management in sub-saharan africa - cefims.ac.uk

MODULE: C368 M468 | PRODUCT: 4563

Management in Sub-Saharan Africa


Module Introduction and Overview

Contents

1 Introduction to the Module 2

2 Module Authors 3

3 Study Resources 3

4 Module Overview 4

5 Learning Outcomes 5

6 Recommended Websites 6


2 University of London

1 Introduction to the Module Welcome to the module, Management in Sub-Saharan Africa. For many entre-preneurs, doing business in Africa is seen as both an exciting opportunity and a daunting challenge. While perceptions about Africa have improved in recent years, the situation on the ground remains demanding, as individuals and companies navigate the various cultures, languages, expectations, infrastructures, politics and markets that exist across the different countries. In fact, it is even challenging to get a clear understanding of how many countries there are in Africa.

This module aims to help you to navigate these risks so that you can better explore the many opportunities that exist across the continent. By examining real-life case studies and examples, as well as studying models and frame-works, you will gain insights into the practicalities of doing business in Africa and receive guidance in overcoming some of the challenges inherent to doing business on the continent. Case studies will be used throughout to provide you with examples of companies that have gone before you, which will enable you to learn from their experiences when devising your own entry strategy.

This module is not only for individuals or companies wanting to enter Africa from outside its borders, but also for those Africans who wish to enter into another African country. Each nation on the continent is unique, which is why having an understanding of the various complex dynamics inherent to each country is key to business success.

This module is an elective in the MSc International Business Administration, paired with The Economy of Sub-Saharan Africa, which you should have studied prior to this. The other preparation for this module is International Business Strategy, whose themes are pursued here in an African context.

There are debates about what is special about doing business in Africa, compared with other locations. Recent decades have seen some of the highest economic growth rates in the world in Africa, while income distribu-tion remains such that even in the largest countries there is a relatively small middle class of consumers. Infrastructure connecting African countries remains in many cases slow and expensive, even compared with sea and air connections with countries outside Africa. One impact of these two features is that MNCs based in Africa sometimes find it easier to expand outside the continent than to expand within it. Nevertheless, as you will see from the cases in this module, businesses are crossing boundaries within Africa in various sectors, including banking, telecoms, retail, manufacturing and distribution.


Centre for Financial and Management Studies 3

2 Module Authors Jennifer Renton is a business communication specialist who is based in South Africa. She holds a degree in International Studies from Rhodes University, and has been writing for various business publications and institutions for over ten years. She has travelled extensively across Africa and has written several case studies for some of the leading business schools in the continent. In addition, she has worked in a variety of international settings, including Dubai, Australia, England and the United States. Her book, Inspired - Remarkable South Africans Share Their Stories (Picador Africa, 2014), details interviews with inspiring South Africans from a variety of backgrounds. She is the author of Units 1–3 and 5–8 of this module.

Felix Martin holds a degree in Jurisprudence from Oxford University and an MBA and PhD from Manchester Business School. He is a lecturer and supervisor under the Distance MBA Programme at Manchester Business School in the areas of Strategy and Marketing. He has also taught as associ-ate or visiting lecturer at SOAS, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester University, EMD École de Management (Marseilles, France) and Strathmore University (Nairobi, Kenya). He has published in the Journal of Business Ethics and is a co-author of Corporate Social Responsibility. The Corpo-rate Governance of the 21st Century (Kluwer, 2010), and Developing Leadership Research (Leeds University Publishing, 2007). He is the author of Unit 4 of this module.

Norman Flynn is the Director of the Centre for Financial and Management Studies, SOAS. He has also been Chair Professor of Public Sector Manage-ment at City University of Hong Kong and has held academic posts at London School of Economics, London Business School and the University of Birmingham. He is also a visiting Professor at Strathmore Business School in Kenya. He is the commissioning editor for this module.

3 Study Resources In addition to the study guide, you will have a key text and access to module readings, comprising scholarly articles on doing business in Africa and several case studies of business that have either prospered or failed there.

Key text

Christopher O Gekonge (2014) Emerging Business Opportunities in Africa: Market Entry, Competitive Strategy, and the Promotion of Foreign Direct Investments. Hershey PA: IGI Global

Gekonge is a scholar of African enterprise who writes from the standpoint of one who has considerable experience of actually doing business there, and his book covers the continent’s social and political background as well as ways of taking advantage of business opportunities in Africa.



In the module text, you will be set specific readings from the key text and the module readings, and asked to write notes and answer questions about them.

4 Module Overview This module consists of eight units, each with its own core text, set readings, questions and exercises. There are also two assignments and you will have the opportunity to do some further thinking around the issues being dis-cussed through various optional activities. In addition, you will be able to engage with your fellow students through the Virtual Learning Environ-ment (VLE).

Unit 1 The Special Characteristics of International Business in Africa

1.1 African Geography, Demographics and History 1.2 Economic Development in Africa 1.3 Moving In 1.4 Entrepreneurship 1.5 Conclusion

Unit 2 Choice of Entry Strategy

2.1 Strategy – An Overview 2.2 Entry Strategies 2.3 Conclusion

Unit 3 International Production and Sourcing

3.1 Supply Chains – An Overview 3.2 Supply Chain Infrastructure in Africa 3.3 Supply Chain Management 3.4 Conclusion

Unit 4 International Marketing

4.1 Environmental Influences on International Marketing 4.2 Global Market Entry Strategies and Outsourcing Relationships 4.3 Targeting and Brank Positioning 4.4 Global Marketing Promotion and CSR 4.5 Case Analyses 4.6 Conclusion

Unit 5 International Organisation

5.1 A Global Strategy 5.2 Regional and Local Strategies 5.3 Toyota, Arla Foods and Ladesks 5.4 Conclusion

Unit 6 Financial Management

6.1 Managing Foreign Exchange Risk 6.2 Balance Sheet Management



6.3 Refinancing 6.4 Taxation Strategies 6.5 Conclusion

Unit 7 Risk Assessment, Mitigation and Management

7.1 Risk Assessment 7.2 Risk Mitigation and Management 7.3 Conclusion

Unit 8 Organisational Culture and Human Resource Management

8.1 The Special Characteristics of Organisational and National Cultures 8.2 The Special Characteristics of HR Practices in Africa 8.3 The Effects of Culture on M&As 8.4 Expatriate Management 8.5 Conclusion

5 Learning Outcomes When you have completed your study of this module, you will be able to:

• make a judgment about the special characteristics of doing business in Africa, and the variety of contexts in the different regions

• discuss and apply one model for doing business in Africa • apply the principles of the choice of entry strategy for MNCs with

reference to Africa • analyse the experience of entry strategy in the case examples • outline the special problems and issues involve in supply chain

management in Africa • reach conclusions and lessons about managing the supply chain • analyse the issues involved in marketing in territories other than the

home base of the company • explain the importance of local culture for market entry • apply the principles of the organisational form options for MNCs to

the African context • outline the special issues involved in multi-currency operations with

high volatility in exchange rates • make judgments about hedging and other strategies • explain financing and taxation strategies • discuss some aspects of HR practice in Africa, including management

of expatriates • define the special characteristics of HR practice in Africa • explain the relationship between project and country risk • choose risk mitigation strategies in the African contexts.



6 Recommended Websites Listed below, and at the end of each unit, you will find a list of websites recommended as further readings to contextualise the topics covered in this module. They are not unit specific and can be referred to at any point during the module. Although reading these websites is not mandatory, you may find them helpful in keeping your knowledge of these topics as recent as possible:

How We Made It into Africa: www.howwemadeitinafrica.com Aimed at African business people and foreign investors with an interest in the continent.

Business Africa: www.business-africa.net Streams weekly programmes broadcasted on over 50 African and international affiliated channels.

Africa Do Business: www.africa-do-business.com A wealth of practical information for African business people seeking to invest in the continent.

This is Africa: www.thisisafricaonline.com/Business A publication from the Financial Times which examines business in Africa in a global context.

Africa Means Business: www.africameansbusiness.org Provides coverage of economic and financial issues on mainstream African TV and radio, in newspapers and magazines and online.

The Economist: Africa: www.economist.com/topics/africa The African pages of The Economist cover business news from the continent.

Africa Portal: www.africaportal.org An online resource for policy-related issues on Africa.

African Development Bank Group: dataportal.afdb.org/default.aspx Includes current financial statistics of African countries, including GDPs, and import and export data.

The World Bank: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/EXTPUBREP/EXTSTATINAFR/0,,menuPK:824057~pagePK:64168427~piPK:64168435~theSitePK:824043,00.html Includes current business data and statistics of African countries.

http://www.howwemadeitinafrica.com/

http://www.business-africa.net/

http://www.africa-do-business.com/

http://www.thisisafricaonline.com/

http://www.africameansbusiness.org/

http://www.economist.com/topics/africa

http://www.africaportal.org/

http://dataportal.afdb.org/default.aspx

http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/EXTPUBREP/EXTSTATINAFR/0,,menuPK:824057%7EpagePK:64168427%7EpiPK:64168435%7EtheSitePK:824043,00.html



Assessment Your performance on each module is assessed through two written assignments and one examination. The assignments are written after Unit 4 and Unit 8 of the module session. Please see the VLE for submission deadlines. The examination is taken at a local examination centre in September/October.

Preparing for assignments and exams

The examinations you will sit are designed to evaluate your knowledge and skills in the subjects you have studied; they are not designed to trick you. If you have studied the module thoroughly, you will pass the exam.

Understanding assessment questions

Examination and assignment questions are set to test your knowledge and skills. Sometimes a question will contain more than one part, each part testing a different aspect of your skills and knowledge. You need to spot the key words to know what is being asked of you. Here we categorise the types of things that are asked for in assignments and exams, and the words used. All the examples are from the Centre for Financial and Management Studies examination papers and assignment questions.

Definitions

Some questions mainly require you to show that you have learned some concepts by setting out their precise meanings. Such questions are likely to be preliminary and will be supplemented by more analytical questions. Generally, ‘Pass marks’ are awarded if the answer only contains definitions. These questions will contain words such as:

describe contrast define write notes on examine outline distinguish between what is meant by compare list.

Reasoning

Other questions are designed to test your reasoning, by asking you to explain cause and effect. Convincing explanations generally carry more marks than basic definitions. These questions will include words such as:

interpret explain what conditions influence what are the consequences of what are the implications of.

Judgement

Others ask you to make a judgement, perhaps of a policy or a course of action. They will include words like:

evaluate critically examine

assess do you agree that to what extent does.

Calculation

Sometimes you are asked to make a calculation using a specified technique; these questions begin:

use indifference curve analysis to using any economic model you know calculate the standard deviation test whether.

It is most likely that questions that ask you to make a calculation will also ask for an application or interpretation of the result.

Advice

Other questions ask you to provide advice in a particular situation. This applies to law questions and to policy papers where advice is asked in relation to a policy problem. Your advice should be based on relevant law, applicable principles, and evidence of what actions are likely to be effective. The questions may begin:

advise provide advice on explain how you would advise.

Critique

In many cases the question will include the word ‘critically’. This means that you are expected to look at the question from at least two points of view, offering a critique of each view and your judgement. You are expected to be critical of what you have read.

The questions may begin:

critically analyse critically consider critically assess critically discuss the argument that.

Examine by argument

Questions that begin with ‘discuss’ are similar; they ask you to examine by argument, to debate and give reasons for and against a variety of options. For example:

discuss the advantages and disadvantages of discuss this statement discuss the view that discuss the arguments and debates concerning.

The grading scheme: assignments

The assignment questions contain fairly detailed guidance about what is required. All assignments are marked using marking guidelines. When you receive your grade, it is accompanied by comments on your paper, including advice about how you might improve, and any clarifications about matters you may not have

understood. These comments are designed to help you master the subject and to improve your skills as you progress through your programme.

Postgraduate assignment marking criteria

The marking scheme for your programme draws upon these minimum core criteria, which are applicable to the assessment of all assignments:

• understanding of the subject • utilisation of proper academic or other style (eg citation of references, or use

of proper legal style for court reports) • relevance of material selected and arguments proposed • planning and organisation • logical coherence • critical evaluation • comprehensiveness of research • evidence of synthesis • innovation/creativity/originality.

The language used must be of a sufficient standard to permit assessment of these aspects.

The guidelines below reflect the standards of work expected at postgraduate level. All assessed work is marked by your tutor or a member of academic staff, and a sample is then moderated by another member of academic staff. Any assignment may be made available to the external examiner(s).

80+ (Distinction). A mark of 80+ will fulfil the following criteria:

• very significant ability to plan, organise and execute independently a research project or coursework assignment

• very significant ability to evaluate literature and theory critically and make informed judgements

• very high levels of creativity, originality and independence of thought • very significant ability to critically evaluate existing methodologies and

suggest new approaches to current research or professional practice • very significant ability to analyse data critically • outstanding levels of accuracy, technical competence, organisation and

expression.

70–79 (Distinction). A mark in the range 70–79 will fulfil the following criteria:

• significant ability to plan, organise and execute independently a research project or coursework assignment

• clear evidence of wide and relevant reading, referencing and an engagement with the conceptual issues

• capacity to develop a sophisticated and intelligent argument • rigorous use and a sophisticated understanding of relevant source

materials, balancing appropriately between factual detail and key theoretical issues. Materials are evaluated directly, and their assumptions and arguments challenged and/or appraised

• correct referencing • significant ability to analyse data critically • original thinking and a willingness to take risks.

60–69 (Merit). A mark in the 60–69 range will fulfil the following criteria:

• ability to plan, organise and execute independently a research project or coursework assignment

• strong evidence of critical insight and thinking • a detailed understanding of the major factual and/or theoretical issues and

direct engagement with the relevant literature on the topic • clear evidence of planning and appropriate choice of sources and

methodology with correct referencing • ability to analyse data critically • capacity to develop a focused and clear argument and articulate clearly and

convincingly a sustained train of logical thought.

50–59 (Pass). A mark in the range 50–59 will fulfil the following criteria:

• ability to plan, organise and execute a research project or coursework assignment

• a reasonable understanding of the major factual and/or theoretical issues involved

• evidence of some knowledge of the literature with correct referencing • ability to analyse data • examples of a clear train of thought or argument • the text is introduced and concludes appropriately.

40–49 (Fail). A Fail will be awarded in cases in which there is:

• limited ability to plan, organise and execute a research project or coursework assignment

• some awareness and understanding of the literature and of factual or theoretical issues, but with little development

• limited ability to analyse data • incomplete referencing • limited ability to present a clear and coherent argument.


• very limited ability to plan, organise and execute a research project or coursework assignment

• failure to develop a coherent argument that relates to the research project or assignment

• no engagement with the relevant literature or demonstrable knowledge of the key issues

• incomplete referencing • clear conceptual or factual errors or misunderstandings • only fragmentary evidence of critical thought or data analysis.


• no demonstrable ability to plan, organise and execute a research project or coursework assignment

• little or no knowledge or understanding related to the research project or assignment

• little or no knowledge of the relevant literature • major errors in referencing • no evidence of critical thought or data analysis • incoherent argument.

The grading scheme: examinations

The written examinations are ‘unseen’ (you will only see the paper in the exam centre) and written by hand over a three-hour period. We advise that you practise writing exams in these conditions as part of your examination preparation, as it is not something you would normally do.

You are not allowed to take in books or notes to the exam room. This means that you need to revise thoroughly in preparation for each exam. This is especially important if you have completed the module in the early part of the year, or in a previous year.

Details of the general definitions of what is expected in order to obtain a particular grade are shown below. These guidelines take account of the fact that examination conditions are less conducive to polished work than the conditions in which you write your assignments. Note that as the criteria for each grade rise, they accumulate the elements of the grade below. Assignments awarded better marks will therefore have become comprehensive in both their depth of core skills and advanced skills.

Postgraduate unseen written examinations marking criteria

80+ (Distinction). A mark of 80+ will fulfil the following criteria:

• very significant ability to evaluate literature and theory critically and make informed judgements

• very high levels of creativity, originality and independence of thought • outstanding levels of accuracy, technical competence, organisation and

expression • outstanding ability of synthesis under exam pressure.

70–79 (Distinction). A mark in the 70–79 range will fulfil the following criteria:

• clear evidence of wide and relevant reading and an engagement with the conceptual issues

• development of a sophisticated and intelligent argument • rigorous use and a sophisticated understanding of relevant source

materials, balancing appropriately between factual detail and key theoretical issues

• direct evaluation of materials, and challenging and/or appraisal of their assumptions and arguments

• original thinking and a willingness to take risks • significant ability of synthesis under exam pressure.

60–69 (Merit). A mark in the 60–69 range will fulfil the following criteria:

• strong evidence of critical insight and critical thinking • a detailed understanding of the major factual and/or theoretical issues and

direct engagement with the relevant literature on the topic • development of a focused and clear argument, with clear and convincing

articulation of a sustained train of logical thought • clear evidence of planning and appropriate choice of sources and

methodology, and ability of synthesis under exam pressure.

50–59 (Pass). A mark in the 50–59 range will fulfil the following criteria:

• a reasonable understanding of the major factual and/or theoretical issues involved

• evidence of planning and selection from appropriate sources • some demonstrable knowledge of the literature • the text shows, in places, examples of a clear train of thought or argument • the text is introduced and concludes appropriately.

40–49 (Fail). A Fail will be awarded in cases in which:

• there is some awareness and understanding of the factual or theoretical issues, but with little development

• misunderstandings are evident • there is some evidence of planning, although irrelevant/unrelated material

or arguments are included.

20–39 (Fail). A Fail will be awarded in cases which:

• fail to answer the question or to develop an argument that relates to the question set

• do not engage with the relevant literature or demonstrate a knowledge of the key issues

• contain clear conceptual or factual errors or misunderstandings.

0–19 (Fail). A Fail will be awarded in cases which:

• show no knowledge or understanding related to the question set • show no evidence of critical thought or analysis • contain short answers and incoherent argument.

[2015–16: Learning & Teaching Quality Committee]

DO NOT REMOVE THE QUESTION PAPER FROM THE EXAMINATION HALL

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON

CENTRE FOR FINANCIAL AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES

MSc Examination for External Students

91DFMC368

INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION


Specimen Examination

This is a specimen examination paper designed to show you the type of examination you will have at the end of this module. The number of questions and the structure of the examina-tion will be the same, but the wording and requirements of each question will be different.

Answer THREE questions. Answer at least ONE question from Section A and at least ONE question from Section B. You must answer THREE questions in total.

The examiners give equal weight to each question; therefore, you are advised to dis-tribute your time approximately equally between three questions.

You should, where possible, illustrate your answers with references and/or practical examples from the module and from your own experience.

PLEASE TURN OVER

Answer at least ONE question from Section A and at least ONE ques-tion from Section B. You must answer THREE questions in total.

Section A

Answer at least ONE question from this section.

1. What risks do companies face because they operate in a variety of currencies? What can they do to mitigate those risks?

2. What are the major options for organisational arrangements

for companies operating in several countries in Africa? What factors influence the choice of organisational form?

3. Are there special challenges involved in supply chain manage-

ment in Africa? Illustrate your answer with examples.

4. Are there specific risks of doing business in African countries? How can companies mitigate those risks?

Section B

Answer at least ONE question from this section.

5. What were the circumstances and strategies that made MTN a success in Africa?

6. Using an example or examples, explain the challenges facing a

financial services company wishing to sell its services in Afri-can countries other than its home base.

7. Compare the experiences of Nando’s and Woolworth’s expan-

sion from South Africa into other African countries. What were the main factors that explain the differences?

8. What was Bharti Airtel’s strategy for entering the African mar-

ket? Was it successful?

[END OF EXAMINATION]



Contents

Unit Overview 2

1.1 African Geography, Demographics and History 3

1.2 Economic Development in Africa 5

1.3 Moving In 9

1.4 Entrepreneurship 11

1.5 Conclusion 13

References 15



Unit Overview Unit 1 will give an overview of the history, geography and demographics of Africa, as well as outline the risks and opportunities inherent in doing busi-ness on the continent. In addition, it will explain the difference between a business model and a business strategy.

From the unit you will gain an understanding of the different industries and sectors in Africa, as well as the competitive challenges that exist. You will also recognise the importance of creating a robust model and strategy.

Learning outcomes

When you have completed this unit and the readings, you will be able to:

• discuss the special characteristics of doing business in Africa, as well as the variety of contexts in the different regions

• assess the importance of understanding and applying one model for doing business on the continent.

Reading for Unit 1

Christopher O Gekonge (2014) Chapters 6 ‘Doing business in Africa and African business opportunities’ and 8 ‘A model for doing business in Africa’. In: Emerging Business Opportunities in Africa: Market Entry, Competitive Strategy, and the Promotion of Foreign Direct Investments. Hershey PA: IGI Global.

Dianna Games (2011) Doing Business in Post Conflict and Fragile States: Challenges and Risks. Development Bank of South Africa, Development Planning Division Working Paper Series, No. 23.

Krishna Palepu & Tanya Bijlani (2012) ‘Bharti Airtel in Africa’. Harvard Business School, Case 112-096, 1–36.



1.1 African Geography, Demographics and History As the world’s second-largest and second most populous continent, Africa has much to offer the world in terms of market size. However, many busi-nesses are apprehensive about entering Africa given the volume of negative press reports the region has received in the past. Yet what those companies already working in Africa have realised is that the danger now is not being in Africa, but in not being there.

Africa’s population exceeded one billion people in 2009, having doubled in size over 27 years. The UN Population Fund estimates that the population will reach 1.9 billion by 2050, and at that time one in every three children in the world will be born in Sub-Saharan Africa. Africa is home to a very high pro-portion of young people, while simultaneously having very low life expectancies – the average life expectancy of an African child at birth is 53.8 years. Countries such as Chad, Guinea-Bissau, South Africa, Sierra Leone and Swaziland have life expectancies under 50, much of which is attributable to the HIV/Aids pandemic – over 60% of those living with HIV/Aids live in Af-rica. It is important to bear in mind that Africa’s growing young population can be seen as either a blessing or a curse, and it is important too to analyse these risks and opportunities before entering the continent.

Table 1.1 Most populous African countries

Country Population (approximate)

Nigeria 177 million Ethiopia 87 million Egypt 85 million Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) 75 million South Africa (SA) 53 million

Source: www.worldpopulationstatistics.com/africa-population-2013 (2013)

While opinions vary, it is generally accepted that Africa consists of 54 recog-nised sovereign states, nine territories and two de facto independent states which are generally not acknowledged by the international community – So-maliland and the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic.

Africa is a diverse continent which is divided into six general climatic regions across six time zones. Over 2 000 recognised languages are spoken across the continent, nearly 400 of which are spoken in Nigeria. Approximately 170 mil-lion Africans speak Arabic. Various religions exist across Africa, however Christianity and Islam account for over 90% of the total.

Africa is an inherently complex environment in which to do business, which is why it is important for any company looking to enter the continent to un-derstand the history of the region – both positive and negative.

1.1.2 Africa’s Colonial and Post-Colonial History

Starting in the 19th century various European countries colonised Africa, with the last country to be granted independence, Zimbabwe, gaining its

http://www.worldpopulationstatistics.com/africa-population-2013/



freedom from Britain in 1980. The consequences of colonialism affected dif-ferent countries in different ways; however, one of the most problematic social and political legacies is how the continent was arbitrarily divided up into 50 countries at the time. Issues arising from this can still be seen in areas such as East Africa, where ethnic tensions between Somalia, Kenya and Ethi-opia are ongoing. An economic legacy of colonialism can be seen in how countries were forced into single-crop economies, rendering them vulnera-ble to market-based fluctuations. In addition, the exploitation of raw materials for export continues to this day.

Post-colonialism, many African countries struggled due to weak leadership (including military rule, autocratic dictators and authoritarianism), poor eco-nomic decision-making, patronage, failing currencies, infrastructural decay, corruption, uncontrolled urbanisation, poor health care, inadequate educa-tion, insufficient development and inadequate municipal service delivery.

The allocation of jobs as ‘favours’ caused exponential growth in civil services and government-owned businesses during the 1960s and 1970s, which re-sulted in unsustainable financial burdens for states. According to the African Development Bank (ADB, 2013):

By 1980, at least half of all government expenditures were allocated simply to pay the salaries of government employees.

The Saylor Foundation (2012) explained that:

In the absence of strong donor income and domestic industrial bases, African governments increasingly turned toward the agricultural sector as a source for desperately needed revenues. African governments manipulated the agricultural commodities markets to their benefit and the detriment of rural farmers. Such policies allowed the ruling elites to maintain themselves for a while longer while simultaneously undermining the one economic sector upon which successful development policies could have been based on. Additionally, such policies profoundly influenced societal dynamics throughout sub-Saharan Africa. They gave rise to increased rural to urban migration and prompted an extensive disengagement from the state.

The 1980s saw most African countries reach a state of crisis, as governments were not able to meet their financial obligations. Informal economies grew as a result, leading to shrinking international credit and increased corrup-tion. Many countries ultimately had to borrow from the IMF, with strict terms leading to even more difficult living conditions and a growth in oppo-sition movements across the continent. The end of the Cold War and the subsequent democratisation of Eastern Europe meant that not only did Afri-can countries lose their strategic importance, but the international community developed new objectives, including a renewed focus on democ-racy and human rights.

The 1990s was a decade of political transformation, with both peaceful re-forms and civil wars taking place across Africa. Yet while the 21st century sees many African countries still struggling with human rights violations, elections



that cannot be declared free and fair, and ongoing corruption and mismanage-ment, there is generally greater political stability now than at any time in recent memory. Technology has played a key role in this, with mobile phone usage having spread more rapidly in Africa than on any other continent in re-cent years. At an average 18% a year growth in the last five years, it is estimated that Africa will have the highest mobile subscription rate in the world by 2015, which will facilitate business, marketing, communication, travel, healthcare and banking, amongst others. Operators are estimated to have invested $44 billion in the region over the last six years.

Table 1.2 Ten most liveable cities in Africa

City Country

Cape Town South Africa Accra Ghana Nairobi Kenya Johannesburg South Africa Gaborone Botswana Libreville Gabon Tunis Tunisia Dar es Salaam Tanzania Windhoek Namibia Kigali Rwanda

Source: Begbie (nd)

To ascertain how ‘liveable’ a city is, data such as crime rates, health statistics, sanitation, expenditure on city services, the degree to which expatriates en-joy the potential standard of living, and the interaction of political, socio-economic and environmental factors are used.

1.1.3 From ‘Why?’ to ‘When?’ and ‘Where?’

There is no universal approach to doing business on any continent, and Af-rica is no exception. For many companies, the question now is not ‘why’ to expand their business into Africa, but ‘when’ and ‘where’. By examining or-ganisations which have either moved into Africa or have moved from one to another African country, one can see that a common strategy has been for them to position themselves in key locations, as starting out in places where there is some infrastructure allows for easier establishment.

Relationships are extremely important in Africa, particularly across all levels of government. Companies that succeed will be the ones that create strong local partnerships – particularly those that encourage skills transfers.

1.2 Economic Development in Africa The global meltdown of 2008 and the ensuing recession highlighted the re-silience of the developing nations, many of which continued to grow throughout this challenging period. The ADB expected the continent’s



average GDP growth to reach 5.3% in 2014, up from a rate of 4.8% in 2013 but down from the 6.6% it saw in 2012. (The 2012 figure was linked to Libya’s recovery in oil production.) Across global emerging economies in general, 2014 growth rates are predicted by the IMF to be as much as four percentage points higher than in developed economies. Of these, Africa is expected to ‘provide the most consistent and robust rates of growth over the next 10 to 15 years.

In its annual African Economic Outlook, the ADB commented that 2013 saw resource-rich countries continuing to benefit from:

relatively high commodity prices, although easing of global demand has reduced price levels. After the peak in mid-2011 prices have softened due to weaknesses in the global economy and the deepening of the debt crisis in the euro area. Nonetheless, at current levels, commodity prices remain high enough to support the growth of resource-rich countries. Good harvests have boosted agricultural production in many countries and helped mitigate the adverse effects of high international food prices on consumers. Africa’s oil exports increased significantly as Libya resumed production. Africa’s growth is supported by domestic activity while exports remain subdued.

The level of education in many African countries is also improving, alt-hough literacy levels in many countries still leave much to be desired. How might moving into a country with low literacy levels such as Mozambique affect your business strategy?

Table 1.3 Literacy rates in Africa (2013)

Country Literacy Rate (%)

1. Zimbabwe 90.70 2. Equatorial Guinea 87.00 3. South Africa 86.40 4. Kenya 85.10 5. Namibia 85.00 6. Sao Tome and Principe 84.90 7. Lesotho 84.80 8. Mauritius 84.40 9. Congo, Republic of the 83.80 10. Libya 82.60 11. Swaziland 81.60 12. Botswana 81.20 13. Zambia 80.60 14. Cape Verde 76.60 15. Tunisia 74.30 16. Egypt 71.40 17. Rwanda 70.40 18. Algeria 69.90 19. Tanzania 69.40



Country Literacy Rate (%)

20. Madagascar 68.90 21. Nigeria 68.00 22. Cameroon 67.90 23. Djibouti 67.90 24. Angola 67.40 25. DRC 67.20 26. Uganda 66.80 27. Gabon 63.20 28. Malawi 62.70 29. Sudan 61.10 30. Togo 60.90 31. Burundi 59.30 32. Eritrea 58.60 33. Ghana 57.90 34. Liberia 57.50 35. Comoros 56.50 36. Morocco 52.30 37. Mauritania 51.20 38. Cote d’Ivoire 48.70 39. Central African Republic 48.60 40. Mozambique 47.80 41. Mali 46.40 42. Ethiopia 42.70 43. Guinea-Bissau 42.40 44. Gambia, The 40.10 45. Senegal 39.30 46. Somalia 37.80 47. Sierra Leone 35.10 48. Benin 34.70 49. Guinea 29.50 50. Niger 28.70 51. Chad 25.70 52. Burkina Faso 21.80

Source: http://theafricaneconomist.com/ranking-of-african-countries- by-literacy-rate-zimbabwe-no-1/#.UzMoetXnVI (2013)

Of importance to those companies considering entering Africa is that the continent’s trade with China has multiplied tenfold since 2001, reaching over US$ 100 billion in 2008. This figure exceeded US$200 billion in 2013, with the Asian giant accounting for 20% of Africa’s trade. To put this into perspective, China’s trade with Africa has grown nearly twice as fast as its trade with Latin America. Prior to China’s entry into African markets, the companies predominantly doing business on the continent were from previ-ous colonising countries, Western oil companies and South African businesses. Within Africa itself trade barriers are problematic, with intra-



African trade accounting for only approximately 12% of the continent’s total trade compared to Europe’s rate of 60%.

While South Africa is still the continent’s wealthiest state in total GDP, ac-counting for 30% of the continent’s GDP in nominal terms and 24% by purchasing power parity (PPP), other countries – particularly Nigeria – are hot on its heels. Countries which were previously some of the poorest on the continent now rank among its best performers, including Zambia, Uganda, Mozambique, Angola, Tanzania, Ghana and Ethiopia. Angola in particular saw phenomenal double-digit growth between 2004 and 2008, with the coun-try turning the tables on its former coloniser, Portugal, in that time. (Angola was however one of the few African countries to succumb to the global finan-cial crisis in 2009, leading to negative growth that year.)

Figure 1.1 Africa’s winners and losers

Source: adapted from Maswanganyi (2013)

CK Pralahad coined the term ‘Base of the Pyramid’ (BoP) to describe those peo-ple living below a certain income level, which has been hotly debated by economists and academics around the world. The International Finance Corpo-ration (IFC) uses a cut off of $3 000 per person per year in PPP, estimating that there are four billion people at the BoP. In SSA, the IFC estimates the BoP mar-ket to be $429 billion, which is tied to the low labour costs across the region.

According to UNCTAD, countries looking to exploit this market invested $1.12 trillion in 2010. FDI has not only become an important source of fi-nance for development, but also for human capital development, infrastructure, technology transfer and enterprise development.

Reading 1.1

For more information on the opportunities that exist for those companies wishing to ex-pand into emerging economies, please read Gekonge, Chapter 6, ‘Doing business in Africa and African business opportunities’.

Once you have read and made notes on this chapter, consider which of the opportu-nities discussed by Gekonge would tie in with a company’s strategy, and how you would go about differentiating a product or service.

Gekonge (2014) Chapter 6 ‘Doing business in Af-rica and African business opportunities’ in Emerg-ing Business Opportunities in Africa. pp. 119–66.



1.3 Moving In Africa is constantly in a state of flux, which is why when creating a strategy for doing business on the continent it is important to keep in mind that look-ing for opportunities and risk assessment are not once-off activities. According to EY (2013):

as investors move toward their overarching objective, encounters with new contingencies will demand a strategic recalibration and reconsideration of the pace and trajectory of strategy rollout. At the same time, of module, too much emphasis on risk management approaches can overshadow opportunity awareness, narrowing the scope for taking advantage of the overall favorable and attractive settings that Africa’s various markets represent.

Box 1.1 Black Swan events

A Black Swan event is an event in human history that was unprecedented and unex-pected at the point in time it occurred. However, after evaluating the surrounding context, domain experts (and in some cases, even laymen) can usually conclude: ‘it was bound to happen’. Even though some parameters may differ (such as the event’s time, location, or specific type), it is likely that similar incidences have had similar effects in the past.

The theory was developed by Nassim Nicholas Taleb in 2007 to explain:

the disproportionate role of high-profile, hard-to-predict, and rare events that are beyond the realm of normal expectations in history, science, finance, and technology

the non-computability of the probability of the consequential rare events using sci-entific methods (owing to the very nature of small probabilities)

the psychological biases that make people individually and collectively blind to un-certainty and unaware of the massive role of the rare event in historical affairs.

There are different types of risks, some of which are difficult to foresee and others that are not. By preparing contingency plans for the former, compa-nies are better able to take advantage of opportunities that may arise alongside the risks. The ‘Arab Spring’ is an example of Black Swan event which required organisations to be adaptable to, and aware of, the political, social and economic landscapes they were operating in.

According to Taleb, companies should aim to create ‘anti-fragility’ strategies or systems which improve under pressure, not just resist it. In this way, the risks associated with extreme and/or challenging situations will be reduced as staff will be proficient at anticipating or recognising problems – expecting the unexpected – enabling the company to adapt their strategy accordingly.

Box 1.2 Understanding risk

‘Companies that account for relevant threats will see enormous opportunity within the continent. The key to success is to find an objective, accurate picture of the risk factors in question, recognising and understanding the challenges that exist, and executing one’s strategy despite these challenges.’

Source: Taleb (2012)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nassim_Nicholas_Taleb



1.3.6 Sectors

Companies in the manufacturing, telecommunications and finance sectors have been amongst the first to ‘take their place at the table’, with Unilever, MTN and Standard Chartered being key examples. Unilever has invested in 19 African countries so far, MTN is now in 13 African countries (excluding its home base, South Africa), and Standard Chartered makes 10% of its profit in Africa. Yet Africa currently exports only 20% of its total amount of manu-factured goods compared to Asia’s 70%, with the manufacturing industry having been on the decline since the early 1990s. The reasons for this include power shortages, uncompetitive operating environments, lack of policy sup-port and small regional markets.

Mining is one of the fast-growing sectors on the continent – particularly in oil and gas, where in addition to state-owned oil companies, over one hun-dred organisations are now operating in Africa. Yet those businesses looking to exploit Africa’s natural resources must be aware of the high production costs associated with this, the long-term nature of the industry, and the on-going violation of contracts and agreements in some countries. An example of this took place in Guinea in 2011, when the government arbitrarily changed their stake in resource companies from 15% to up to 35%. In addi-tion, many governments require large infrastructure spends by those international companies looking to extract local resources.

Other key sectors where opportunities are seen to exist are healthcare, IT and communications, agriculture, tourism and entertainment, electricity generation and distribution, education and training, banking and financial services, and water provision and management.

Multinational companies (MNCs) are frequently criticised for reaping huge rewards when it comes to investing in Africa, however governments are of-ten not using the revenues they earn from FDI to benefit the local communities, which in some cases leads to negative consequences such as sabotage and terrorism. In addition, governments put pressure on compa-nies to use local resources that are inadequate, including power, capacity and skills, instead of focusing on improving these across the board.

Reading 1.2

Please read the Executive Summary of the working paper by Dianna Games, pages 6–12, which will give you a brief overview of Africa’s past, present and future.

Your notes should expand on the issues raised in this section of the unit and address the follow questions:

• what are the main risks faced by companies investing in post-conflict and fragile states and how do these shape entry strategies?

• what are the secondary risks that face South African firms?

Games (2011) ‘Executive summary’ in Doing Busi-ness in Post Conflict and Fragile States: Chal-lenges and Risks. pp. 6–12.



• For the following sections you might think about how issues concerning the par-ticipation of governments in business, the level of political risk and the risk reward environment affect issues such as national competitiveness

1.4 Entrepreneurship A direct result of the recent growth in Africa, as well as the rise of technol-ogy, has been an advance in entrepreneurship. A recent report by the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor on Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) shows that the number of adults who are in the process of starting a business in the region is significantly higher there than in any other region around the world. At 42%, Zambia has one of the highest levels in the world, as do Ghana (37%), Nigeria (35%) and Angola (32%). SSA countries also have more than twice as many start-ups as established businesses. Unfortunately, discontinuation rates are also high, which is most often due to a lack of profitability or fi-nancing.

1.4.1 Competitiveness challenges

While many African countries have begun to implement reforms, the 2015-16Global Competitiveness Report shows that only two African countries, Mauritius and South Africa, ranked in the Top 50 countries, while seven Af-rican countries – Chad, Guinea, Burundi, Sierra Leone, Mauritania, Malawi and Mozambique – languish in the bottom 10.

In SSA growth has been largely a result of strong investment, favourable commodity prices and prudent macro-economic policies, although the growth in SSA countries does vary widely between them. The World Eco-nomic Forum’s Global Competitive Index of 2015–16 described the gap between SSA’s growth potential and its productivity problem:

Sub-Saharan Africa’s solid growth rates – more than 5% over the past 15 years – bear witness to the region’s impressive economic potential. However, Africa’s levels of productivity remain low […] The region’s most pressing challenges are weak institutions, poor infrastructure, and insufficient health and education sectors. Improving education and the enabling environment for employment will largely determine whether or not the region will be able to reap the unprecedented growth opportunities of its growing labor force.

Source: World Economic Forum (2015–16) p. 22.

Greg Mills, the Director of the economic think-tank, the Brenthurst Founda-tion, believes that Africa has 10 competitiveness challenges (Games, 2013: pp. 56–59):

1. Africa’s middle class is very small – less than one-sixth of the population in any country.

2. The vast majority of Africans, skilled and unskilled, lack formal sector employment.



3. There is a lack of basic infrastructure, which is obstructing Africa’s progress

4. The infrastructure that does exist is not being used efficiently. 5. A new vision for regional integration is required. 6. As Africa’s growth rates have traditionally tracked commodity prices,

what will happen if this demand weakens? 7. On average, African countries have the highest corporate taxation

rates in the world at over 40%. 8. There is an ever-present threat from populist political reactions and

policies, as well as corruption, rent-seeking, elitism, crony-capitalism and social inequality.

9. High unemployment levels are exacerbated by a lack of local skills and a reluctance to import foreign ones.

10. Africa’s private sector is small and vulnerable to political whims. Private capital flows to Africa lag compared to other regions.

1.4.2 A model for doing business in Africa A business model is a plan for the successful operation of a business, which identifies sources of revenue, the intended customer base, products, and details of financing.

Source: Oxford English Dictionary (2013)

Business models are often confused with business strategies. Essentially, a business model shows how your company is structured and your approach for maximising revenues and profits. Your business model is not linked to your competition or the market – that is for your strategy. Your business strategy outlines how your organisation will take on competitors, identify and segment customers, and respond to the market. Your business may have exactly the same model as another organisation, but depending on your business strategy, your financial results may be very different.

Every company needs to develop a competitive business model if they are to successfully compete in Africa. This model must include a strategy to position the firm in the market and develop a sustainable competitive advantage.

A business model defines the basic structure of the business, while strategy addresses how a business engages the competition.

Source: Noren (2013)

By developing a strategy, the company is essentially agreeing to pursue a particular set of actions, decisions and moves to attract and retain customers and grow the business. It is vital that a company’s strategy links to the envi-ronment it is operating in, otherwise the business will find itself unprepared and potentially providing services and products that are not needed. As mentioned, a company must also be aware of, and prepared for, any changes to the external environment.

According to Gekonge (2014):



A well-defined strategy co-ordinates divisions and departments, engages all organizational members to reach company-wide goals and objectives efficiently and effectively. A clear and appropriate strategy focuses on the activities performed best to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage in the industry.

Before creating a strategy a company’s vision, mission, goals and objectives must first be clarified. Once these have been identified, it is important to an-alyse whether the business has the wherewithal to realise them, ie does it have the right team in place, does it have the financial resources, is the infra-structure sufficient? Prahalad and Hamel (1996) described a core competency as a special and unique ability that allows a company to pro-vide a product and/or service to a client which is difficult or impossible for a competitor to compete against. One of the best-known ways to analyse your core competencies is to conduct a SWOT analysis, which will ascertain what your Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats are.

Reading 1.3

For more information on creating a model and a strategy – particularly in an international arena, please read Gekonge’s Chapter 8, ‘A model for doing business in Africa’.

Write notes on the issues raised in the chapter, and consider the following question:

Does your company or a company that you are familiar with have a model which it could translate to Africa?

1.5 Conclusion In this unit you have been introduced to some of the history of Africa, the challenges and opportunities that currently exist across the continent, and the importance of creating a strong model and strategy. You should by now have a good idea of both the risks and rewards of entering this vast market, and you should understand the special characteristics of doing business in Africa as well as the variety of contexts in the different regions. Finally, you should understand the competitiveness challenges facing Africa.

Video 1.1

For further insights on the opportunities that exist in Africa, please go to www.ted.com/talks/ngozi_okonjo_iweala_on_doing_business_in_africa, to hear the views of Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, former Finance and Foreign Minister of Nigeria and a Managing Director at the World Bank.

In Unit 2 you will examine the choice of entry strategies into Africa.

Reading 1.4

To reinforce and revise the issues we have looked at in this unit please study ‘Bharti Air-tel in Africa’, a case study regarding the challenges faced by the Indian telecommunications company when entering Africa.

Gekonge (2014) Chapter 8 ‘A model for doing business in Africa’ in Emerging Business Op-portunities in Africa. pp. 197–253.

Palepu & Bijiani (2012) ‘Bharti Airtel in Africa’. Harvard Business School, Case 112-096, 1–36.

http://www.ted.com/talks/ngozi_okonjo_iweala_on_doing_business_in_africa



Once you have read the case, please think about what challenges Mittal faced when first doing business in Africa and how he overcame them, and how his offering and strat-egy differed from his competitors’.

Review Question 1.1

Based on the readings, you should be able to answer the following questions:

1. What are the key challenges facing Africa? 2. What are the key challenges facing companies looking to invest in Africa? 3. What are the key opportunities for African countries? 4. What are the key opportunities available to companies looking to invest in Africa? 5. Which sectors hold the most promise for investment? 6. Do the perceptions of Africa match the realities? 7. How important is it to include locals in your team – both when creating your strategy

and implementing it? 8. What are the competitiveness challenges facing Africa, and which are most relevant

to the businesses you have studied? 9. What are the key success factors of the business models you have studied?

10. What are the business model’s weaknesses or vulnerabilities?

In summary, the main points covered by this unit are:

• Doing business in Africa is a complex process which requires in-depth analysis and due diligence. The continent is made up of over 50 disparate countries, all of which have their own unique histories, geographies, cultures, languages and idiosyncrasies, which must be taken into account before a business strategy can be devised.

• Various sectors and industries are providing international companies with a good return on their investment; however, all of these companies have overcome obstacles to ensure that their strategy is successful.

• There are a variety of competitiveness challenges which must be fully understood before venturing into Africa. The ten key challenges facing businesses are: • small size of the middle class • lack of skills • lack of basic infrastructure • inefficient use of the infrastructure that does exist • a new vision for regional integration is required • Africa’s growth rates have traditionally tracked commodity prices -

what will happen if this demand weakens? • high corporate taxation rates • populist political reactions and policies, as well as corruption, rent-

seeking, elitism, crony-capitalism and social inequality • high unemployment levels and a reluctance to import foreign skills • small private sector which is vulnerable to political whims.



• Both a business model and a business strategy must be created before a move into Africa can be contemplated. A business model is a plan for the successful operation of a business, which identifies sources of revenue, the intended customer base, products, and details of financing. This is different from a business strategy, which coordinates divisions and departments, engages all organisational members to reach company-wide goals and objectives efficiently and effectively, and focuses on the activities that need to be performed to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage in the industry.

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