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PowerPoint slides by Susan A. Peterson, Scottsdale Community College

Chapter 10:Motivation

m a n a g e m e n t 2eH i t t / B l a c k / P o r t e r

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 2

Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:Analyze the motivational forces present in a specific situationIdentify the sources of an individual’s motivationDifferentiate between content and process theories of motivation and indicate how each can be helpful in analyzing a given motivational situation


Learning Objectives

Explain how job enrichment can influence an employee's motivationCompare and contrast the various approaches to reinforcement and describe their relative advantages and disadvantages for use by managersDescribe how values and attitudes toward work can influence motivation


What Is Motivation?

Motivation:Is a set of forces that energize, direct, and sustain behaviorCan come from:- Internal “push” forces

or- External “pull” forces


Sources of Motivation

Needs For security For self-esteem For achievement For power

Attitudes About self About job About supervisor About organization

Goals Task completion Performance level Career advancement

INTERNAL (PUSH FORCES)

EXTERNAL(PULL FORCES)

Characteristics of THE INDIVIDUAL

(examples)

Characteristics ofTHE WORK SITUATION

(examples)

Feedback For security For self-esteem

Work load

Tasks Variety Scope

Discretion How job is performed

Immediate social environment Supervisor(s) Workgroup members Subordinates

Organizational actions Rewards and

compensation Availability of training Pressure for high levels

of output

Adapted from Exhibit 10.1

Characteristics of THE JOB

(examples)


Motivation Theories

How different variables can combine to

influence the amount of effort put forth by

employees.

Equity TheoryExpectancy Theory

Social Cognitive TheoryGoal-Setting Theory

Personal needs that workers attempt to satisfy.

Features in the work environment that satisfy

a worker’s needs.

Maslow’s Need HierarchyMcClelland’s Acquired

Need TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Focus

Theories

Content Theories Process Theories



Content Theories of Motivation

Personal needs that workers attempt to satisfy.

Features in the work environment that satisfy

a worker’s needs.

Maslow’s Need HierarchyMcClelland’s Acquired

Need Theory

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Focus

Theories

Content Theories

Theories Focusing onINTERNAL Factors

Theory Focusing onEXTERNAL Factors


Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

Self-Actualization

Esteem

Belongingness

Safety

Physiological

Humans have five needs arranged in hierarchy of strength and influence

Individuals:Satisfy most basic (prepotent) needs firstMove to the next level of needs after preceding needs is satisfied


Alderfer’s ERG Theory

ERG = existence, relatedness, growthDifferent levels of needs can be active at the same timePeople can move back to a lower level need even after a high level need has been met

Growth

Relatedness

Existence


Maslow’s and Alderfer’s Needs Theories

Highest-order needs

Most essential (prepotent) needs

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Categories

Alderfer’s Needs Hierarchy Categories

Self-actualization

Esteem

Belongingness

Safety

Physiological

Growth

Relatedness

Existence



Acquired Needs Theory

Individuals have three “learned” needs: Power, affiliation, achievementPeople with need for achievement:- Work on tasks of moderate

difficulty- Take moderate risks- Take personal responsibility

for one’s own actions- Receive specific and concrete

feedback on one’s own performance


Two-Factor Theory

Recognition

Achievement Growth

ResponsibilityNature of the work

Motivators: Factors directly related to doing

a job

Hygiene Factors: Elements associated with conditions

surrounding the job

Job

Relations with co-workers

Working conditions

BenefitsCompensation

Supervision



Effects of Hygiene Factors and Motivators

Hygiene-FactorsExtrinsic factors

related to conditions surrounding

the job

MotivatorsIntrinsic factors related to the doing of the

job itself

Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied

From the state of being neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, motivators can impel an employee’s motivation and performance to higher levels

Hygiene factors must be satisfied first, leading to a state of being neither satisfied nor dissatisfied



Job Characteristics Model

Core JobCharacteristics

• Skill variety• Task identity• Task significance• Feedback• Autonomy

Critical Psychological States

• Experienced meaningfulness of the work• Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work• Knowledge of the actual results of the work activities

Outcomes

High:• Internal work motivation• “Growth” satisfaction• Work effectiveness• General job satisfaction



Skill Variety

Core Job Characteristics

Task Identity

Task Significance

The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities in carrying out the work, involving the use of a number of different skills and talents of the person.

The aerospace engineer must be able to create blueprints, calculate tolerances, provide leadership to the work group, and give presentations to upper management.

The degree to which a job requires completion of a “whole” and identifiable piece of work, that is, doing a job from beginning to end with a viable outcome.

The event manager handles all the plans for the annual executive retreat, attends the retreat, and receives information on its success from the participants.

The degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives of other people, whether those people are in the immediate organization or in the world at large.

The finance manager devises a new benefits plan to improve health coverage for all employees.



Definition Example


Autonomy

Core Job Characteristics (cont.)

Feedbackfrom theJob

The degree to which a job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.

R&D scientists are linked via the company intranet, allowing them to post their ideas, ask questions, and propose solutions at any hour of the day, whether at the office, at home, or on the road.

The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job provides the individual with direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.

The lathe operator knows he is cutting his pieces correctly, as very few are rejected by the workers in the next production area.



Definition Example


Process Theories of Motivation

How different variables can combine to

influence the amount of effort put forth by

employees.

Equity TheoryExpectancy Theory

Social Cognitive TheoryGoal-Setting Theory

Focus

Theories

Process Theories


Equity Theory

Focuses on individuals’ comparisons of their own circumstances to those of othersInputs (age, experience, education, etc.)Outcomes (salary, benefits, titles, perks, etc.)Ratios of an individual’s input/outcome versus that ratio of another person or people


Equity Theory


IF: IS: THEN: AND I AM MOTIVATED TO:

The ratio of my outcomes to my inputs

Equal to the ratio of the other’s outcomes to inputs

I am satisfied

Do nothing.

The ratio of my outcomes to my inputs

Less then (<) the ratio of the other’s outcomes to inputs

I feel dissatisfied

Choose between: Increasing my own outcomes Decreasing my own inputs Reevaluating the other’s inputs Changing the referent Leaving the situation


Expectancy Theory

Focuses on thought processes people use when faced with choosing among alternativesThree variables affect motivation:- Effort-to-performance (E P): probability that

certain effort leads to certain performance- Performance-to-outcome (P O): probability that

certain performance leads to certain outcome- Valence (V): anticipated value that a person

attaches to the outcome

Effort = (E P) x (P O) x V


E P(I believe high effort will lead to good performance)

P O(I believe high performance will lead to recognition from my supervisor)

Components of Expectancy Theory

Effort PerformanceOutcome

(V: I do or do not value recognition from my supervisor)

E = effort P = performanceO = outcome V = valence



Expectancy Theory

To influence employee motivation, managers should:Identify rewards that are valuedStrengthen beliefs that their efforts will lead to valued rewardsClarify subordinates’ understanding of exactly where they should direct their effortsMake sure that the desired rewards under your control are given directly following particular levels of performanceProvide levels and amounts of rewards that are consistent with a realistic level of expected rewards


Social Cognitive Theory

Self-efficacy: A person’s confidence that he or she can accomplish a given task in a specific situationHigh self-efficacy beliefs are associated with better work-related performance


Self-efficacySelf-efficacySelf-efficacy

Social Cognitive Theory: Methods to Increase Self-efficacy

VicariousLearning

Physiological orPsychological

Arousal

VerbalPersuasion

EnactiveMastery

Self-efficacy



Goal-Setting Theory

Human action is directed by conscious goals and intentionsTwo basic premises:- More challenging (higher or

harder) goals, if accepted, result in higher levels of effort than easier goals

- Specific goals result in higher levels of effort than vague goals


Reinforcements and Consequences

Motivation Technique

To encourage good behavior or performance

To discourage poor behavior or performance

PositiveReinforcement

NegativeReinforcement Punishment Extinction



Desirable consequences that increase the likelihood of behavior being repeated in the futureRewards given should be:- Equitable- Efficient- Available- Not exclusive- Visible- Reversible

PositiveReinforcement

Example:Salesperson performs well gets an extra bonus for the year



Removal of undesirable consequences that increase the likelihood of behavior being repeated in the futureCan backfire if used incorrectly

NegativeReinforcement

Example:Salesperson who performs well is removed from territory that has difficult customers



Unwanted consequences following undesirable behavior to decrease the likelihood that it will be repeatedPunishments are discouraged in most organizations today, as they may be inappropriate or too negative

Punishment

Example:Salesperson who performs poorly is fired or demoted



The absence of positive consequences for behavior, lessening the likelihood of that behavior in the future

Extinction

Example:Salesperson tells a tasteless joke and is ignored in the hopes of discouraging such joking


Reinforcement Approaches


Reinforcement Approach

Managerial Action

Effect Example

Positive reinforcement

Provide desirable consequence

Increase probability of behavior being repeated

Highway construction supervisor receives bonus for each day a project is completed ahead of schedule.

Negative reinforcement

Remove undesirable consequence

Increase probability of behavior being repeated

Management stops raising output quotas each time workers exceed them.

Punishment Provide undesirable consequence

Decrease probability of behavior being repeated

Habitually tardy crew member is fined the equivalent of one hour’s pay each day he is late to work.

Extinction Remove desirable consequence

Decrease probability of behavior being repeated

Group member stops making unsolicited suggestions when team leader no longer mentions them in group meetings.


1. Specify desired performance precisely

2. Measure desired behaviors3. Provide frequent positive

consequences for specified behaviors

4. Evaluate the effectiveness of the program

Planned Programs of Positive Reinforcement


Social Influences on Motivation

Organization’sCulture

SupervisorsAnd

Subordinates

ImmediateWorkGroup

Motivation


Influence of Values and Attitudes Toward Work

Values- Affect what kinds of

behaviors individuals will find rewarding and satisfying

Attitudes toward work- Work centrality

- Degree of general importance that working has in the life of an individual

- Differs between cultures


Differences in Core Values

COREVALUES

American Japanese Arabic

Competition

Risk-taking

Material possessions

Freedom

Group harmony

Belonging

Reputation

Family security

Religious belief

Social recognition



Work Centrality: Country Differences

4.79

5.20

4.89

4.29

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

United States

Japan

Israel

Germany


management, hitt, black, porter, vahdi boydaş, mensur boydaş

Education

finance manager

improve health

event manager

hierarchy

annual executive

work experienced

social environment

factor theory