabic 5.3 gives details o f the cxtrasutural bone presence and number in the lambdoidal suture in the Tharrounia crania. It should be noted that full assessment of cxtrasutural bone presence in all sutures of all crania was also not possible due to the incompleteness of the crania.

Within the Tharrounia scries, premature cranial synostosis is pres-ent in three examples, crania 8, 9, and 10. The premature synostosis in cranium 8 is asymmetrical, invoking the left coronal suture only. Slight cranial asymmetry accompanies this asymmetrical synostosis. Crania 9 and 10 both display premature sagittal synostosis, assessed by the discrepancy between the fused and almost obliterated sagittal suture and the other cranial sutures, which are still open. In the case of cranium 10, the Iamb-dic part of the lambdoid suture is also fused. It is interesting to note that both of these crania display pronounced hcadshaping, occupying positions 1 and 3 in the hcadshaping extent scriation respectively. The extent of 44. See Lorentz 2003b.

H E A D S H A P I N C I N G R E E C E A N D S U R R O U N D I N G R E G I O N S 85

T A B L E 5 .2 . E X T E N T O F H E A D S H A P I N G B Y A G E A N D S E X

Position in Series Cranium Age Estimate' Sex Estimate"

1 9 A F

1 7 SA (ca. 4 - 5 yrs)

1 12 SA ( * 7 yrs) 2 3 A 3 10 A F

3 6 A 4 1 A 5 5 A Possibly M

6 11 SA ( 4 - 5 yrs) 7 8 A M 8 2 A Possibly F

" The incompleteness of the adult crania and the possible effects o f headshaping in cranial suture closure do not allow the use o f the cranial suture closure method for adult aging. The lack of secure associations between post-cranial elements and the crania prevent use of aging methods based on post-cranial elements. Assignation of individual crania to the broad category of "adult" is based on general morphological features (Schwartz 1995) and the fusion of the spheno-basilar synchondrosis. Sub-adult age estimates arc based on morphology and the developmental stage of the dentition (Smith 1991; Moorrecs, Fanning, and Hunt 1963; Ubelaker 1989; Lorenrz and Manolis, forthcoming). Abbrevia-tions: A • adult, SA « sub-adult.

** Scx estimations are based on cranial morphology (Schwartz 1995; Lorentz and Manolis, forthcoming). The lack of secure associations between post-cranial elements and the crania prevented use o f sex estimation methods based on post-cranial elements. Abbreviations: F * female, M = male.

45. O'Loughlin 2 0 0 4 , 1 9 9 6 . 46. Anton 1989. 47. Whi te 1996. 48. White 1996.

headshaping (Table 5.2) was qualitatively determined by visual inspection, following O'Loughlin.45 Several crania occupy the same position in the seriation as to extent o f headshaping: crania 7, 9, and 12, for example, all display equally pronounced antero-postcrior headshaping. Position 1 in the seriation denotes the most pronounced antcro-postcrior headshaping present in Tharrounia, while position 8 represents the least pronounccd. Crania 4 and 13 could not be placed in the seriation, as they arc not com-plete enough for assessment. T h e lack o f male individuals high up in the seriation could be taken as an indication of potential gender differentiation as to the extent o f headshaping. However, due to the problems with sex estimation (the number of subadults and the fragmentary nature o f the cranial remains) and the small sample size, it is not possible to arrive at conclusions on this.

Pathological premature cranial synostosis can cause modification o f the head shape, but in such cases the sagittal suture is often raised,4(1 not depressed as in the Tharrounia examples. Further, the lack o f cranial synos-tosis in the other similarly modified crania within the Tharrounia series negates the possibility that premature cranial synostosis would have causcd the type of modifications seen In the sample. Instead, the fusion visible in crania 9 and 10 mavbe the consequence o f tensile forces on cranial sutures causcd bv headshaping.47 White1 8 suggests that headshaping devices cre-ate tensile forces on the sagittal suture during the peak growth period o f the parietals, and that these forces may induce an adaptive response that


T A B L E 5 . 3 . E X T R A S U T U R A L B O N E P R E S E N C E A N D N U M B E R I N T H E L A M B D O I D A L S U T U R E

Cranium Number Age Eftimate' Sex" Extrasutural Bones

1 A

2 A Possibly F None 3 A 4 A

5 A Possibly M None 6 A 7 SA (ca. 4 - 5 yrs) 8 A M 2 apical

1 right lambdic 1 right astcric

9 A F 1 apical

2 right lambdic 1 left astcric

10 A F None

11 SA ( 4 - 5 yrs) 1 right Iambilic 1 left lambdic

12 SA (+7 yrs) 1 left astcric 13 A Possibly F

Note: For scoring, the Umbdoid.il suture is divided into sections following Hauser and DcStefano 1989, p. 88: apical part (at lambda); lambdic part (generally more complicated and extending from the lambda towards a more or less marked angle in the suture); inter-mediate part (generally more complicated part extending laterally from the more or less marked angle in the suture); and astcric part (more simple sutural pattern, near asterion). Data arc not given where missing regions prevent assessment. " For ageing methods used see first note to Table 5.2. Abbreviations: A - adult, SA - sub-adult.

For sex estimation methods used see second note to Table 5.2. Abbreviations: F - female, M • male.

contributes to premature sagittal synostosis. The asymmetry o f the cra-nial vault o f cranium 10 may be the result o f cradleboarding and induced premature sagittal synostosis.

T h e etiology ofcraniosynostosis is unclear. O'Loughlin1'' has posited a multifactorial etiology involving genetics, biochemical abnormalities, and environmental constraints. Further research into the possible connection between premature cranial synostosis and hcadshaping is needed.

Table 5.4 details the interdigitation assessment conducted according to the method published by Hauser and Stefano.4" No assessments o f inter-digitation could be conducted on crania 7 and 13 due to high fragmenta-tion, and Tharrounia cranium 6 allowed only one assessment. T h e rest o f the crania allow between 5 and 11 assessments each, and in no cranium is a complete assessment possible.

There does not seem to be any correlation between the distribution o f the combination ¡ntcrdigitation scorcs51 and the severity o f hcadshaping.52

However, it should be noted that the amount o f missing data prevents sta-tistical analyses. Qualitative assessment o f the sutural regions most often present in the Tharrounia crania docs not show any patterning according to headshaping severity.

49. O'Loughlin 1996. 50. I lauscr and Dc Stcfano 1989. 51 .1 lauscr and De Stefano 1989. 52. Lorcntz and Manolis, forth-

coming.


T A B L E 5 . 4 . S U T U R A L I N T E R D I C I T A T I O N S C O R E S

Cran No. Cor-breg L Cor-breg R Cor-com L Cor-eom R Cor-tem L Cor-tem R

1 5-31-2 2 oblit 2-21-1 oblit oblit oblit oblit

3 3-21-1 3-21-1 4-31-2 4 2-21-1 4-31-4

5 6 7 partial partial

8 3-21-1 3-21-1 5-31-4 9 3-21-1 4-31-4

10 3-21-1 3-21-1 4-31-3 4 -3d-3 3-21-1

11 4 - 2 d - l 1-1-1

12 1-1-1 1-1-1 3-21-1

Cran No. Sag-breg Sag-vert Sag-obel Sag-lam

1 3-21-1 6-31-2 3-21-1 4-31-2 2 5-31-1 5-31-1 5-31-1

3 i

3-21-1 4-21-1 5-21-1 1-1-1

5 3-21-1 4-21-1 5-31-1 4-21-1

6 3-21-1 7 partial 8 3-21-1 4-21-1 4-21-1 1-1-1 9 fused i u ved fused 5-21-1

10 fused (3-21-1)? fused fused (5-21-1)? fused

11 4-21-1 3-21-1

12 2-21-1 3-21-1

Cran No. Lam-Jant L Lam-lam R Lam-int L Lam-int R Lam-ast L Lam-ast R

1 partial partial partial

2 4-21-2 5-21-1 5-31-4 4-21-1 4-21-2 3-21-1

3 4

partial partial partial partial

5 6

4-21-1 4-21-1 5-21-2 5-21-1

7

8 5-21-1 5-31-2 5-21-1 3-21-1 9 5-21-2 2-21-1 5-31-3 5-31-3 2-21-1

10 fused fused 4-21-2 5-21-1 4-21-3 3-21-1

U 3 - 2 d - l 4-21-1 1-1-1

12

Note: The first number in the series of three denotes Hauser and DcSrefanos (1989, p. 88) first criterion (maximal sutural shape extension), followed by their sccond criterion (basic configurations), and ending with their third criterion (secondary protrusions). Tlie second criterion is further qualified bv a letter: d • dentate; 1 • looped. Where data are not given, it is because missing regions prevent assessment. This includes all sutures of cranium 13, which is omitted from the table. Cor-breg = Coronal suture, brcgmatic part; Cor-com = Coronal suture, complicated part (pars complicata); Cor-tein = Coronal suture, temporal part; Sag-breg = Sagittal suture, brcgmatic part; Sag-vert = Sagittal suture, vertex part; Sag-obel • Sagittal suture, obelic (interforaminal) parr; Sag-lam • Sagittal suture, Iambdic part; Lam-Iam = Lambdoid suture, Iambdic part; Lam-int = Lambdoid suture, intermedi-ate part; Lam-ast • Lambdoid suture, asteric part; L • left, R • right; oblit - obliterated.


Comparison o f the Tharrounia and the Khirokitia (Cyprus, Neo-lithic)'1 series crania reveals significant similarities in hcadshaping type and prevalence, both showing antcro-postcrior type hcadshaping with universal prevalence. T h e Tharrounian scries does not, however, contain such pronounccd cases of antcro-postcrior hcadshaping as those found at Khiroki tia, where some o f the crania display almost fully concave occipital squama.M

D I S C U S S I O N

O T H K R E V I D E N C E O F I I K A D S I I A P I N G F R O M G R E E C E

IS Tharrounia the only site in the area o f modern Greece with evidence o f hcadshaping? This is unlikely, but a lot o f basic research is still needed to locate series that might potentially show evidence o f hcadshaping. Further, due to the fragmentary nature o f many o f the skeletal series in Greece, restorations o f at least the parietal regions are needed to enable the assess-ment o f the presence or absence o f hcadshaping. In the following section, some notes on potential hcadshaping evidence from other sites and skeletal scries from Greece arc discussed. It should be stressed that what follows is by no means a final, comprehensive, or conclusive list.

At least one cranium from the Athenian Agora shows modifica-tion.55 Cranium 13 AA5 ' ' dating from the Roman period displays clear antero-postcrior hcadshaping, with slight plagiocephalv (the right side protrudes slightly more posteriorly).57 There is no evidence o f premature suture closure, as all o f the cranial sutures are o f a similar fusion stage (mostly visible and unfused). T h e posterior flattening ccnters on lambda, but there are no clear localized depressions in this region, nor is there any clear frontal involvement, apart from slight asymmetry corresponding to the posterior asymmetry mentioned above. T h e posterior third of the pa-rietals show lateral expansions, making the superior aspect o f the cranium appear sphenoid. There is a clear post-coronal depression. There are no extrasutural bones present. The extent o f antero-posterior modification is such that it would have been clearly visible with a certain kind o f hairstyle. Cranium 14AA, belonging to an adult male of same date, also displays "clcar cut lambdoid flattening"58 according to Angel. Angcl5'' also mentions that another cranium, cranium 27AA,"" of Neolithic date and from the same series, has "a sloping forehead, flat lambda region, and rising vertex profile" with "definite skull and facc broadening." Tliis description seems consistent with the shape modifications present at Tharrounia and begs the question ofwhether or not there is some antcro-postcrior modification present. Unfortunately, it has not vet been possible to locate this cranium. Tlicsc preliminary findings would warrant the complete survey o f the Athenian Agora series to assess the prcscncc o f hcadshaping within this important skeletal sample.

Some o f the crania collcctcd from modern Athenian cemeteries seem to show signs o f shape modification, possibly related to midwifery practiccs of binding the infants head. This is consistent with the evidence for the

53. Angcl 1 9 5 3 , 1 9 6 1 . 54. Lorcntz 2003b. 55. I am grateful to John Camp for

providing the opportunity to view this cranium.

56. Roman period I , ca. A.I>. 450. Adult female. Find context: section Y, well at 9/Xita. Angel 1945, p. 315.

57. Angel describes this cranium as "a very short brachycranc, sphenoid cranium, with narrow forehead and almost vertically flat lambdoid-occipital region" (Angel 1945, p. 315).

58. Angel 1945, p. 313. Roman period l , ca . A.D. 450. Adult male (age estimate by Angel: ca. 38 years at death). Find context: section Y, well at 9/Xita.

59. Angel 1945. 60. Angel provides the following age

and sex estimates: "a young adult male, probably between 30 and 35 at death" (Angel 1945, p. 291). 27AA was found in section E , shaft grave 2.


61. Hasluck 1947. 62. Dingwall 1931. 63. Von Fiirst 1933. 64. Kurth and Rohrcr-Ertl 1981. 65. Dingwall 1931. 66. Lorentz 2003b, 2 0 0 4 , 2 0 0 5 . 67. Lorentz 2003b, 2 0 0 4 , 2 0 0 5 ;

Schultc-Catnpbcll 1979 ,1983a , 1983b, 1986; Angel 1 9 5 3 , 1 9 6 1 , 1 9 7 2 ; Fox Leonard 1997.

circumferential type o f headshaping during recent times from the village ofYeranica"1 and the district o f Zalka (Tiflis).02 Ethnographic and oral his-tory research is urgently needed to investigate these more recent practices while elderly informants are still living. Sporadic and vague mentions o f headshaping in Crete, both in recent and in archaeological populations, have also been made by Von Fürst,6 ' Kurth and Rohrer-Ertl,6* and Dingwall.611

It is likely that the current paucity o f sccure evidence for headshaping from Greece is an artifact o f the current research situation, rather than a real absence of the practice itself. However, if the practice really is unusual, the Tharrounia material is remarkable and would require a very specific kind o f cultural interpretation.

H E A D S H A P I N G IN T H E M E D I T E R R A N E A N

A N D T H E N F . A R E A S T

Table 5.5 presents some o f the archacologicallv known evidence for headshaping from the Near East. T h e areas with current unpublished and published evidence for headshaping from this wide region include Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and the southern Levant, as well as Cyprus, Greece, and Crete. It should be noted that it is only for Cyprus that we so far have a headshaping sequence researched in sufficient detail to begin to understand the cultural contexts in which the different types and combina-tions of types o f headshaping were employed.66

In Cyprus,67 headshaping occurs from the earliest known Neolithic mortuary series to at least the Earlv Iron Age. Interestingly, until the Latc Bronze Age, and specifically until the Late Cvpriot II period, there seems to be only one type of headshaping present in Cyprus, the so-called antero-postcrior type. However, during the Late Cvpriot, the headshaping practices become much more prolific, with as manyas three different types o f headshaping (antcro-posterior, post-brcgmatic, circumferential), as well as non-modified individuals.

It is conccivablc that headshaping in Grcccc or in Cvprus did not arise in isolation from practices in surrounding regions and links between the information about Near Eastern practices shown in Table 5.5 and evi-dence from the Mediterranean should be explored. As the overall extent o f skeletal evidence for headshaping in Grcccc is as vet poorly understood, the following discussion focuses on CxrPrus and its interconnections as an example o f potential avenues for future research. Although regions such as Iran may seem very far awav from Cyprus, it should be noted that the Ubaid interaction sphere was vast, and many o f the sites close enough to CxrPrus to have an impact in some form, even i f secondarily, were conncctcd to this Ubaid sphere.The Ubaid phenomenon occurred in Mesopotamia between about 6000 B.C. or earlier, and 3800 B.C. It can be divided into six different chronological phases according to differences in pottcrv. Ubaid pottery is found in settled villages along the great rivers o f Mesopotamia, the Tigris and Euphrates, but it seems that members o f these communities traveled far in search o f new lands and natural resources. Some went north, fol-lowing the river systems to their sources. Others went downstream (south) as far as the Arabian Peninsula. Bv 4000 B.C. the influence o f the Ubaid

16 K I RSI O . L O R E N T Z

T A B L E 5 . 5 . A R C H A E O L O G I C A L E V I D E N C E F O R H E A D S H A P I N G F R O M T H E N E A R E A S T

Site (Country) Period Type of Headshaping Reference

Kurban Hoyiik (Turkey) Halaf Type not clear Alpagut1986

Degirmentepe (Turkey) Uhaid (second half o f 5th Circumferential Ozbek 1984, 1986 ,2001

millennium B.C. uncal)

§eyh HojrIik (Turkey) Ubaid Circumferential Scnyurek and Tunakan 1951 Karataf (Turkey) Early Bronze Age Antero-posterior; Angel 1 9 6 8 , 1 9 7 0 , 1 9 7 5

post-brcgmatic? Gordion (Turkey) Phrygian Circumferential Unpublished Tepe Ghenil (Iran) Late 8th-early 6th Circumferential? Meiklejohn et al. 1992

millennium B.C. Ganj Dareh (Iran) ca. 7 5 0 0 - 6 5 0 0 B.C. uncal Circumferential Lambert 1979; Mciklejohn et al. 1992

Tcpe AIKIUI I Ioscin (Iran) First half o f 7th Circumferential Lorentz, forthcoming

millennium B.C. Ali Kosh (Iran) 7th millennium B.C. Circumferential Lambert 1979; Meiklcjohn et al. 1992

Sch Gabi (Iran) Chalcolithic C ircu m fe re n t ia I Lambert 1979; Meiklejohn et al. 1992

Chaga Scfid (Iran) ca. 7 5 0 0 - 5 0 0 0 B.P. uncal Circumferential Hole 1977 Qumrud (Iran) 5th millennium B.C. Circumferential Lorentz, forthcoming

Choga Mish (Iran) 4 5 0 0 - 4 0 0 0 B.C. Circumferential Ortner 1996 Tepe Sialk (Iran) 5th-4th millennium B.C. Antero-posterior Soto-Heim 1986 Ghalccoti (Iran) 250 B.C - 200 A.I). Antero-postcrior Soto-Hcim 1986

Bolghasian (Iran) 6 2 2 - 7 0 0 A.D. Antero-postcrior Pardini 1968; Soto-Hcim 1986 Shanidar (Iraq) Mousterian; Circumferential? Trinkaus 1982; Meiklejohn et al. 1992

9 0 0 0 - 8 5 0 0 B.C. uncal (debated)

Eridu (Iraq) Late Ubaid Circumferential Mciklcjohn et al. 1992 Tell Arpachiyah (Iraq) Ubaid Circumferential Molleson and CampbeU 1995 Tclul-eth Thalathat (Iraq) Ubaid Type not stated Egami 1959 Tell Madhur (Iraq) Ubaid Circumferential? Downs 1984 Tell Ramad (Syria) Neolithic Type not stated Ferembach 1 9 5 7 , 1 9 8 5 ; Arensburg and

Hcrshkovitz 1988 Bouqras (Syria) 6 5 0 0 - 5 5 0 0 B.C. Type not clear Meiklcjohn et al. 1992 Ras Shainra (Syria) 18th-13th century B.C. Type not stated Vallois 1960; Vallois and Ferembach 1962;

Soto-Hcim 1986 Minct el Bcida (Syria) 14th-13th century B.C. Type not stated Vallois and Fcrembach 1962;

Soto-Heim 1986 Byblos (Lebanon) Second half o f 4th Circumferential ValIois 1937; Ozbek 1974a, 1974b, 1976

millennium B.C.

Sidon (Lebanon) 4 th-5th century A.D. Circumferential Ozbek 1974a, 1974b

Phoenician (sites not specified) Phoenician Type not stated Lortet 1884; Arcnsburgand Hcrshkovitz 1988

Jericho (Southern Levant) Aceramic Antero-posterior Kurth 1 9 5 9 , 1 9 8 0 ; Kurth and Rohrer-Ertl 1981;

Meiklejohn et al. 1992 Tell Duweir (Southern Levant) 8th-7th century B.C. Circumferential Risdon 1939; Ozbek 1974a, 1974b En Gedi (Southern Levant) I Iellenistic-Byzantine Antero-posterior Arensburgand Hershkovitz 1988 Yavnc Yam (Southern Levant) Hcllcnistic-Byzantinc Antero-posterior Arcnsburgand Hcrshkovitz 1988

Jericho (Southern Levant) Hellenistic-Byzantine Antero-postcrior Arcnsburgand Hcrshkovitz 1988

Note: It should be noted that there are many more sites in the Near East with skeletal remains that have not been adequately assessed for presence or absence o f headshaping, and there is scope for future work (Lorentz, forthcoming).


68. YoiTcc and Clark 1993, p. 265; Oatcs 1993, pp. 4 0 9 - 4 1 0 , 4 1 4 - 4 1 5 ; Moorcy 1994, p. 154.

69. Lorcntz, forthcoming. 70. Mollcson and Campbell 1995. 71. Karageorghis 1993.

sphere on temple architecture and probably mythology and language had spread northward as far as Syria and Iran, with Ubaid eventually replacing the long-established Halaf and Samarran cultures. Whether this spread involved an actual movement of peoples or mimicry o f material culture is less certain. Ubaid pottery is found as far afield as Arabia and I ran- w Thc evidence detailed in Table 5.5 seems to suggest that in addition to pottery and temple architecture, people living within the Ubaid sphere had another thing in common: circumfcrcntial hcadshaping. The evidence from sites such as Eridu in Iraq, the early Iranian sites, and the sites situated in the southeast of modern Turkey (Dcgirmcntcpc and §eyh Hóyük) seems to be consistent with this hypothesis, warranting its more detailed investiga-tion in the future."9 T h e evidence from Bvblos, at a reasonable distance from Cyprus, falls closc to the latter part of this period (second half o f the 4th millennium B.C.). T h e first archacologicallv detected evidence for circumferential hcadshaping from Cyprus dates from the Latc Cypriot period (1600-1050 B.C.), a couplc of thousand years later than the very similar Ubaid related circumferential hcadshaping. This begs the question o f a possible conncction between these occurrcnccs of the same form of hcadshaping in Cyprus and on the mainland. In order to fully understand whether there arc cultural transfers involved or whether it is rather a ques-tion o f parallel innovation, it is paramount that the skeletal evidence for hcadshaping from sites dating to the intervening periods is analyzed in more detail in the future (e.g., Early Bronze Agc evidence from Karata; in Turkey, and Ras Shamra and Minct el Bcida in Syria). In this context it is interesting to note the iconographic similarities noted by many research-ers between the anthropomorphic figurines o f the Ubaid period"' and the IatcruBirdfaccd" figurines found in Cyprus and dated to the Latc Cypiiot Bronze Age.7 '

Other potential geographical and temporal patterns o f interest emerg-ing from Table 5.5 include the early evidence for circumfcrcntial hcad-shaping from the area o f Iran and the possible cessation o f circumfcrcntial hcadshaping by the Hcllcnistic-Bvzantinc period, although evidence for antcro-postcrior hcadshaping continúes to be found. The above discussion and inferences arc necessarily preliminary in nature due to the lack o f detail in publications mentioning hcadshaping cvidcncc in the region.

S O C I O C U L T U R A L C O N T E X T

Hcadshaping is inherently tied up with sociocultural practiccs related to the carc of children, which may be seen as traditional and slow to changc. It thus has a heightened potential to serve as a cultural marker when investigating regional connections and, better still, to act as an indicator o f the nature and intensity o f culture contact, migration and population movement, cultural diffusion, and acculturation. Display artifacts (artifacts used to display socioeconomic and/or political prestige and power), such as daggers, earrings, and pots, are adopted and move much more easily between populations and areas than docs hcadshaping. Further, the study of differ-ential hcadshaping practiccs has the potential to aid our understanding o f


emerging complex societies, and the ways in which past societies employed bodily markers and modifications for denoting hierarchical positions, as well as other forms of sociocultural difference.

How do cultural practiccs o f body modification come about? How did it occur to people to begin modifying cranial shape? When a group o f people adopt the practice o f hcadshaping, two explanations can be invoked: culture contact and original innovation.

First, let us consider the situation where a population adopts the practicc o f body modification through culture contact with a population that is already practicing hcadshaping. Due to the length o f time needed to bring about a permanent modification o f the head shape72 and the need to appreciate the rather narrow window of opportunity presented bv the progress of cranial growth, it is improbable that hcadshaping was adopted through sporadic culture contact. Some kind o f "apprenticeship," or a prolonged period o f observation at least, would likely have been needed. So far, we have considered only the practical aspccts of the acquisition o f the knowledge of how to bring this body modification about. W c also need to consider the intricacies involved in the conceptual acccptancc, and the cultural contcxt that would have allowed or indeed spurred the adoption o f such a practicc. Sociocultural practiccs related to the carc o f children rarely change abruptly, and often retain traditional aspccts, even when other realms of culture show considerable malleability.7' In addition, many village-based societies arc highly prescriptive in terms o f individual appcarancc and dress. It is unlikely that hcadshaping was begun as a whim or fashion (thus, it is unlike many modern body modifications). It is conccivablc that a cultural demand for a highly visual marker o f sociocultural difference would be needed to motivate the adoption o f this rather labor-intensive and time-consuming modification, which requires detailed knowledge. This kind of demand could arise, for example, in a situation where the population already practicing hcadshaping occupics a higher social status in cultural exchanges, or its sociocultural (including ritual and religious) and/or eco-nomic practiccs, material culture, or technology arc seen as desirable and linked to hcadshaping practices.74 Hcadshaping has been used in various historical and archacological contexts to denote status.75

Further, hcadshaping is done to one in infancy by others. It is not the kind o f body modification that can be brought about at will later in life or instigated by the individual conccrncd. This aspect draws attention to the fact that it is the caretakers, and those who would have held power over the forms o f care children received, who decided whether and what kind and intensity o f modification was introduced. Thus, if hcadshaping was used for denoting status, it would have not been possible for an in-dividual seeking power to bring about this modification later in life. This indicates a close link between the use o f hcadshaping for denoting status and hereditary or ascribed status. Likewise, i f hcadshaping was used to denote membership of a sociocultural group, be it ethnic or another kind of a group, it would not have been possible for an individual to instigate such modification on themselves upon joining such a group. This may indicate a certain rigidity for sociocultural groups using hcadshaping as a marker o f difference. Hcadshaping would have been a barrier to change

72. Littlcficld, Pomatto, and Kelly 2000 ; Lorcntz 2003b.

73. Whit ing 1963; Zelizer 1985. 74. See Dingwall 1931 on American

Indian practices involving differentiat-ing the free and the enslaved.

75. Dingwall 1931; Ticslcr Blos 1998; Lorentz 2007 , 2008.


76. Pcltcnburgct al. 2001. 77. Pcltenburg et al. 2001. 78. Peltenburg 1989; Peltenburg

et al. 2001. 79. Lorentz 2003b. 80. See Lorentz 2003b. 81. DelIinger 1936; Holliday 1993;

Hudson 1966. 82. Karageorghis 1991.

in such sociocultural constellations. Thus , headshaping is unlike aspects o f dress or bodily modifications that can be performed in adulthood (such as scarifications or plastic surgery) in that it has to be planned and instigated in infancy, bv others.

I Iowever, how docs headshaping originally come about? It is unlikely that there was a single area o f origin for the varied headshaping practices known from all over the world and from different time periods.'Die practice could have arisen independently at different time periods and locations. A significant cognitive leap is required to move from the detailed observa-tion o f the modificatory power o f devices (for example, cradlcboards) and practiccs (swaddling, laying babies to sleep on relatively hard surfaces in consistent positions), to the conscious and intentional exploitation o f the observed plasticity o f the growing human head. Further, only particular cultural conditions would have conceivably allowed the widespread adop-tion and elaboration o f intentional modification o f the head shape by a whole population or significant groups within it.

I t seems probable that the use o f cradlcboards to transport and protect infants, as attested cthnographicallv, causcd the first significant modifications o f the head form. These effects were subsequently observed and then intentionally exploited by carctakcrs. Certainly in Cyprus, the earliest known type o f headshaping, the antero-postcrior type, is consis-tent with this hypothesis. T h e earliest known evidence comes from the Kissoncrga-Mylouthkia wells.7" T h e cranium found at this site Is dated to the C v p r o - P P N B period.77 It shows a moderate extent o f antero-postcrior headshaping that could have comc about simply as a secondary effect o f cradlcboarding. However, already during the Khirokitian Ncolithic (7000/6500 B .C-5 800/5500 B.C.),78 the intensity and variation in antero-posterior type headshaping within the skeletal scries from the site o f Khlroki tia, together with large concavities on the posterior aspect o f some o f the crania, suggest clearly intentional modification o f the head shape.7* Much later in the Cvpriot cultural sequence new headshaping types arc introduced: Late Bronze Agc II sees the introduction and adoption o f at least two additional types, the so-callcd post-brcgmatic (also known as the uCj rPriot" type) and the circumferential type. Indications o f the different type o f headshaping devices used to achieve these forms can be gained through the detailed analysis o f morphological changes within the different types.8" T h e antero-postcrior type features arc consistent with the use o f cradlcboards: the occipital flattening is most likclv a result o f a consistent supine position while attached to a relatively hard, flat surface.The frontal impressions visible in some of the antero-postcrior modified crania most likclv relate to accessories used to bind the head to the cradlcboard. It should be noted, however, that it is enough to swaddle the infant body tightly on the board to result in occipital flattening. Use o f such devices is docu-mented cthnographicallv as well as archaeologicallv.81 Cypriot coroplastic art also depicts cradlcboards. T h e dating o f these depictions o f freestanding cradlcboards is somewhat problematic due to their provenance from illicit excavations, but Karagcorghis states the EarlvCvpriot period as a probable date for the freestanding cradlcboards and the Middle Cvpriot period for the depictions o f plank figurines holding cradlcboardcd infants.K:


It is conccivablc that the two other general types o f hcadshaping in Cyprus, the post-brcgmatic and the circumferential types, were achieved with the use o f a freestanding device, attached to the head only and un-related to cradlcboarding. This would be consistent with the changes in the anthropomorphic depletions o f infants throughout time as well. Such freestanding devices could include bands, boards, or other artifacts sccurcd to the head by bands.8-' Thus, we sec a trajectory from the use o f a large artifact used also for other purposes—the cradlcboard—to the use of freestanding devices attached to the head with the sole purpose of modi-fying the head form, known archaeologically by the Late Cypriot II and continuing at least until the Iron Age. Tl ic fact that hcadshaping occurs in very rich Latc Cipriot Bronze Age tombs, for example in Enkomi and at Kalavasos-Avios Dhimitrios,84 indicates the possibility that hcadshaping during the Late Cvpriot period was related to social status and illustrates the vcrv crucial position o f the Voungs" in realizing the socioculturallv prestigious body form for privileged families.

Due to the so far unique nature o f the Tharrounia finds from Grcccc, and the fragmentary condition o f the skeletal material, it is difficult to make far reaching conclusions on the beginnings o f this practicc in Grcccc. However, the type o f hcadshaping present in the Tharrounia skeletal series is consistent with the use o f cradlcboards. All o f the Tharrounia crania that can be assessed for the prcscncc of hcadshaping display evidence ofantcro-postcrior modification, indicating that all individuals at Tharrounia were affected to some extent by hcadshaping practices. There is no artifactual evidence for hcadshaping dcviccs from Tharrounia, but some o f the features o f morphology on the modified crania point to possibly intentional attempts to shape the infant head. These include the small concavities on the occipital bone and the lambda region. T h e pronounced extent o f antcro-postcrior hcadshaping on crania 9 and 10 points to the possible intcntionalitv of the practicc at Tharrounia. However, until larger series o f skeletal material arc available, the evidence may be viewed as inconclusive although consistent with the hypothesis positing existence o f intentional hcadshaping during the Greek Neolithic. Further research SirStcmaticallv assessing a wide sample o f skeletal collections in Grcccc, starting from collections o f similar time periods to Tharrounia and moving to the preceding and succccding periods and surrounding regions, is needed to illuminate the full cultural context o f hcadshaping in Tharrounia and in Grcccc.

C O N C L U S I O N S

'ITic skeletal scries from Ncolithic Tharrounia displays the earliest substan-tial evidence for hcadshaping in Grcccc. T h e type o f hcadshaping attested is antcro-postcrior, and the subtype is occipital flattening. The occurrence o f hcadshaping at Tharrounia is Iikclv universal, with all individuals receiving treatment that resulted at least in a slight modification o f the head form. Several crania show a pronounced form o f modification. It is difficult to ascertain whether the practicc o f hcadshaping is intentional at Tharrounia, but several corroborative factors point to this possibility. These include the very pronounced extent o f hcadshaping in crania 7 , 9 , and 12, and the

83. For photographs o f actual hcad-shaping dcviccs constructed of boards and string, see Irnbclloni 1932.

84. Lorcntz 2003b. 85. Hcadshaping has to be insti-

gated in infancy.


potential connection between gender and headshaping extent.*6 Due to the number o f sub-adults included within the series, D N A analyses would be needed to address the latter issue.

T h e need to further investigate headshaping practices in Greece be-comes clear when one considers that headshaping is known from various time periods and from all the surrounding regions, including Anatolia, the Balkans, Levant, Cyprus, and Italy. T h e analysis o f the Tharrounia skeletal series shows that headshaping was practiced also in prehistoric Greece. It is suggested that the previous lack of evidence for headshaping on the Greek mainland and islands is more a function o f the lack o f research into such practices rather than the result o f an actual absence of this cultural practice in Greece.

T h e presence of headshaping at Tharrounia also indicates the existence o f special kinds of infant care practices, relating both to the sleeping ar-rangements of infants and to the intentional modification o f their bodies. This type o f intentional modification may have been used as a marker o f social difference to denote differences in gender, status, ethnicity, and/or other social groups. T h e important discoveries at Tharrounia should spur

86. Lorentz and Manolis, forth- u s o n t o investigate the cultural employment o f the human body and its coming. modification in prehistoric Greece.

R E F E R E N C E S

Alpagut, B. 1986. "The Skeletal Remains from Kurban Hüyük (Urfa)," Anatclua 13, pp. 149-174 .

Angcl1J . L. 1945. "Skeletal Mate-rial from Attica," Htsprria 14, pp. 2 7 9 - 3 6 3 .

. 1953. "The Human Remains from Khirokitia: Appendix I I , " in Khirokitia, cd. P. Dikaios, London, pp. 4 1 6 - 4 3 0 .

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malleable body: headshaping in greece and the surrounding regions

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