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Jan 04

Management of Lakes in India

M.S.Reddy1 & N.V.V.Char2 Introduction There is no specific definition for Lakes in India. The word “Lake” is used loosely to describe many types of water bodies – natural, manmade and ephemeral including wetlands. Many of them are euphemistically called Lakes more by convention and a desire to be grandiose rather than by application of an accepted definition. Vice versa, many lakes are categorized as wetlands while reporting under Ramsar Convention. India abounds in water bodies, a preponderance of them manmade, typical of the tropics. The manmade (artificial) water bodies are generally called Reservoirs, Ponds and Tanks though it is not unusual for some of them to be referred to as lakes. Ponds and tanks are small in size compared to lakes and reservoirs. The surface area, shape and depth of the latter vary considerably. While it is difficult to date the natural lakes, most of the manmade water bodies like Ponds and Tanks are historical. The large reservoirs are all of recent origin. All of them, without exception, have suffered environmental degradation. Only the degree of degradation differs depending on their location. The degradation itself is a result of lack of public awareness and governmental indifference. The situation has changed slowly but steadily. Environmental activism and legal interventions have put sustainability of lakes up front amongst other environmental issues. This paper is an attempt in presenting a comprehensive view of the typical problems experienced in some of the better known lakes, their present environmental status and efforts being made to make them environmentally sustainable. 1.1 Data India is well known for the huge variance in its lakes, but the data is nebulous. There is no orderly or scientific census of lakes. Though there is a distinction between fresh water lakes and brackish water lakes, just as the lakes of southern peninsular India are distinct from those of the Himalayan region and natural lakes from manmade reservoirs, there is no scientific evaluation. Most of the large reservoirs (formed by placing a dam across a stream) have been constructed during the last 50 years. It is, therefore, possible to access their data, though not always easily. Reservoirs include tanks which are, however, not properly accounted though estimated at over half a million in number spread all over the country, predominantly in southern India. The water spread areas of rivers; lakes, reservoirs, flood plains and brackish water have not been comprehensively surveyed. However, the Table at Annex 1 gives an overview of the same. The Table is more indicative than authenticated. 1 Formerly Secretary, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India 2 Formerly Commissioner (Eastern Rivers), Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India

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1.2 Classification of Indian Lakes There is no unique or rigid classification. It depends on the context and the classifier. Generally, the commonly perceived classifications are the following.

- Geographical classification like Himalayan, Peninusular, Coastal etc. - Liminological Classification like Fresh Water, Brackish Water etc - Functional classification like Irrigation, Water Supply, Hydropower etc. - Water quality classification - Management classification.

For the present review, the last classification under the following broad categories is relevant

- Urban Lakes - Non-Urban Lakes: Inland Fresh water

Inland Brackish water Sacred Lakes/Tanks

- Coastal Estuarine lakes - Ephemeral Lakes

Further, Urban Lakes are only a subset of all fresh water bodies, for example, Reservoirs, Lakes, Ponds, Tanks, etc. as can be seen from Figure 1. (Annex 2 gives all the classifications in more detail). 2. Environmental Status of Lakes The lakes and reservoirs, all over the country without exception, are in varying degrees of environmental degradation. The degradation is due to encroachments and eutrophication loads (from domestic and industrial effluents) and silt. There has been a quantum jump in population during the last century without corresponding expansion of civic facilities resulting in lakes and reservoirs, especially the urban ones, becoming sinks for incoming contaminants and leading to their impairment. The main causes for the impaired conditions of the lakes could be summarized as under. Pollutants entering from fixed point sources

- Discharge of nutrients from wastewater from municipal and domestic effluents - Discharge of organic, inorganic and toxic pollution loading due to disposal of

industrial effluents - biodegradable wastes - Discharge of storm water runoff.

Pollutants entering from non- point sources

- Nutrients through fertilizers, toxic pesticides and other chemicals mainly coming from agriculture runoff

- Deforestation and denudation in the catchment areas causing soil erosion and consequent siltation

- Organic pollution loading from human settlements spread over an area in the immediate surrounding of the lakes and reservoirs

- Conflict arising out of multiple uses -waste water disposal conflicting with use of lake, such as for recreation use and/or use of water for drinking purposes or irrigation, hydropower

The other basin-related problems are:

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1. Silting of lakes on account of increased erosion as a result of expansion of urban and agricultural areas, deforestation, road construction and such other land disturbances taking place in the drainage basin.

2. Diversion of rivers feeding the lakes reducing their sizes. 3. Untreated or inadequately treated domestic and industrial effluents are sources of

point pollution located all over the basin just as the complicated non-point pollution from agriculture.

The degree of the problems varies from region to region, but is more pronounced in urban lakes, as brought out in analysis of data of specific lakes in the following sections. 2.1 Status Review The status of important lakes and reservoirs spread all over the country and the management measures undertaken to prevent their further degradation and to restore them are briefly explained in the following sections. Annex 3 gives more details of their key elements, category-wise (Para 1.2.5). These water bodies have received the attention of National and International organizations, NGOs and Courts for restoration, conservation and preservation. 3. Identified Problems The human settlements and public effluent sources are the chief factors for the degradation of lakes, particularly the urban lakes. A lake front property has societal prestige, which causes intense shoreline development in urban centres and thus adversely impacts on the lake water quality. The anthropogenic pressures in the catchment itself has resulted in degradation of the catchment area due to deforestation, extensive agricultural use and consequent erosion and increased silt flows, which have vitiated the storage in the lakes immensely. Most urban lakes and rural lakes have vanished under this pressure. In the lakes, which have survived in the urban areas, the drinking water supply has been substantially reduced or become totally non potable, their flood absorption capacity has been impaired, species of fish and fauna have been threatened, and fisher folks livelihood has been eroded or drastically affected. In all the urban lakes, infrastructure development, housing pressure and encroachments have resulted in converting lakes into eutrophic and hyper eutrophic state. As a result, the lakes have shrunk in size, lost their capacity to provide the required quality water. The water quality has deteriorated so much as to cause serious disturbance to the bio-diversity of the lake environment. Bio-remedial measures alone have failed to achieve lake equilibrium. Growth of water hyacinth has been prolific in many lakes resulting in breeding of vectors and consequently causing endemic diseases; Loktak lake, Bhopal lakes, Ropar Lake, Sukna lake, Kanjli, Pong dam lake, etc are classic examples. Cultural siltation in the form of immersion of Idols during specific festivals, an annual feature in India, has been a source of serious metallic pollution of lakes. Examples of such actions are the Bhoj Wetlands, the City lakes of Bombay, Hyderabad, Bangalore etc. In many lakes, the uncontrolled tourist pressure has resulted in disturbance to the bio-diversity of flora and fauna, which thrive on the lake. Examples are the high altitude lakes of Tsomori, Pongsho, Dal, etc.

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The coastal lakes have been seriously affected due to an imbalance in salinity levels. This is attributed to lack of balance between fresh water from the inland catchment of the lake and entry of the seawater into the lake at the mouth of the estuary. Location of satellite ports, chemical industries, thermal power plants have also contributed to siltation and pollution. Examples are the Chilika in Orissa, the Pulicat in Tamil Nadu, the Kuttanad Lake in Kerala, and Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh. Water shortages in the lakes, with sources of replenishment seriously impaired, have resulted in bird sanctuaries and fisheries getting affected seriously. Examples are the Koledeo National Park (Bharatpur lake), the Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary Lake, Dal Lake etc. In spite of taking several engineering measures, the ephemeral lakes in the flood plains of the Ganga and Brahmaputra river basins are not providing the desired economic benefits to the large population dependent on them for livelihood. 3.1 Montraux Record The problems in Chilika, Loktak, and Keolodeao lakes were so severe that they were put on the "Montraux Record of lakes" based on their high degree of pollution and environmental /ecological deterioration. The purpose of putting these lakes under Montraux record was to carry out conservation and effective use of the three lakes through urgent remedial measures supplemented with adequate monitoring. Chilika has been recently taken out of the Montraux Record, in the light of improved conditions in the lake. 4. Restoration Plans/Actions The lake restoration actions undertaken in the country could be categorized under five broad heads of a) source control or watershed/catchment treatment, b) in-lake treatment, c) shore line treatment, d) public participation supported by court interventions, and v) education and training, as elaborated in the following management actions. a. Source control – Treatment of watershed or catchment of lakes has been given priority for

action since they bring in substantial improvements not only in the lake environment (reduction of silt, control of chemicals, and nutrients) but also result in the overall development of the community living in the catchment. Soil conservation measures, bank/slope erosion control measures, afforestation, drainage improvements, diversion of silt carrying channels away from the lake, control of sewage wastes, sewage interceptions and diversions and participation of people in watershed management measures have been widely adopted as effective management tools in all the lake restoration projects.

b. In lake treatment - This has involved several palliative measures to remove eutrophication

and improve quality of lake water; the components of which are:

Dredging and de-silting - widely adopted and considered essential in all lakes and tanks

De-weeding/hyacinth control or removal (biological, chemical, mechanical and manual measures, bio-composting)

Bio-remediation (Clean up with bio-products - natural bacteria breakdown, and aerators to churn the lakes)

Introduction of composite fish culture/larvivorous fish species to control mosquitoes

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Engineering measures (hydraulic) to improve flow of seawater into the lake to maintain salinity levels in coastal lakes - opening of lake's outer channel into the sea ensured better exchange of salinity level in Chilika lake; revival of traditional drainage system to replenish lake storage and deliberate drain out of flood waters to improve rabi cultivation of Tals, Chaurs, and Oxbow lakes.

Lake water supplementation through irrigation canal systems in the area as in the case of Nalsarovar bird sanctuary and the Kaledeao National Park

Some portions of Chilika, Loktak, Wular and Harike lakes have been designated as protected areas. Some of the lakes have also been declared as sanctuaries or national parks, like the Kaledeao National Park for exotic and migratory birds, Nalsoravar bird sanctuary, and Kolleru lake. The Pulicat lagoon and the Pong dam lake are protected as wild life sanctuary. Part of the Deeper beel has been declared a sanctuary.

Harvesting of aquatic weeds as in Dal lake of Kashmir for growing vegetables which also provided benefits to the local communities. Management of 'phumdis' in Loktak lake through community efforts during monsoon by pushing them out of the lake into Manipur river has been found useful.

c. Shoreline management

Shoreline management has been achieved in many urban lakes by banning construction activity to specific heights above the periphery of the lake. In many cases, the lake periphery has been declared as protected areas or wild life sanctuaries. To prevent pollution from human wastes, community toilet facilities are provided around periphery of the lake. Solid waste management measures have been introduced. Demarcation of lake boundaries has been done with fencing around the lake periphery, in many lakes. Peripheral roads and green belts have been created. Eco tourism facilities have been undertaken which has converted many lakes into great tourist centres. In some cases, tourism has been controlled to prevent adverse effect on the bio diversity of the lake areas. Restrictions and guidelines have been imposed on Idol immersions.

d. Peoples' participation

This is a very effective management method that is increasingly becoming popular in Lake Environments in Urban areas. Non-Governmental organizations have acted as great catalysts in this work. In major urban centres, people dependent on urban lakes for livelihood or with keenness to maintain a general green lung environment for the city surrounded by urban lakes, have organized themselves into 'Peoples Group', 'Jheel Sanrakshan Samithi (JSS)', 'Society of Appeal for Vanishing Environments’ (SAVE)', Howrah Ganatantrik Samiti( HGNS), Ecological Task Force for long-term management, 'User's Committee', and similar other groups. They have also moved the Judiciary (the Supreme Court and the High Courts) through Public Interest Litigations (PILs) seeking directives of the court to restore lakes. Information Centre - cum - watch tower for Mass awareness and promoting public participation in the lake conservation programme have been established in many lakes. In the high altitude lakes of Leh in J&K, the local community of Korzok village has established a conservation trust with help from WWF-India to undertake conservation measures of the lake. The MO&EF have recognized that the elaborate process of assessment of social, economic and ecological aspects of wetland (includes all Lakes) resources through community participation can help to formulate a comprehensive management plan, which is ecologically viable and socially acceptable. A project has been in operation for last more than four years through the involvement of

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Loktak Development Authority, Wetlands International and Ministry of Environment and Forest.

Several Private organizations are interacting with WWF-India to carry out conservation activities relating to lakes (wetlands). Similarly, many other private organizations are taking interest for conservation and management of lakes in regard to eco-tourism development, sustainable fisheries development, and wildlife development. The Jalmahal lake restoration project in Jaipur, when implemented fully, could be a forerunner in this effort.

e. Environmental education and awareness

Resource material for generating awareness on the importance of biodiversity and dependence of the local community on these resources have been developed by the Chilika Development Authority in collaboration with Wetlands International South Asia, Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad and Ramsar Centre. In the case of Chilika lake awareness generation is focused on highlighting its highly threatened population of Dolphins and as a unique habitat for rich avifauna. Environmental education and awareness kits have also been developed for school children and uneducated youth living in and around the Chilika lake. Centres of Excellence have been set up to develop resource material and generate awareness about environment including lakes/wetlands. WWF-India and Centre for Environmental Education, Ahmedabad have set up interpretation centres at Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. Chilika Development Authority has established two awareness centres at Satpuda and Balogaon.

Education and Awareness division of the MO&EF is involved in developing specific projects for Environment Education and Awareness including Wetlands. Environmental education awareness in general, which includes wetlands (Lakes also) as well, is included in curricula at different levels of education. Special modules relating to wetlands have been developed at Wildlife Institute of India to generate awareness about the values and functions of wetlands (lakes included) and the need for their conservation to wider group of participants representing government, non-government and private entrepreneurs. Such modules have also been developed specifically for participants from South Asian Countries.

5. Role of Judiciary and Legal Interventions to stop Degradation of Lakes A major development in stopping the continuing degradation of lakes has been the involvement of the Judiciary (some times at the highest level, the Supreme Court). The Indian law courts have been extremely proactive on the issue of environmental protection. Groups of affected people and public spirited citizens have been filing Public Interest Litigations (PIL) in courts across the country seeking ‘mandamus’ for remedial actions, specifically in respect of highly polluted urban lakes and water bodies. The ‘mandamus’ is sought, interestingly, under the current constitutional provisions and legislations. The Supreme Court, in a PIL in the case of Badal Khol and Surajkund lakes in Haryana state, near Delhi, held that " Precautionary Principle" has been accepted as part of the law of the land. The court observed that the "Precautionary Principle", makes it mandatory for the state government to anticipate, prevent and attack the causes of environment degradation. In order to protect the two lakes from environmental degradation and pollution it limited the construction activity in close vicinity of the lakes. The Court further directed that no

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construction of any type shall be permitted within four km radius of Badal Khol and Surajkund lakes and that all open area shall be converted into green belts. However, when the Municipalities, the local governing bodies, themselves pollute the river systems, the lakes and reservoirs, the situation becomes alarming. Though PILs have generally helped in restoration of lakes, there are also instances of the opposite, as in the case of Rabindra Sarovar lake in West Bengal, where the PIL was for the legalization of the encroachments 6 Institutional Mechanism Several organizations, both Government, Non-Government and at Community levels, have been participants in lake restoration. However, the coordination between these agencies is only marginal. At present, the National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP), an off shoot of the National River Conservation Project of the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MO&EF), is the nodal agency at the central government level which is playing a very crucial role in all aspects of restoration of lakes. 6.1 National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP) NLCP focuses on urban lakes. It envisages a comprehensive and holistic approach for the conservation of lakes with focus on abatement of pollution, check on soil erosion, regeneration and development of catchment area and front line development. The socio-economic development of the people dependent on the lake ecology shall also be fully integrated. Under the NLCP, the Central and State governments share the costs in the ratio of 70:30. The main objectives under the programme include the following:

Prevention of pollution from point and non-point sources. Catchment area treatment. Desilting and weed control. Research & Development studies on floral and faunal activities and related

ecological aspects. Other activities depending on the lake specific conditions such as integrated

development approach, including interface with human populations. Under the NLCP, 21 urban lakes have been identified for conservation programmes (see Annex 3). Apart from the NLCP, India has been a contracted party to the Ramsar Convention since 1st February 1982. India has identified 19 sites (see Annex 4) covering some 650,864 hectares of important wetlands, which include 16 lakes and reservoirs (534,864 ha). The objective is development of national level policies and actions. The scope of NLCP has been enlarged during the X Plan by including the rural lakes in the programme, with corresponding increase in plan outlay. 7. Role of International Institutions International institutions such as the WWF, UNDP, UNEP, ADB, World Bank and many other funding agencies are all involved in providing technical and financial assistance to the Ministry of Environment & Forests (MO&EF) and the State organizations responsible for the upkeep of the lakes and reservoirs. In this effort, the wetland restoration policy is also a key factor as it encompasses lakes and reservoirs as well.

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The international conventions which cover all aspects of lakes, in the name of wetlands, and on which India has been a signatory, are detailed below. 7.1 Ramsar Convention India has been a contracted party to the Ramsar Convention since 1st February 1982. India has now 19 sites (see Annex 4) identified as “Ramsar sites”. These wetlands broadly represent Himalayan freshwater wetlands, Himalayan High altitude wetlands, coastal lagoons, floodplain systems and semi arid & arid zone wetlands. Protection of these sites is envisaged through notification of the above (Lakes) under the provisions of Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, as ecologically fragile areas. Ramsar Convention also provides funds under Small Grants Fund (SGF) as emergency assistance to Ramsar sites, which have suffered damage or are in imminent danger of damage. 7.2 Convention on Biological Diversity India signed the Convention on Biological Diversity on 5th June 1992, ratified it on 18th February 1994 and brought it into force on 19th May 1994. This convention provides a framework for the sustainable management and conservation of India's natural resources. 7.3 World Heritage Convention India ratified the World Heritage Convention in 1977 and since then five natural sites (see Annex 4) have been inscribed as areas of 'outstanding universal value'. 7.4 Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wildlife Animal (CMS) A Memorandum of Understanding concerning conservation measures for Siberian Cranes was signed in 1993 by five range states including India, Iran, Kazakhstan, Pakistan and Russian Federation under the Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wildlife Animal (CMS). The agreement aims at coordinating efforts to save the central and western Asian population of this highly endangered species. 7.5 UNDP Under UNDP’s global programme for conservation and sustainable use of threatened wetlands, several Indian wetlands have been identified for survey and mapping using remote sensing. Under the Small Grants Programme, UNDP is also supporting “Dialogue on Effective Water Governance” together with the Global Water Partnership (GWP), and on “National Water Governance” with the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) in close partnership with GWP. 7.6 World Wide Fund (WWF) for Nature-India WWF International supports WWF-India's wetlands conservation programme (1991), through financial support and encouragement. It also supports the Government of India's national programme by providing technical, policy, advocacy (at national and international levels), and field action-oriented support. The WWF-India Programme, has the following objectives.

• Improve the information base on Indian wetlands • Promote education and awareness about wetland values • Facilitate better wetland management • Contribute to the Government of India's National Programme on Wetlands,

Mangroves and Coral Reefs • Support the Ramsar Convention and other relevant environmental treaties

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• Act to halt wetlands destruction and degradation • Demonstrate the wise use of wetland resources

8. Funding Funding and other assistance for scientific study, preparation of management plans and restoration of lakes provided by the Govt. of India (MO&EF under NLCP, WWF & Ramsar convention) and inter national funding agencies (UNDP, ADB, Indo-Norwegian, India-Canada Environment Facility, etc) covers only a very small number of the problem lakes in the country. While World Bank, OECF Japan and Government of Netherlands did not evince interest in a proposal for conservation of Dal Lake, World Bank, showed its interest in taking up the conservation of Harike, Kanjli and Ropar wetlands of Punjab and Udaipur lake and Sambhar wetland in Rajasthan but wanted the projects to be routed through the State’s Water Sector projects, as part of water resources management at the state level. The Bank wanted to look at the problem of Lakes from an integrated development approach rather than an environmental issue alone. MO&EF has increased the allocation of funds for the restoration of lakes under its NLCP to Rs. 22,000 million during the current 10th Plan period (Year 2002-2007), the assistance is limited to a few lakes while the requirement is for restoration of a very large number. But, what is lacking even now is the identification and estimation of the problem lakes both in the urban and rural areas to reasonably assess the requirements of funds for restoration of lakes in the country. A listing done by the MO&EF identifies 2167 natural lake (wetlands) and 65,253 man-made lakes (wetlands) but the detailed listing is limited to 340 wetland or lakes. However, this information needs to be updated further and attempts are being made to publish directory giving latest information on wetland inventorisation in the country both on the basis of ground verification and remote sensing technology. 9. Management of Reservoirs India has a large number of large and medium size reservoirs built behind medium and high dams in all ago-climatic zones of the country, which store monsoon flows (in case of Himalayan rivers snow melt also) for use during the lean season and are a dependable source for drinking water, irrigation, hydropower, ecological use, industrial use, navigation, etc. They also provide flood moderation. These reservoirs are generally located far from population centres and do not receive domestic effluents directly. They are, however, recipients of industrial effluents and non-point pollutants from irrigated agriculture. An unique feature of reservoirs that makes them distinctly different from natural lakes is the water renewal pattern marked by swift changes in levels, inflow and outflow, deep draw down and wind-created turbulence. Besides, the varying purpose and design of the dams make the reservoirs different in their hydrographic and morphoedaphic characteristics. The water quality in the reservoirs is generally not much affected since the reservoirs are operated year round to utilize the entire live storage created behind the dams. The operation of the spillway gates also ensures routing of silt-laden flood downstream thus reducing the silt deposition in the reservoir. Sedimentation of these reservoirs is the important environmental phenomenon. The dams built unto 1965 were designed on the basis of siltation rate of 3.57 to 4.76 ha m per 100 sq km/year and the dead storage was usually designed to provide useful life of 100 years for the

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reservoir. The capacity surveys undertaken during 1958-65, however, revealed that the siltation rate was higher during the first phase of operation and thereafter, it had fallen significantly. Based on sedimentation data of 144 reservoirs, the weighted average annual loss in gross storage due to siltation is computed as 0.44 %. Similarly, the annual loss in live storage is 0.31% based on the data of 42 reservoirs. The size of catchment area drained, the stress of urban and rural population concentrations that they are subjected to, and the operation pattern of the reservoir largely dictates the physical, chemical and biological status of reservoirs. The reservoirs also create new ecosystems, support life growth all around even in dry period when the environment tends to be hard and inhospitable. It is also noted that a forest far superior to the original one submerged comes up along the rim of the reservoir. The environmental conditions of the reservoirs are monitored regularly by the Central and State govt. Water Resources/Irrigation organizations. The catchment areas of the reservoirs are, however, the responsibility of the Forest and the Agricultural Departments of the State and the Central Govts. Sediment management techniques, which have been considered, are:

a) Source area control to reduce sediment delivery to the reservoir. b) Hydraulically manage the reservoir to reduce sediment accumulation.

Source area control India has several programmes of water shed management in reservoir and lake catchments. The efficacy of these programmes has been well established in reducing the silt load into the reservoirs. The watershed of the reservoirs is subjected to catchment area and soil conservation (forest areas, degraded land and non forest areas) treatment to reduce the rate of silt flow into the reservoir. This is being carried out through integrated planning of watersheds by measures such as vegetative hedges, contour/graded bunding, agro-forestry, horticulture plantation, silvi pastoral development, pasture development, afforestation, drainage line treatments, water harvesting structures, percolation tanks/ponds, sediment detention dams etc in agricultural land, forest lands and waste lands as per need determined on scientific basis. The effect of these measures is monitored as a part of sedimentation studies of reservoirs. Studies show that in catchments where such measures have been undertaken, sediment production rate has been reduced in the range of 25-50%. Such measures have also shown varied benefits in terms of increase in crop yield and land values, and employment generation. The management of reservoirs is the responsibility of the well established Irrigation or Water Resources departments of the States. By and large, the reservoirs are functioning well from the environmental point of view except for the siltation problem. This is being monitored as mentioned above and actions taken to control the same, both in and outside the reservoir periphery with time tested methods. 10. Management of Tanks Tanks, which are also subsets of water bodies, though not called Lakes, symbolize an ancient and rich tradition of harnessing local rainfall and stream flow for irrigated agriculture. With the major and medium reservoirs providing large scale storages for irrigation and increased

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extraction of ground water under minor irrigation programmes, the emphasis on tanks diminished during the 20th century. These water bodies, mostly ephemeral in nature, as per survey of selected tanks, indicate widespread decay and decline, mainly due to heavy siltation and inadequate maintenance. The varying status of disrepair are attributed to i) change in the institution mechanism and their weakening over the years, ii) intense demographic pressures, iii) social composition of land ownership, and iv) spread of well irrigation. In spite of all the problems many tanks are still functional and continue to be maintained by informal community institutions. During the last decade both the Government and some international agencies have been trying to revive, expand and revitalize the tanks. 11. Legal Framework 11.1 Constitutional Provisions India has a plethora of Policies, Acts, Rules and Laws in the Water Resources, Environment, Forest, Agriculture, Fisheries and Social sectors, directly or indirectly related to lake management. The Indian Constitution provides, in clear and unambiguous terms, for the State's commitment to protect the environment. Article 48-A of the directive principles states, "The State shall endeavor to protect and improve environment and to safeguard the forests and wild life of the country". Under Article 51-A (g), it is the fundamental duty of every citizen of India "to protect and improve the natural environment, including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures”. The Constitution empowers Panchayats and Urban local bodies with functions and responsibilities, as relevant to Lakes Environment: Bombay Land Revenue Code declares all lakes and tanks to be the properties of the Government, (which are not individually owned). The High Court has again made it clear that "The State as the trustee of all natural resources meant for public use, including lakes and ponds, is under a legal duty to protect them." The problem is in making the governments act accordingly. 11.2 Other legal instruments Apart from the above, the legal framework for protection of lakes and reservoirs (wetlands) is at present indirectly covered under the several acts and notifications issued by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MO&EF). These deal with environmental protection, pollution control, specific natural resources protection acts, hazardous waste management and handling rules, tribunal act for providing for strict liability for any damages arising out of any accident occurring due to handling of hazardous substances and the National Environment Tribunal (see Annex 4). A notification has been issued declaring the coastal stretches of seas, bays, estuaries, creeks, rivers and backwaters which are influenced by tidal action in the landward side unto 500 meters from the high timeline and the land between the low timeline and the high timeline as the Coastal Zone Regulation Notification, 1991 under the provisions of Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. This imposes graded restriction on setting up and expansion of industries, operations and processes. This notification is of great importance for conservation and wise use of coastal lakes such as Chilika, Kolleru, Kuttanad, Pulicat, Sasthamkotta, Vembanad, etc. Under the Environment (Protection) Act, which specifies protection of ecologically fragile areas, a number of wetland ecosystems in the country are being notified. The Government of India has advised all the State Governments in the coastal areas to formulate integrated coastal zones management plans. Wetlands, mangroves and coral reefs

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are designated as ecologically fragile areas and their conservation measures have to be planned and implemented by the concerned authorities. The Supreme Court of India has also made implementation of Coastal Zone Management Plans mandatory for the State Governments 12. National Policies The National Water Policy, 1987 has been revised in 2002 in which the Institutional mechanism for the much neglected maintenance of water resources schemes - one of the reasons for the poor state of many of our reservoirs - given importance by the directive that " With a view to give effect to the planning and management of the water resources on a hydrological unit basis, along with a multi-sectoral, multidisciplinary and participatory approach as well as integrating quality, quantity and the environmental aspects, the existing institutions at the various levels under the water resources sector will have to be appropriately reoriented/reorganized and even created, wherever necessary…" 13. Management of Lakes: Lessons Learnt Public Interest Litigation has shown up the following problems as common to all lakes (CES, 2002)

• Apathy of the executive in preventing discharge of domestic and industrial effluents into the lakes,

• Lack of proper sewage system • Encroachments due to the nexus between the executive and the builders lobby • Lack of access to scientific data and scientific norms for restricting building

activity around the lakes • Ineffective cleaning up technology of pollutants • Unclear laws, too many corrupt and confused authorities (numerous govt.

departments), plethora of land owning govt. agencies, political vested interests, and absence of a clear lake environment policy.

Restoration actions taken/initiated in lakes such as the Chilka , Loktak , Dal and Nagin , the Bhoj Wetland (Bhopal lakes), Harike etc., were often delayed due to involvement of several sectoral ministries/agencies at the Central and State level which lacked basic understanding in adopting a joint approach since lakes or wetlands are not delineated under any specific administrative jurisdiction. The delays were also due to:

• Improper appreciation of the hydrological regimes at the river basin level and allocation of water, particularly for ecological purposes

• Inadequate understanding of the interactions amongst various sectors about sound ecological basis within and outside the basin

• Conflict of interests among various sectors (land & water use) and their resolution to evolve common strategy

• Lack of involvement of Stakeholders in planning and implementation processes • Paucity of overall understanding of the nature and benefits of lakes in economic

and ecological terms The above reveal an urgent need for a pragmatic regulatory regime for an integrated development and management of a drainage basin and involving joint decisions of several sectoral agencies. Some lakes/wetlands have been protected under the Wildlife Protection Act

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which is generally ineffective. Effective coordination between the different ministries (energy, industry, fisheries revenue, agriculture, transport and water resources) is essential for the protection of these ecosystems. The first step is to prepare a realistic list of all water bodies in the country and categorize them, utility and problem wise, to enable evolving suitable restoration works for problem lakes. The next step is to initiate action on Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) with specific emphasis on lakes and reservoirs at the basin or sub-basin levels. There are three components to be addressed: a) the enabling environment, b) the institutional frame work, and c) the management. 13.1 Enabling Environment To deal with problems of Lakes and Reservoirs and their restoration, the existing Acts, Legislations, and Laws need to be integrated suitably into a single specific legislation. There is need for sectoral assessment of water demand, existing uses, water quality, spatial and temporal distribution, land use in catchments of lakes and reservoirs etc. The national and state policies in respect of water, environment, housing & habitat, agriculture, industries coupled with the pricing, economic incentives, and financial policies need to be integrated. New legislation and standards suitable to lake and reservoir management have to be framed. Economic Valuation of some wetlands (Lakes) undertaken including two Ramsar sites viz. Harike lake and Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur Lake) have indicated that economic valuation is an effective tool for wise-use of wetlands (lakes). It has been, therefore, proposed by MOE&F to carry out economic valuation of wetlands with clear focus on use of such studies for resource development and management of wetlands and sustainable resource utilization by the local communities. 13.2 Institutional frame work (Governmental Approach) ILEC recognizes that World Lake Vision should complement World Water Vision (GWP) in promoting IWRM as the guiding principle for the sustainability of lakes. Lake management has, therefore, to be a subset of IWRM at the basin level. In India, MOE&F, the nodal ministry for restoration of lakes has even confirmed to Ramsar convention that River basin approach has been followed for conservation and wise use of wetlands in the country, that Government of India provides technical and financial support to promote sustainable development of wetlands at the river basin level and that projects have been undertaken in the States of Manipur, Orissa, Gujarat and Punjab to integrate conservation and wise use of wetlands into river basin management. However, this is more in theory than in practice. There is inadequate recognition that IWRM is very essential at the Basin level to ensure environmentally sustainable lakes and reservoirs, though it is established that these water bodies cannot be isolated from their drainage basin. The management of lakes is still considered, predominantly, from environmental angle only. The initiative for their restoration rests with the MOE&F at the National level and with the state level organizations set up exclusively for the purpose. Permanent solution depends on Institutional restructuring for effective governance. This calls for the establishment of RBOs as the most important step towards sustainable lake management. An interactive governance system (Water Resources Council-Water Commission-RBO) is explained in Annex 5. 13.3 River Basin Organizations (RBOs)

14

The functions and responsibilities of RBOs have been widely discussed. They shall include management plans for lakes as part of IRBMP. RBOs are not executing agencies. But they monitor the actual management of resources and report to the appropriate authority for corrective interventions, if necessary (For functions see Figure 5).

15

References: 1. Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board (APPCB). (2000). Project Feasibility Report on

Hussain Sagar Lake Conservation & Management Project, Hyderabad, India 2. AHEC. (2000). Detailed Project Report (DPR) - Conservation and Management Plan for

Dal and Nagin Lakes, Roorkee, India. 3. Bhavanishankar. B.S. (2003). Restoration and Improvement of Urban lakes with specific

reference to the lakes in Bangalore, International workshop on Urban Lakes: Conservation and Management (16 to 18 June 2003), Hyderabad, India

4. Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). (2001). Surface Tension, The War over city lakes is hotting up, CSE webnet. http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/People/DOSSIERP/DossierP.pdf

5. Central Water Commission. (2001). Compendium of Silting of Reservoirs in India, CWC, New Delhi, India

6. Centre for Ecological Sciences (CES). (2000). Proceedings of Symposium of Lakes & Wetlands, 27-29 November 2000, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India

7. Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). (1991). Floods, Flood Plains and Environmental Myths. A Citizens Report, CSE, New Delhi, India

8. Char.N.V.V. (2000). Sustainable Management of River Basins, Developing and Strengthening River Basin organizations, Presented for SASTAC GWP at the International Conference on Sustainable Development of Water Resources, November 27-30,2000, New Delhi,India

9. C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar Foundation. (2002). Sacred Tanks of South India, C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Chennai, India

10. Department of Agriculture. (1997). Tal Area Development Project, Patna, Bihar, India 11. Dr Chauhan, D.P.S. (2003). Scope of Fisheries Development in Wetlands, Ministry of

Agriculture, New Delhi, India 12. Dr.Ram Malu. (2002). Lonar Crater Saline Lake, An Ecological Wonder in

India",.S.R.Rathi Post Graduate Science College, Washim, India 13. Dr Reddy. M. S. (2002). Lake Management Need For A Paradigm Shift in Approach. 14. Dr Reddy . M. S. (2003). Watershed Management and Integrated River Basin Planning

and Management (IRBPM), 15. Global Water Partnership (GWP) & Indian Association of Aquatic Biologists. (2001).

Proceeding of 2 day workshop on "Lake management in India" 12-13 December 2001, Kanchanwadi, India

16. Green Panel against Petrochem park. (2000). Business Standard, 03/03/2000,India 17. Government of India, 2002, National Water Policy. 18. Government of Tamil Nadu. (2001). Abatement of Pollution of Udagamandalam (Ooty)

& Kodaikanal Lakes (G.O. Ms. No. 33 dated 28-2-2001), Chennai, India 19. Hyderabad Urban Development Authority (HUDA). (2003). Proceedings of Workshop

on Urban Lakes Conservation and Management", Hyderabad, June 16-18, 2003. 20. Ilika Chakravarty. (2002). Conservation and Management Plan for the Lonar-Crater Lake,

Indian Institute of Technology, Maharashtra, India 21. Indian Association of Aquatic Biologists. (2003). Proceedings of National Conference on

"Urban Lakes -Environmental status, Economics, & management options", Souvenir/Abstracts, April 5-6, 2003, Hyderabad, India

22. International Lake Environment Committee (ILEC) & United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP). (1988). Guidelines of Lake Management, Volume 1- Principles of Lake Management, Otsu, Shiga.

16

23. Jayaseelan. R & Dr. Pawan Kumar. (2003). Conservation of Wetlands in Man made lakes with special reference to Sardar Sarovar (narmada) Project in India, Narmada Control Authority, Indore, India.

24. Joël RUET, et all. (2002). The water & Sanitation Scenario in Indian Metropolitan Cities. Publication of the French Research Institute in India, New Delhi, India

25. Kannan. K. (1998). Civilization takes its toll of Naini Tal, The Hindu19-10-1998, India 26. Krishna Rao P. V. (2003). 'Pulicat lake gasping for breath', The New Indian Express,

16/06/03, India 27. Lilyn Kamath. (2002). "Lonar Lake Hiding many mysteries within", Western Region

Office of WWF-India 28. Ministry of Environment and Forests (MO&EF). (2002). National Planning Tool for the

Implementation of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, file 1- Institutional information, (And the approved format for National Reports to be submitted for the 8th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties, Spain, 2002), New Delhi, India. (http://www.ramsar.org/cop8_nrs_india1.pdf)

29. Ministry of Environment and Forests (MO&EF). (2002). National Planning Tool for the Implementation of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, file 2 - To reinforce the Capacity of Institutions in each contracting party to achieve conservation and wise use of wetlands, (And the approved format for National Reports to be submitted for the 8th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties, Spain, 2002), New Delhi, India. (http://www.ramsar.org/cop8_nrs_india2.pdf)

30. Ministry of Environment and Forests (MO&EF). (1990). Wetlands of India -A Directory, Government of India, New Delhi, India

31. Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR) & Indian Water Resources Society (IWRS). (2003). Proceedings of Round Table Conference on Water Quality and Wetlands: Socio-economic and Ecological Importance, March 12-13,2003, New Delhi, India

32. Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR). (1999).Report of the National Committee for Integrated Water Resources Development (NCIWRDP), Volume 1, September, 2003, New Delhi, India

33. Prithwiraj Jha and Sudip Barat. (2002) "Hydrobiological study of lake Mirik in Darjeeling Himalayas"

34. Laurie Duker. (2002) "Newly certified Wetlands of International Importance" under the Ramsar Convention" Conservation Director Western Region Office of WWF-India, LakeNet. Website: http://www.worldlakes.org

35. Public Interest Litigation. (2001). Protection and Conservation of the hills and lands adjoining to the lakes of Bhimtal, Sat-tal, and Naukuchiatal in the district of Nainital, by Society of Appeal for Vanishing Environments (S.A.V.E), in the Honorable High Court of Uttaranchal at Nainital, India.

36. Sumita Sen Gupta. (2003). Protection of Urban water Bodies, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi,India

37. Srenivasan. (2002). Limnology of Upland lakes and reservoirs in Tamil Nadu, Indian Hydrobiology, Volume 5, No2, India

38. Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI). (2001). Sustainable Development in Darjeeling Hill Area, Project Monitoring cell, TERI, New Delhi, India

39. Tiwari. D.P. (2002). Challenges in Urban Planning for local bodies in India Town & Country Planning, M.P. Bhopal, India

40. UNEP. (1994). The Pollution of Lakes and Reservoirs. 41. Videh Upadhyay. (2003). Urban Water: Judicial recipes falling short, Enviro Legal

Defence Firm (ELDF), New Delhi. (http://indiatogether.org/2003/jan/vu-lakelaw.htm.)

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42. World Wide Fund (WWF). (2002). "India's Ramsar sites". Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India

43. Harikumar A. (2003). Ecological disaster awaits Vembanad lake, Hindu Online edition of India's National Newspaper, Sep 09, 2003, Chennai, India

44. Kurup. B.M. and Harikrishnan. M. (2000). In Reviving the Macrobrachium rosenbergii (deMan) Fishery in Vembanad Lake, India, (http://www.worldfishcenter.org/Naga/23-2/feature.pdf.)

45. Dr Kumaran. P. (2000). Kerala: Backwaters near Kumarakom, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute Regional Centre, Kochi. The Peoples Commission on Environment and Development (http://www.pcedindia.com/peoplescomm/coastal-ecosystem_5a.htm)

46. Tilapia. (2002). A study for Eco-management, specially reference to Jaisamand Lake, Rajasthan" Abstracted in the National Seminar, Khargone, India

47. UNDP, (2001). Demonstrating a process for the revival of Jaisamand Lake., UNDP Small Grants Programme (http://www.undp.org/sgp/cty/ASIA_PACIFIC/INDIA/ov.htm)

48. Yadvinder Singh. (2002). Siltation Problems in Sukhna Lake in Chandigarh, India and Comments on Geo-hydrological Changes in the Yamuna-Satluj Region, Department of Geography, Punjabi University, Patiala, India

49. Hindu. (2003). HC prohibits works within 10 km of Himayatsagar, Hyderabad, Online News The Hindu, (http://www.andhranews.net/state/2003/mar/28.asp)

50. National Productivity Council (NPC). (2002). Pollution Control Laws. Waste Minimization Circle, National Productivity Council, Govt of India. (wmc.nic.in/chapter1-legal-aspects.asp)

51. The Indian Express. (2002). Renuka Lake - The fairy-tale beauty spot. The Indian Express, New Delhi, 4-3-2002

52. FAO. (2002). Reservoir Fisheries Resources Of India, (http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/V5930E/V5930E07.htm.)

53. Govt of India. (2003). Chapter Ii - A & B Review of Overall Performance, Govt of India. http://envfor.nic.in/pbudget/2003/chap-2ab.pdf.

54. Hindu. (2001). Kolleru lake, a sanctuary: court, The Hindu India’s National News Paper, July 31,2001 ( http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2001/07/31/stories/0431201h.htm.)

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Figure 2 - Oxbow Lakes in Flood Plains

Figure 1 - Sub sets of lakes and reservoirs – Manmade and Natural

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Figure 3

20

Figure 4

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Figure -5

RIVER BASIN ORGANIZATION

ASSESSMENT A. RESOURCES WATER LAND

B. POPULATION PEOPLE LIVESTOCK

C. WATER NEEDS D.WATER QUALITY & ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS E. CIVIL SOCIETY & STAKEHOLDERS DEMANDS

PLANNING A. NEEDS & AVAILABILITY: MATCH & OPTIMISE B. CIVIL SOCIETY INTERACTION

MONITORING A. MANAGEMENT PLANS B. CIVIL SOCIETY FEED BACK

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Annex 1

Details of Inland Water Resources of various types (100,000 ha) Sl No.

Name of the State/UT Rivers & Canals (Km)

Reservoir Tanks and Ponds

Beels, Oxbow Lakes & derelict water

Brackish water

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Andhra Pradesh 11514 2.34 5.17 - 0.64 Assam 4820 0.02 0.14 1.00 - Bihar 3200 0.60 0.95 0.05 - Goa 250 0.03 Neg - 0.04 Gujarat 1192 2.04 0.09 - 0.95 Haryana 5000 Neg 0.10 0.10 - Himachal Pradesh 3000 0.40 0.06 - - Jammu & Kashmir 27781 0.07 0.11 0.04 - Karnataka 9000 2.22 2.37 2.37 0.08 Kerala 3100 0.30 0.03 2.43 2.43 Madhya Pradesh 12000 2.91 0.69 - - Maharashtra 3200 1.65 0.53 - 0.14 Manipur 3360 Neg 0.03 0.29 - Meghalaya 1000 0.01 0.02 Neg - Nagaland 1600 2.27 0.50 Neg - Orissa N.A 2.56 0.59 1.80 5.74 Punjab 15270 Neg 0.07 - - Rajasthan N.A 1.20 1.80 - - Sikkim NR NR NR NR NR Tamil Nadu 4493 0.53 2.24 5.24 0.56 Tripura 1200 0.06 0.07 0.06 - Uttar Pradesh 31200 1.50 1.62 1.33 - West Bengal 2526 0.17 2.76 0.42 2.10 Arunachal Pradesh 2000 - 0.01 0.03 Neg Andaman & Nicobar 48 Neg Meg - 1.15 Chandigarh 2 - Neg Neg Delhi 150 0,04 - - - Lakshadweep - - - - - Pondicherry 247 - Neg Neg Neg- Total 164153 18.92 19.96 15.16 13.83 Sources: Hand Book of Fisheries 1988, M/O Agriculture (Fisheries Division). N.A - Not available; N.R - Not received; Neg - Negligible

Annex 2

Classification of Indian Lakes

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Geographical Classification Based on the agro-climatic zonation, the Indian lakes and reservoirs (wetlands) could be broadly classified under four zones viz., Himalayan lakes & wetlands, Indo-Gangetic Plains, Coastal Lakes & wetlands, and Deccan Lakes & wetlands. Within these zones further general differentiation by region into eight categories is given below. 1. The lakes & reservoirs in the wet and humid zone of southern India, together with the

lagoons and the other wetlands, of the southern west coast; 2. The vast saline lakes of warm arid zone of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf of Kachchh; 3. Freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards through Rajasthan and Madhya

Pradesh in monsoonal Central India; 4. The delta lakes (wetlands) and lagoons of India's East Coast; 5. The monsoonal freshwater marshes of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the floodplains of the

Brahmaputra and the Barak - these are also classified as ox-bow lakes (mauns) formed due to the meandering nature of the river systems (formation of Oxbow lake may be seen in Figure 2), and tectonic (chaurs);

6. The lakes, marshes and swamps in the Himalayan foothills and the hills of north-east India;

7. The lakes and rivers of the mountain region of Kashmir, cold arid zone of Ladakh and Zanskar;

8. The mangroves and other lakes (wetlands) of the island arcs of the Andamans and Nicobars.

Liminological Classification The natural lakes in India can be further categorized, based on their liminological features, as

• Inland lakes of fresh water • Inland lakes of brackish water • Ephemeral lakes • High altitude lakes • Crater lakes.

Functional Classification Lakes can be classified as under with reference to their functions:

- Urban - Irrigation - Flood control - Hydropower - Recreation - Tourism, etc.

Water quality classification The Central Pollution Control Board has suggested classification of water bodies as per the chemical and biological properties of the waters of lakes, reservoirs and rivers, under five (5) broad categories:

Zoning & Classification of water bodies (Lakes & Rivers) (As per Chemical & biological properties)

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Designated Best Use Class of water

Criteria

Drinking water source without conventional treatment but after disinfection Drinking water source without conventional treatment but after disinfection

A 1. Total coliform shall be 50 or less 2. pH between 6.5 and 8.5 3. Dissolved Oxygen 6 mg/l or more 4. BOD5 less than 2 mg/l

Outdoor bathing B 1. Total coliform shall be 500 or less 2. pH between 6.5 and 8.5 3. Dissolved Oxygen 5 mg/l or more 4. BOD5 less than 3 mg/l

Drinking water source conventional treatment followed by disinfection

C 1. Total coliform shall be 5000 or less 2. pH between 6 and 9 3. Dissolved Oxygen 4 mg/l or more 4. BOD5 less than 3 mg/l

Propagation of Wild Life Fisheries D 1. pH between 6.5 and 8.5 2. Dissolved Oxygen 4 mg/l or more 3. Free Ammonia (as N) 1.2 mg/l or less

Irrigation, Industrial Cooling, Controlled Waste Disposal

E 1. pH between 6.0 and 8.5 2. Electrical Conductivity at micro mhos/cm Max 2250. 3. Sodium absorption Ratio Max 26 4. Boron, Max 2 mg/l

Management Classification In the present review, the lakes have been classified under the following 4 broad categories:

• Urban Lakes • Non-urban Lakes: a) Inland Fresh Water

b) Inland Brackish Water c) Sacred Lakes/Tanks

• Coastal Estuarine Lakes • Ephemeral Lakes

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EXPERIENCES AND LESSONS LEARNT (ELL) FROM LAKES IN INDIA Lake, location, area

Benefits Nature of problems

Associated Institutions

Restoration actions

A. Urban lakes 1. Bangalore city Lakes - 20 odd lakes out of 257, considered worth restoration. Four lakes under restoration - Vengaihnakere, Kamakshipalya, Jarganhalli & Nagavara, Karnataka.

Green belt, recreation Aquifer recharge, & water supply

Uncontrolled sewage and debris - eutrophication and extensive weed growth. Encroachment

Forest Department and Bangalore Maha Nagara Palike. MO&EF- National Lake Conservation Project (NLCP) , & Bangalore Development Authority. Lake Development Authority (LDA). Indo-Norwegian Environment Project.

Desilting & restoration works under implementation. Construction of diversion channels for sewage, providing lighting, afforestation and boating facilities. Providing Sewage Treatment Plants. Creating habitat for aquatic life and fencing. Impounding runoff water for recharging ground water aquifers. Involvement of local committees.

2.Bhopal's Upper and Lower Lakes - also named Bhoj Wetland - Madhya Pradesh - 3201 ha.

Water supply & Recreation. Rich in bio-diversity including insects, reptiles and amphibians, and very rare bird species.

Eutrophication- organic and domestic sewerage, metallic (Idol &Tazia immersion) pollution, hyacinth, siltation, & encroachment

Environmental Planning and Coordination Organization. Bhoj Wetland Authority, MO&EF, Ramsar site & OECF.

Restoration, conservation & development measures - dredging & desilting, catchment treatment, control & management of land use, water quality, prevention of pollution, etc. Effective implementation with OECF funds.

3. Bombay (Mumbai) city's lakes - Powai, Tulsi, Vihar lakes - Maharashtra -2200 ha

Irrigation of farms, water supply to industries, & rich in flora and fauna. Tulsi and Vihar lakes provide water supply.

Siltation, sullage, weed growth, allotment of 'no development zone' of catchment given to powerful builder's lobby.

Bombay Municipal Corporation, MO&EF (NLCP), Forest Dept. Maharashtra State Angling Association, & NGOs Groups

Bio-remediation technology. NGOs role very effective. Restriction on use of lake peripheral area. Part of Sanjay Gandhi National Park. Fencing.

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4. Dal & Nagin Lakes, Jammu and Kashmir –1720 ha. Nagin - Jewel in the Ring

Recreation, tourism, water supply, & livelihood to people. Multifaceted eco-system. Harvesting of aquatic weeds for growing vegetables helps in control of aquatic weeds and simultaneously providing benefits to the local communities.

Siltation, accumulation of plant debris, reclamation, converted into floating gardens, eutrophication - reservoir of 'sewage, wastes and effluents.' Important biological species have either declined or completely disappeared.

State of Jammu and Kashmir, J&K Lakes and Waterways Development Authority, Urban Environmental Engineering Department, & MO&EF. "Green Kashmir", NGO

DPR for restoration of lake prepared. Pollution unchecked. Peripheral drain, Shoreline Dredging and Integrated Ring Sewerage scheme yet to be implemented. Harvesting of aquatic weeds for growing vegetables. NGOs pursue in Supreme Court, through PIL, for revival & fund utilization issues. Court appoints Commissioner to monitor and report on status of lake. To initiate action on National Institute of Aquatic Ecology & Community Participation and Public Awareness

Lake, location, area

Benefits Nature of problems

Institutions involved

Restoration actions

5. Howrah's Urban water bodies, West Bengal.

Water supply, Recreation and Fishing

Encroachment by land mafia and pollution from sewage

Civic Authorities of Howrah. NGO-Howrah Ganatantrik Samiti ( HGNS)

Litigation results in court ordering ban on filling up urban water bodies and listing of tanks under jurisdiction of police stations and police officers to act as guardians of lakes.

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6. Hyderabad city lakes - Hussain Sagar (3,300 ha) & Saroornagar (400 ha), Osmansagar (4,016 ha) and Himayatsagar (3,584ha) and other lakes, Andhra Pradesh

Fishery, recreation, & flood cushion Water supply

Eutriophication due to organic pollution, domestic sewage pollution, siltation, and encroachments of tank bed and peripheral areas

Govt. of Andhra Pradesh. HUDA, MO&EF (NLCP), AP Pollution Control Board (APPCB). Royal Netherlands Embassy (RNE). Save the Lakes Campaign of Peoples Group- NGO.

Restoration of lake and its watershed - physical, chemical, biological features including technical & other sub-projects. Sewerage treatment plants (STP). 'Peoples Group' 'effective in awareness campaign. Court's order disallows polluting activities including locating airport within 10 km of Lakes.

7. Jalmahal Lake also called Mansagar lake, Jaipur city, Rajasthan -110 ha (after restoration)

Irrigation, drinking water supply, recreation, bio-diversity - Migratory birds like large Flamingo & the Great Crested Grebe

Eutrophication, water hyacinth, siltation and encroachment.

Irrigation Department, Forest Department, Jaipur Municipal Corporation, and Jaipur Development Authority. Asian Development Bank (ADB). MO&EF. Unique experiment of involving private sector in restoration work - BOOT process - Project Development Company Limited (PDCOR), & Jaipur Tourism industry.

Catchement treatment of surrounding hills. Desilting. Creation of artificial wetlands. Diversion of solid waste from the city to aeration plant. Specially constructed `nesting island’ for breeding birds. ADB funding through RUIDP. Private sector participation with fiscal incentives to develop tourism related infrastructure mooted -when implemented will be unique for replication. PDCOR prepared feasibility report - Modalities being worked out.

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8. Jaisamand lake or Dhebar lake, Rajasthan, -7224 ha. Second largest artificial lake in Asia

Water supply. Fisheries. Resident and migratory birds. Reserve Wild life sanctuary.

Pollution, encroachment, siltation & Water shortage

Irrigation Department. Tourism department. UNDP. MO&EF. NGO- Apna Sansthan

Desiltation, shore line management, sewage treatment and diversion. Fishery regulation, Catchment area treatment. Eco-management

9. Kodaikanal Lake & the Ooty lake, Tamil Nadu

Irrigation, drinking water, recreation, and tourism. Bio diversity.

Pollution from sewage, siltation, & weeds

TWAD Board, Public Works Department and the local bodies, MO&EF - NLCP

Clean up with bio-products - natural bacteria breakdown, aerators to churn the lakes once in 12 days to prevent stagnation, dredging, de-weeding & bio-composting, sewage interceptions and diversion for abatement of pollution, community toilets, solid waste disposal, & shoreline development

Lake, location, area

Benefits Nature of problems

Associated Institutions

Restoration actions

10. Lakes of Kumaon hills - Nainital, Bhimtal, Sat-Tal, & Naukuchiatal, Uttaranchal - ‘Lake District’ of India

Drinking water, irrigation, & rich bio-diversity - over 11 000 species of moths, beetles, bugs and other insects. 525 species of butterflies. Birds species.

Water shortage, encroachment & change of land use pattern, erosion, deforestation, siltation, & urbanization. Uncontrolled tourist pressure

Irrigation Dept., Forest Dept., MO&EF (NLCP), Land Development Authority, Society of Appeal for Vanishing Environments (S.A.V.E) & Eco-Ethics International Union (EEIU)

Desiltation, Forest preservation, prevention and annulment of illegal occupancy of lake's periphery, silt & pollution control. Master plan for development of region 1995-2011. Success of PILs.

11 Mirik Lake called 'Sumendu Lake', Darjeeling District, West Bengal - 47 ha

Water supply, recreation, tourism, Angling, & Aquarium

Solid waste & sewage pollution, siltation, lake water acidic & high concentration of nutrients

Darjeeling Municipality, MO&EF - NLCP, & Institute of Wetland Management and Ecological Design

Solid waste and sewage management. De-siltation & silt arrestors. Detailed Master Plan to be evolved for NLCP funding.

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12. Mysore city's five lakes- Kukkarahalli, Lingambudhi, Karanji, Devanoor, and Dalavai, Karnataka - 363.5 ha

Water supply, Irrigation, Recreation & Tourism

Siltation, eutrophication, & weed growth. Real estate pressure.

Minor Irrigation Dept. Karnataka Urban Infrastructure Development Finance Corporation, & Asian Development Bank (ADB). NGO- Peoples Science Forum (PSF)

SENCLE model with socio-economical and cultural aspects evolved. Desilting, recreation, drain clearance to prevent flooding, de-weeding, & sewage treatment. Zoning of land uses, fencing, bird aviary, etc.

13. Nangal Lake and Hussainiwala lakes, Punjab – 1088 ha

Multipurpose use & Biodiversity

Siltation. Pollution from industrial effluents

Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB), Irrigation Department, & Punjab Pollution Control Board

Proposed for listing under NLCP for funding to plan restoration works.

14. Rabindra Sarovar (lake) or Dhakuria Lake, West Bengal - 31 ha

Tile lung of south Kolkata. Recreation & Organized public open space

Encroachment pressure on the facilities, pollution

Kolkata Municipal Development Authority (KMDA), MO&EF - NLCP

Conservation Plan being evolved. NGOs both for and against eviction of encroachers seeking court intervention. Sanitary facilities for encroachers.

15.Sastamkotta Lake , Kerala -373 ha

Spring-fed, drinking water, 27 freshwater fish and prawns. Larva "cavaborus" eliminates bacteria contributes to purity of lake. Pilgrim centre.

Large part reclaimed for agriculture. Pollution due to agricultural wastes and domestic sewage

Forest Department, Municipal Authorities, MO & EF, Ramsar site. Indo-Norwegian consortium

Action plan for conservation initiated. Checking soil erosion. Providing toilet facilities around periphery of the lake

16. Sukhna lake, Chandigarh UT -188 ha

Water supply, recreation, tourism, water sports and rare birds preserve. Migratory birds- Siberian duck, Storks & Cranes.

Erosion of catchment and heavy siltation. Hyacinth

Irrigation Department, Central Soil Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, MO&EF (NLCP)

Watershed management measures of soil conservation and catchment area treatment, dredging and desilting. 'Sukhomajari' project - a successful watershed management project in lake catchment. Pissiculture.

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Lake, location, area

Benefits Nature of problems

Associated Institutions

Restoration actions

17. Udaipur city's five Lakes - Fatehsagar (400Ha), Rangsagar, Pichola, Swaroopsagar and Dudh Talai (1480 ha), Rajasthan

Water supply, recreation, & tourism. Inter-linked system - overflow from one lake to the other. Fisheries.

Encroachment- peripheral areas. Defecation in lake periphery. Eutrophication due to sewage. Catchment deforestation & siltation. Water hyacinth. Water shortage in lakes.

12 organizations including Municipal Council of Udaipur. Jheel Vikas Samiti (JVS) - autonomous govt. body set up as per Court directive, Jheel Sanrakshan Samithi (JSS) - NGO, MO&EF - NLCP

Construction activity banned in peripheral land of lakes. Sewage treatment system. Action Plan by JVS with participation of petitioners of PIL. Court intervention effective. Lake Authority to be set up. Project to augment supplies to lakes.

18. Wular Lake, Jammu and Kashmir, 17,300 ha Called flood-lung of the Jhelum River

Drinking water, irrigation, fisheries, navigation among important towns of North Kashmir, willow plantation & extraction of Singhara (Trapa natans) and Nadroo (Nelumbo), absorption basin for floodwater, & important waterfowl habitat (dabbling and diving ducks), & endangered species of flora and fauna.

Siltation, vast encroachment into agricultural land –shrinkage in lake area, hunting pressure on water fowl, pollution from untreated sewage and human waste, effluent from large number of Army camps, & weed infestation

J&K Lakes and Waterways Development Authority, MO&EF, Ramsar site, & University of Kashmir.

Comprehensive management plan, coordinated approach involving the satellite water bodies of Hygam, Hokera, Manasbal, Dal Lake and Anchar, which drain into Wular,.afforestation of Erin Watersheds for silt control, & Engineering measures for navigation. Plans not effective due to political problems and non-settlement of dispute on building of regulating barrage with Pakistan under Indus Treaty.

B. Non-Urban Lakes - a) Inland Fresh Water

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1. Harike Lake, Punjab - 2850 ha

Maintains hydrological balance in the catchment between Sutlej and Beas rivers, drinking water, and irrigation, home to endangered and vulnerable faunal species. Vital source of water and fish to people.

Agricultural runoff, untreated waste & sewage from catchment towns into the rivers and lake. Deforestation of lower Shivaliks catchment of lake causing soil erosion and siltation. Hyacinth and wetland encroachment for agriculture.

Irrigation Dept. Irrigation Power Research Institute, Punjab State Council for Science and Technology. Forest and Wild Life Department, Soil Conservation Department, Punjab Pollution Control Board, Indian Army (Vajra Corps), MO&EF & Ramsar site.

Comprehensive management action plan for conservation. Afforestation of catchment & biological control using weevils. Operation 'Sahyog' of Indian Army cleansed hyacinth & restored the lake - a possible alternative approach. Ecological task force for long-term management. Promotion of eco-tourism

2. Kanjli Lake, Punjab, -490 ha. 'Religious significance- Associated with the First Guru of Sikhs.'

Water supply, irrigation, bio-diversity, resident and migratory birds, 17 species of fishes, & religious centre.

Water hyacinth, pollution, eutrophication, deforestation, conversion of catchment for agriculture, grazing and soil erosion.

Department of Town & Country Planning, Forest Department, MO&EF, & Ramsar site.

Conservation and management measures. Manual and biological methods of removal of water hyacinth, tree plantation, catchment treatment, fencing around the lake to prevent encroachment and cattle grazing. Centre for environmental education

Lake, location, area

Benefits Nature of problems

Associated Institutions

Restoration actions

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3.Keoladeo National Park or Bharatpur lake, Rajasthan -2873 ha. Also called 'Ghana National park' Most famous waterfowl reserve on the globe

Wintering ground for highly endangered birds-366 avian species. Invasive growth of the grass Paspalum distichum reducing suitability for certain water birds -Siberian crane and water fowls, recreation and tourism. A lush green oasis in a parched brown environment

Shortage of water, extensive water hyacinth, and agricultural run off. Still in the 'Montreux' Record due to "water shortage and an unbalanced grazing regime. Tension between Park officials and the village people surrounding the park to balance the competing environmental, recreational and economic pressures.

Rajasthan Forest (Wild life) Department, MO&EF, Ramsar site, & International Crane Foundation. Keoladeo National Park Development Society

Water management to supplement water needs from the Chambal river, control of water hyacinth, re-establishment of Siberian Cranes, management of aquatic vegetation, eco-tourism and eco-development. Sequence of flooding in the park area followed to ensure water level for different species of waterfowl. Participation of local communities in management. Biomass economic use. Specific resource material developed to highlight importance of maintaining hydrological regimes and their relationship with biodiversity. Wetland centres established to generate awareness on the values and functions of the wetlands and the need for the conservation management.

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4 Loktak Lake, Manipur - 31,200 ha, 'World’s only floating National Park'

Hydropower, irrigation, drinking water, rich bio-diversity, fisheries, flood control, floating wild life preserve, & livelihood to people in and around the lake.

Degradation of catchment, siltation, pollution, changes in hydrological regime due to construction of Itthai barrage affecting ecological processes, floating 'phumdis', flooding of agricultural lands, & loss of fish. Still in the 'Montreux' record

Loktak Development Authority, MO&EF, Ramsar site, India-Canada Environment Facility, Wetlands International - South Asia, NGOs. National HydroElectric Project Corporation (NHPC). Horticulture Institute, Bangalore

Integrating social and ecological dimensions. Afforestation, control of silt by engineering measures, & catchment area treatment. During monsoon to push phumdis out of the lake into Manipur river through community efforts effective. Introducing weevils for biological control of water hyacinth, sustainable fisheries development and generating awareness about the values and functions of the lake. Bio-mass conversion to economic use

5. Mirik Lake or 'Sumendu Lake' West Bengal – 47 ha

Recreation & tourism. Angling, aquarium

Generally acidic, pollution, concentration of nutrients, & siltation

Govt of West Bengal. MO&EF -NLCP

Action plan initiated for catchment treatment, pollution abatement, angling platforms, & tourist infrastructure.

6. Nalsarovar Lake, Guajarat - 12, 000 ha

Lake attracts 120-150 species of migratory water birds, recreation, and tourism

Water shortage, quality of water in and draining to the lake.

Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam Limited, Forest Department, MO&EF, & Narmada Control Authority

Lake water supplementation from Narmada canal system, monitored intensely and effectively for bio-diversity & water quality preservation. 100 ha exclusive protected area.

Lake, location, area

Benefits Nature of problems

Associated Institutions

Restoration actions

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7. Pong Dam lake, Himachal Pradesh - 15,662 ha

Bird diversity - annual migratory waterfowl, 220 bird species identified. Fishing -27 fish species (mahaseer angling), irrigation and drinking water, & recreation

Cultivation along the shoreline. Agriculture and forestry malpractice in the catchment area

Irrigation Dept. Himachal Pradesh Govt., Forest Department, MO&EF, Ramsar site

Reservoir - Wildlife Sanctuary. Management plans for protection, habitat improvement, tourism and regulation, roads, etc. Plantation in peripheral area of lake to check silting and provide nesting and roosting places for birds. Nature conservation education centre.

8. Ropar lake, Punjab, -1365 ha

Drinking water and irrigation, habitat for some threatened species of reptiles, staging ground for migratory waterfowl, recharging aquifers, providing flood protection and strengthens water quality

Siltation, water quality degradation due to effluent from fertilizer plants, agricultural run off, industrial effluents and sewage from towns in upper reaches. Growth of weeds. Illegal fishing and poaching of wild life.

Irrigation Dept., Punjab State Council for Science & Technology, MO&EF, Ramsar site.

Efforts to take up conservation programmes involving various State Departments initiated; action plan prepared for financial assistance of MO&EF. Established Information Centre - cum - watchtower for Mass awareness and promoting public participation in lake conservation.

9.Renuka lake, Himachal Pradesh - 75 ha. Shape of Lady - Embodiment of goddess Renuka.

Wild Life Sanctuary tourist attraction and religious pilgrimage. Very rich in Biodiversity.

Siltation - one fourth of lake silted up. Weeds

Forest Department Govt of Himachal Pradesh. Department of Science and Technology, MO&EF

Catchment area treatment, dredging and desilting, de-weeding, & eco-preservation. Built 2,750-m-toe-wall around the lake to halt the movement of silt into the lake. Nature conservation education centre.

B. Non-Urban Lakes – b) Inland Brackish/salt water

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1. LunarLake, Maharashtra - 1.8 km in diameter, largest and oldest meteoric crater in the world. Crater lake ecosystem - a natural and cultural heritage of extraordinary significance

Bowl-shaped depression due to meteoritic impact in basaltic rock, in land lake seasonal drainage mainly confined to its periphery and also by number of fresh water springs, highly alkaline, many sub-ecosystems floral and faunal species - resident and migratory birds. Tourism

Leasing use of the lake's peripheral lands for agriculture and consequent runoff from the fields laden with chemicals and fertilizers entering into the lake causing pollution. Flora and fauna of the ecosystem affected. Unplanned development

Maharashtra Govt. Forest Department, Agriculture Dept. Tourist Dept.

Integrated conservation and management plan essential. Plea made to list under the National Conservation Plan and also as a Ramsarr site. Attention to be Focused on sustainable eco-tourism.

Lake, location, area

Benefits Nature of problems

Associated Institutions

Restoration actions

2. Pangong Tso lake - Leh, J & K – 4,200 ha (approx) Greatest lake in the Himalayas- Bi-nation lake (India & China)

Lake shared by India and China. Open to tourism under army surveillance. Herds of Pashmina sheep and long tailed yaks. Only breeding ground - black necked Siberian crane.

Fragile eco system. Growing impact of tourism on pressure on grass lands, leads to pollution, wild life disturbance & change in local life styles

MO&EF, WWF & Local Community

Conservation action initiated with WWF and Local community support. Initiated creation of High Altitude Wetlands Conservation Management Authority to plan and implement developments in an eco-compatible manner.

3.Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan India's largest salt lake - 24,300 ha Ornithologists’ delight

Delicious spirulina algae attracts flamingos in thousands. Concourse of other rear birds. Salt extraction.

Shortage of water and desertification, illegal hunting, and grazing pressure around the lake. Low potassium concentration.

Rajasthan Govt., MO&EF, Ramsar site. Sambhar Salts Ltd.

Hunting banned in the area. Comprehensive ecosystem study urgently required for evolving management action plan for conservation of lake.

4.Tsokar lake at 4,485 m - Leh, J&K 'Lake of salt'

Tourism, breeding ground - black-necked Siberian crane. Home to many interesting families of marmots

Fragile eco system. Impact of tourism - pressure on grass lands, pollution, wild life disturbance & change in local life styles.

MO&EF, WWF & Local Community

Conservation action initiated with WWF and Local community support.

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5.Tsomoriri lake or "Mountain Lake" at 4,595m , J & K - 12,000 ha Highest cultivated land in the world.

Rich wildlife including the "Kyang" (wild ass), red fox and the rare, highly endangered, snow leopard, and most endangered species-the black-necked crane. Barley fields. Tourism.

Tourism, buildings on bank of lake, garbage not cleared since few decades, agriculture runoff into lake, over-grazing (restricts the herbivore birds like Bar-headed geese, etc) and menace of predators'

MOE&F, WWF, Ramsar site & Local Community.

Designated as a wetland reserve. Shooting wildlife strictly prohibited. Local community of Korzok village has established a conservation trust with help from WWF-India to undertake conservatism measures of the lake. Pledged as a 'Sacred Gift for a Living Planet'

B. Non-Urban Lakes – c) Sacred lakes & Tanks 1.Pushkar lake, Rajasthan -

Sanctity and holy water famous religious place. Pilgrims visit to wash off their sins and/or immerse the ashes of their dead. Holy dip taken in lake on Full moon in the months of Oct-Nov to bestow salvation

Degradation due to wind-blown sands & loss of agricultural lands. Sedimentation. Problem compounded by visitors feeding puffed rise to the dying fish and dumping plastic bags into lake, violating a ban.

Govt. of Rajasthan, India Canada Environment Facility. Local community capacity support

Natural Resource Management -Local community capacity -"User's committee". Catchment area treatment to prevent soil erosion by wind and to restore agricultural lands. Groundwater recharge and de-siltation of the lake. Area under cultivation and vegetative cover increased, wind erosion abated, sand dunes stabilized. Drainage lines treated. Development of orchards.

Lake, location, area

Benefits Nature of problems

Associated Institutions

Restoration actions

2. Shambhu Lake, Maharashtra – 16 ha

Sanctity and holy water famous religious place. "Shambhu Mahadeo".

Degradation due domestic sewage infested by many macrophytes

Temple authorities

Restoration and conservation measures yet to be evolved.

AS

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3 Sacred Tanks (Lakes), South India - Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala Pondicherry, and Tamil Nadu states. Also called 'Ponds', always dug below the ground level. "A temple and a tank co-exist."

Tanks as ancient as the Indus civilization. In Southern peninsular of India building of tanks was basic survival need. Successful efforts in local and community management. Different types: percolation ponds, natural lakes, artificial reservoirs and temple tanks. Drinking water, washing one's hands and feet before going into the temple and, sometimes, for irrigating temple lands

Anthropogenic pressure, few temple tanks and rural tanks have survived, but urban tanks extensively polluted or taken over for urban use. Most tanks totally dry (even during rainy season), as waterways that feed tanks not maintained, area around tank in unhygienic condition - pollution without realizing sanctity. Tank encroached for building activity, desiltation not taken up for want of funds, and water rarely replenished.

Temple trusts, Local Village/Town Community, NGOs, State Govts.

Management of sacred tanks in particular, in the temple premises, should involve periodical pumping of water and refilling with fresh surface water, removal of silt and wastes from the tank-bed, and prevention of misuse of tank waters by the local population. To be done by the Temple Management Committee and by Tank Communities in each village who should form a "Tank Users Association",

C. Coastal Estuarine Lakes of brackish water (Salt and Fresh Water Mix) 1. Ashtamudi Lake, Kerala - 61400 ha

Fishing, inland navigation, coconut retting, fishing & harbor. Endangered plants, mangrove species, 97 species of fishes, & waterfowl (20000)

Reclamation, Pollution from oil spills, industrial effluents from paper mills, aluminum industries, & untreated sewage from Kollam city. Coconut husk retting

Irrigation Dept., MO&EF, Ramsar site, IWAI, Cochin University of Science and Technology. & Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (CWRDM)

Management Plan evolved. Mechanical de-fibering process needs to be popularized for retting. Catchment area treatment. Bio-diversity to be preserved

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2. Chilika Lake, Orissa - 1,16,500 ha Largest brackish water lagoon in Asia. Hot spot of biodiversity

Fisheries, largest concentration of migratory waterfowl- wintering ground of migratory species of Arctic and Central Asian Water Fowl. Assemblage of marine, brackish water and fresh water biota.

Siltation, shrinkage of area, choking of inlet and outlet channel connecting the lake, decrease in salinity, weed infestation, decrease in fish production, increase in aquaculture, & Socio-economic problem. Overall loss of bio-diversity & extensive poaching of birds and fish farming

Chilika Development Authority (CDA). Forest Department (Wildlife Division), Zoological Survey of India, & State Soil Conservation Department. Central Water and Power Research Station (CWPRS). MO&EF, & Ramasr site

Eco restoration measures. Opening of lake's outer channel into the sea ensured better exchange of salinity level. De-weeding the lake and better management practices. Habitat improvement of Nalabana Bird Sanctuary. Regulation of fishing & prevention of encroachments. Significant improvement resulted in removal of the lake from Montrex Record. Ramsar Award for 2002.

Lake, location, area

Benefits Nature of problems

Associated Institutions

Restoration actions

3.Kuttanad lagoon, Kerala, Five major rivers drain. Most area consists of freshwater. ' 'kayal' or backwaters 'One of the few places below sea level with farming' "Rice bowl of Kerala"

Ecological buffer zone between river system and sea. Agriculture, clever system of dykes and bunds for cultivation of paddy, coir production - coconut retting. Aquaculture. Two crop pattern with Thaneermukhom saline barrier to prevent intrusion of salinity into Kuttanad during the post-monsoon period

Land reclamation for agriculture & urbanization. Salinity barrier at Thaneermukhom lead to ecological problem, effluents from extensive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides- periodic outbreak of epidemics. Industries and urban centres. Destruction of the mangroves.

Irrigation Dept. Govt. of Kerala, Fisheries Department, Kerala Electricity Board, Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (CWRDM), IWAI, Cochin University of Science and Technology. People’s Campaign for Planning-NGO

Appropriate conservation and management plans. Effluent control by treatment and diversion. Suitable operation schedule for saline barrier (particularly re-opening and closure period every year) to improve fish landings. Dredging. Mechanical de-fibering process to be popularized for retting. Catchment areas treatment to reduce silt inflow into the lakes. Carrying capacity to be considered.

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4. Pulicat Lake, Andhra Pradesh & Tamil Nadu, - 77,000ha Second largest brackish water lagoon in India. Unique for its multi-ecosystem

Brackish water makes the lake a good nursery ground for planktons, fish and prawns. Positive estuary. Aquatic and terrestrial fauna and flora Bio-diversity - 30 varieties of terrestrial and aquatic birds, 65 species of fish, nature lovers and bird watchers haunt. Breeding ground for sea turtles. Tourism

Fresh water shortage due to upstream reservoirs. Hyacinth, coastal erosion and accretion -sand bars at mouth of Lake & siltation. Fishing choked- verge of an ecological disaster due to chemical industries, thermal station & Ennore Satellite Port

Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (TNPCB), MO&EF, NLCP, Environmental Education Centre. NGO- Coastal Action Network. Solid Waste Management Authority.

Lagoon protected as a wild life sanctuary. Dredging work at the lake's mouth. Water and soil conservation programmes in its catchment area. Strong NGOs movement to stop industrial pollution. Entire Pulicat water system, including the lagoon, the Ennore Creek and the Buckingham Canal designated CRZ I. Environmental Education Centre in the sanctuary.

5. Vembanad-Kol Lake system, Kerala - 151,250 ha. Fed by 10 rivers. Two distinct segments of fresh water & salt water.

Absorbs floodwaters, saves 3500 sq km of 3 coastal districts, rice bowl, coconut retting, aquaculture-shrimp, prawn, finfish, etc. Clam and fossil deposits. 50 species of migratory birds. Water sports. Tourism.

Huge Land reclamation for agriculture & urbanization. Pollution from industrial, agriculture and sewage effluents. Bunding at river mouth arresting salinity causing damage to rice cultivation and fisheries. Industrial dredging of the sub-fossil lime shell.

Irrigation Dept. Govt. of Kerala, Fisheries Department, Kerala Electricity Board, CWRDM, IWAI, Irrigation Dept., MO&EF, Ramsar site. Cochin University of Science and Technology. People’s Campaign for Planning- NGO

Water development projects for low flow augmentation for irrigation and flood control. Catchment treatment. Effluent treatment measures. Operation schedule of Thaneermukhom saline barrier to be scientifically done. Dredging & Develop inland navigation and tourism. Popularized Mechanical de-fibering for retting. Catchment area treatment.

Lake, location, area

Benefits Nature of problems

Associated Institutions

Restoration actions

D. Ephemeral Lakes (Beels, Jheels & Tals) of the Ganga - Brahmaputra Basins

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1. Chaurs, beels, Tals (Lakes) - 80,000-100,000 ha Ganga - Brahmaputra Basins states

Act as sponges -Nature's own initiative at flood control. Irrigation and water supply. Biodiversity- Plants and Fisheries

Reclamation of depressions & human intervention. Water logging due to Construction of embankments, roads and railways - Inaccessibility to law-enforcing agencies

Govts of the States of Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, Ministry of Water Resources, GOI, & MO&EF,

To evolve Action plans to facilitate strategies for future management and sustainable uses. Retain economic benefits with due regard to biodiversity preservation

2. Deepor beel or lake, Guwahati city, Assam -4,000 ha

Water supply, fisheries, absorbs storm water from city and adjoining hills, staging site on migratory flyways, largest concentration of aquatic birds, fodder for domestic cattle and natural food such as vegetables, flowers, aquatic seeds, and also as water transport. Host’s ornamental fish, medicinal plants, and orchids of commercial value.

Encroachment and siltation. Illegal soil cutting within the beel for bricks. Poaching of wild birds and animals. Unregulated fishing practices. Industrial development around the periphery of the beel. Proposed Railway line & Highways

Forest Department, Govt of Assam, MO&EF, & Ramsar site

414 ha of beel area declared as a sanctuary. Shooting and bird trapping prohibited by law. Fisheries department patrols the beel. Entire beel to be declared as a protected area. Comprehensive management action plan for the protection and restoration being evolved. De-notification of this protected area presently stalled due to participation and involvement of the people. To be developed as a biosphere reserve.

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3. Kawar (Kabar) Lake, Bihar- 6737 ha

Fresh water oxbow lake. Aquatic biological diversity - main fishing support system of the "Sahany Community". Bird Sanctuary & fresh water aquatic plant diversity. Exposed mudflats, after floods recede, converted into rice (paddy) fields. Recharges ground aquifer in entire area.

Inflow of silt -decreasing the depth of lake & Eutrophication. Water management Measures of connecting all small lakes to Kawar and drainage channel into river silted up affecting fishers and leading to disputes over ownership.

Ministry of Water Resources- Bihar & GOI, Forest Department, WWF & MO&EF.

Action plan to facilitate strategies for future management and sustainable uses of the lake. Flood absorption. Studies on total assessment of fresh water aquatic plant diversity, seasonal variation of plant diversity in comparison with major ecological characteristics, and various uses and utilization of the freshwater wetland resources.

Lake, location, area

Benefits Nature of problems

Associated Institutions

Restoration actions

4. Kolleru Lake, Andhra Pradesh - 90,100 ha. Hemmed between Godavari and the Krishna river basins

Natural flood balancing, fishery, agriculture, coastal fresh water lagoons to seasonal freshwater ponds, & habitat for a number of resident and migratory birds including the vulnerable gray pelican. Culture and capture fisheries & agriculture.

Reclamation and embankments- Lake becoming landmass due to agricultural activity. Culture fishing & lack of regulation of seaward flow of lake waters increasing flood submergence. Siltation. Human interference - hunting & vehicular traffic.

Govt of Andhra Pradesh, Irrigation Department, & MO&EF. Ramsar site

Part of lake declared wild life sanctuary to protect flora and fauna, need to introduce management systems to conserve ecosystem and sustain biodiversity. Outlet channel into sea needs improvement. Technical and institutional measures planned to make the lake a perennial source of fish culture and limnological asset.

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5. Mokama Tal (Lake), Bihar - 106,2 00 ha

Flood absorption, irrigation, fisheries & Bio diversity.

Continued submergence during monsoon season - loss of khariff crop. Water to be drained out by 15th October. Water from the south side to be prevented from entering the Tal for Rabi crop. Inadequate drainage outlets. Inaccessibility to law-enforcing agencies.

Ministry of Water Resources - GOI & Bihar, MO&EF

Engineering measures- additional outlets to Ganga, parallel drain in upper reaches & anti flood sluice not fully successful. Alternative approach - use very low area for ponding and fishing, shallow area for agricultural purpose using compatible cropping pattern & high-level areas for infrastructure activities. Other measures - new crop production technology, high yielding variety of seeds, plant protection, irrigation during dry season privately or through govt. or both, & deliberate flooding with prior warning system to moderate the peak flood of the Ganga.

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Annex 4 Lists of Lakes Identified under International Conventions & National Laws on Environment A. Ramsar sites of Wetland and Lakes in India [Site Name, (date of declaration), State, Area]

1. Ashtamudi Wetland, (19/08/02), Kerala, 61,400 ha 2. Bhitarkanika Mangroves, (19/08/02), Orissa, 65,000 ha 3. Bhoj Wetland, (19/08/02), Madhya Pradesh, 3,201 ha 4. Chilika Lake, (01/10/81), Orissa, 116,500 ha 5. Deepor Beel, (19/08/02), Assam, 4,000 ha 6. East Calcutta Wetlands, (19/08/02), West Bengal, 12,500 ha 7. Harike Lake, (23/03/90), Punjab, 2850 ha 8. Kanjli, (22/01/02), Punjab, 490 ha 9. Keoladeo National Park, (01/10/81), Rajasthan, 2,873 ha 10. Kolleru Lake, (19/08/02), Andhra Pradesh, 90,100 ha 11. Loktak Lake, (23/03/90), Manipur, 31,200 ha 12. Point Calimere Wildlife & Bird Sanctuary, (19/08/02) Tamil Nadu, 38,500 ha 13. Pong Dam Lake, (19/08/02), Himachal Pradesh, 15,662 ha 14. Ropar, (20/01/02), Punjab, 1,365 ha 15. Sambhar Lake, (23/03/90), Rajasthan 24,300 ha 16. Sasthamkotta Lake, (19/08/02), Kerala 373 ha 17. Tsomoriri, (19/08/02), Jammu & Kashmir,12,000 ha 18. Vembanad-Kol Wetland, (19/08/02), Kerala 151,250 ha 19. Wular Lake, (23/03/90), Jammu & Kashmir, 17,300 ha

B. World Heritage Convention sites of outstanding universal value

1. Kaziranga National Park 2. Manas Wildlife Sancturay 3. Keoladeo National Park 4. Sundarbans National Park 5. Nandadevi National Park

C. Indian Environmental Legislations related to Lakes & Reservoirs In India, Central and State Governments (with due note of an increasing body of judicial decision’s affecting industrial activities that generate pollution) have enacted laws. More than 200 statutes have a bearing on environmental matters. However, the major legal provisions, which have bearing on lakes and environment, are.

1. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, as amended up to 1988 2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) (Procedure for Transaction of Business) Rules, 1975 3. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977, as amended by Amendment Act,

1991 4. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules, 1978 5. The Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 6. Constitution of Appellate Authorities 7. Environmental laboratories and Analysts 8. Officers Authorized for taking Cognizance of Offences 9. Authorized Officers/Agencies to enter the Premises for Inspection 10. Officers/Agencies Authorized to take Samples 11. Emission Standards of Pollutants from various Industries 12. Guidelines for Location of Industries, Mining Operations etc. for various Areas 13. Environmental Impact Assessment of Development Projects 14. The National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995 15. The National Environmental Appellate Authority Act, 1997 16. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, amended in 1983, 1986 & 1991.

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17. National Forest Policy, 1988 18. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, amended in 1988. 19. Forest (Conservation) Rules, 1981 20. The Indian Fisheries Act – 1857 21. The Eco Sensitive Zone - Pachmarhi, Notification, 1998 22. Territorial Water, Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone and other Marine Zones Act –1976 23. Maritime Zone Act, 1974 24. Maritime Zone of India (regulation and Fishing by foreign vessels) Act -1980 25. Coastal Regulation Zone - Notifications –1991 26. Merchant Shipping Act, 1954 27. National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development -1992 28. Municipal Solid Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000 29. New Bio-diversity Bill - 2000 30. The Prevention and Control of Pollution (Uniform Consent Procedure) Rules, 1999 (Draft) 31. Amending EIA Notification of 27th January 1994 - Draft Notification 32. Protect & improve the environment in the Himalayas, October 2000 - Draft Notification 33. Protect & improve the environment in the Himalayas (Assam and Himachal Pradesh), November 2000

- Draft Notification.

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Box 1 WATER RESOURCES COMMISSION

Planning Guidelines to RBOs Technical Exam of RBO prepared Management Plans Multidisciplinary Functions: Economy/Finance Agriculture Irrigation Industry Municipal Power Watershed Management Environment (Lakes are an important element) Social Science

Annex 5 Interactive Governance System

An indicative structure for the IRBMP could comprise the Water Resources Department governed by the Water Resources Council, supported by River Basin organization and Water Resources Commission. A further elaboration of these proposals is briefly given below. Water Resources Department The Department shall be responsible for the administrative back up including budgetary management, setting up RBOs, Human Resources Management, etc. Figure 3 presents the proposed overall mechanism and interacting ro1es of the various organs in a generic form. Water Resources Council This shall be the highest policy making body with the Chief Minister as Chairperson, Ministers and Secretaries of all water-related Ministries as Members and secretary, Department of Water Resources as Member - Secretary. Members shall also be co-opted from civil society, academia and NGOs in the water sector (Figure 4). The council shall,

• Be responsible for the State Water Resources Development and Management policy, and its implementation.

• Approve the IRBMPs prepared by RBOs in the first instance after they are cleared by the Commission before forwarding them to the line departments of various water-use sectors.

• Intervene if corrective actions are required during the implementation of the basin management plans by any water-use sector. RBOs assist the council in this regard.

It is relevant to mention here that the above proposals are in consonance with a Court decision, which suggests similar governance action to solve the problems of lakes. In passing judgment on a group of Public Interest Litigation demanding revival of Lakes in Ahmedabad city, the Gujarat High Court requires "the State Government to constitute Water Resources Council headed by the Chief Minister "to oversee the programme for protection, preservation and improvement of water bodies." The State Government is also ordered to constitute a Water Resource Committee headed by the Chief Secretary to monitor the implementation of the Programme in a time bound manner. River Basin Organizations (RBOs) River Basin Organisation (RBO) is the first and most important step towards sustainable lake management. The functions and responsibilities of RBOs have been widely discussed. They have only to be expanded to include preparation of management plans for lakes as part of IRBMP. In brief, RBOs assess the resources, estimate the needs based on projections and prepare a basin water and land management plan matching the needs with the resource to achieve sustainable benefits without compromising on the environmental status. RBOs are not executing agencies. But they monitor the actual management of resources and report to the appropriate authority for corrective interventions, if necessary. Figure 4 is indicative of the functions of RBOs. Water Resources Commission An inter-disciplinary organization, the Commission shall provide technical backup to the RBOs. The Commission (see Box 1) shall be responsible to prepare uniform guidelines for river basin management plans for use by all RBOs in a state. The Commission shall also scrutinize the plans for their consistency with the guidelines and policies of the Government and place them before the Water Resources Council. Figure 3 demonstrates the inter-disciplinary character of the Commission.

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