managing elephant depredation in agricultural and forestry
TRANSCRIPT
A WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER
Managing Elephant Depredation in Agricultural and Forestry Projects
John Seidensticker
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A WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER
Managing Elephant Depredaitaon in Agricultural and Forestry Projects
John Seidensticker
The World Bank Washington DC USA
Copyright 1984 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 USA
First printing February 1984 All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America
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John Seidensticker is a wildlife ecologist for the National Zoological Park
of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington DC and a consultant to the World Bank
The cover illustration shows that elephant herds are usually composed of
related females and their calves Bulls join these herds temporarily when a
cow is in estrus In African elephants (bottom) both sexes have tusks Only
male Asian elephants (top) have tusks and in some populations almost all
males are tuskless Grass is an important food for both species Drawing by Judy Gradwohl
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Seidensticker John Managing elephant depredation in agricultural and
forestry projects
(A World Bank technical paper ISSN 0253-7494)
Bibliography p 1 Elephants 2 Wildlife management 3 Wildlife
depredation I Title II Series
QL737P98S45 1984 63997961 83-23596
ISBN 0-8213-0297-3
ABSTRACT
Agricultural and forestry projects established in traditional
habitats of African and Asian elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas
maximus respectively) obligate elephants living there to modify their
movements and behavior Damage resulting in major financial losses has
occurred when elephants live in or enter and feed in project areas In
this paper procedures sensitive to elephants conservation status
(Asians are endangered Africans are threatened) are described to plan
for and manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas these
procedures are to be used in conjunction with overall project design
and operttions
A pre-project design assessment conducted with local wildlife
authorities can predict the response of elephants to a proposed project
and provide the basis for building measures into the project to avoid
major conflicts Final project design should include features that
prevent elephants from entering production areas and ensure local
elephant access to critical resources or provide these through habitat
enrichment Emphasis in the project design should be placed on passive
elephant-management features These-can include minor modification in
infastructure to either facilitate or block elephant movements and
the creation of buffer zones to effectively separate production areas
and forest refuges Careful scheduling of project activities ia
required to ensure that groups of elephants are not isolated or pocketed
in production areas Such elephants can be very dangerous and destructive
A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base Technical and financial assistance measures
which may be required by local wildlife management authorities are outlined
ABSTRAIT
Les projets agricoles et f~restiers entrepris dans des r6gions qui
constituent lhabitat naturel des 616phants dAfrique et dAsie (Loxodonta
africana et Elephas maximus) obligent ces animaux A modifier leurs d~pla-
Ii arrive que des 6l6phants vivant dans cements et leurs comportements
des zones de projet y p6n~trant ou sy nourrissant causent des digAts
Ce document d6crit desqui entrainent dimportantes pertes financi~res
procedures tenant compte de la situation des 6lphants (ceux dAsie sont
en danger et ceux dAfrique menac6s) et visant A mettre en oeuvre une
politique concrite A l6gard des 6liphants qui vivent dans des zones de
projet ou A proximiti Ces procedures doivent 6tre appliquies en harmonie
avec la conception du projet et son ex6cution
Une itude pr6alable effectuge en collaboration avec les autoritis
locales responsables de la faune sauvage peut prfvoir la riaction des
et assortir celui-ci de mesures suscepshy6lphants A un projet envisag6
Sous sa forme finale le projettibles diviter des problimes majeurs
itre conqu de telle faqon que les 616phants ne puissent pas p6n6shy
devrait
trer dans les zones productives quils aient accs A des ressources
Au vitales pour eux ou quon les leur assura en am6liorant
leur habitat
stade de la conception du projet il conviendrait de mettre laccent sur
des masures passives de gestion des 6l6phants consistant par example A
modifier 16g~rement linfrastructure ou bien A facillter ou empampcher leurs
d6placements et A crier des zones-tampons destin6es A bien s6parer lea
A
zones productives des refuges forestiers I1 importe de programmer soishy
gneusement les activitis dun projet pour faire en sorte que des groupes
d61iphants ne se trouvent pas isol6s ou bloqu~s dans des zones producshy
tives car dans ce cas ils peuvent devenir tr~s dangereux et causer des
d6g~ts consid6rables
Pour r~ussir un programme de gestion des troupeaux d6lphants doit
sappuyer sur des structures institutionnelles solides Les diff6rentes
formes dassistance technique et financi~re dont peuvent avoir besoin les
autorit~s locales responsables de la faune sauvage sont indiqu6es dans ce
document
EXTRACTO
Los proyectos agricolas y de silvicultura emplazados en los habitat tradishy
cionales de los elefantes africanos y asiAticos (Loxodonta africana y Elephas
maximus respectivamente) obligan a estos animales a modificar sus desplazamienshy
tos y comportamiento Los estragos causados cuando los elefantes habitan en
zonas de proyectos o las invaden para alimentarse redundan en fuertes p~rdidas
financieras En el presente estudio se describen procedimientos para prever y
controlar el comportamiento de los elefantes tanto en las zonas de los proyecshy
tos como en las adyacentes que tienen en cuenta los fines de protecci6n de la
especie (lot elefantes asiAticos esthn amenazados de extinci6n y los africanos
en peligro de llegar a estarlo) Estos procedimientos deben seguirse en al
disefto general y en las operaciones de los proyectos
p
Una evaluaci6n previa del disefto del proyecto realizada con la colaborashy
ci6n de las autoridades locales responsables de la fauna silvestre permite proshy
nosticar el comportamiento de los elefantes en relaci6n con un proyecto proshy
puesto y proporciona la base para incorporar a fste medidas que eviten conflicshy
tos graves El diseno definitivo del proyecto deberA incluir instalaciones pars
impedir la entrada de los elefantes a las Zonas de producci6n y al mismo
tiempo asegurarles acceso a los recursos necesarios para su supervivencia o
proporcionhrselos mediante un mejoramiento del habitat En el disefto del proshy
yecto se deberg hacer hincapi6 en la inclusi6n de medidas pasivas para el conshy
trol de los elefantes 6stas pueden ser modificaciones de menor importancia en
la infraestructura pars facilitar o bien entorpecer el trnsito de los elefanshy
tea y la creaci6n de zonas que separen eficazmente las Areas de producci6n de
las que constituyen refugios forestales Es preciso programar cuidadosamente
las actividades de los proyectos para asegurarse de que no queden grupos de eleshy
fantes aislados o arrinconados en las zonas de producci6n En esas condicioshy
nes los elefantes pueden ser muy peligrosos y destructores
Un buen programa de control y protecci6n de los elefantes exige Ina s6lida
base de apoyo institucional local En el documento tambi6n se esbozan las medishy
das de asistencia t~cnica y financiera que podrian necesitar las autoridades
locales a cargo de la fauna silvestre
N
PREFACE
This technical paper is based on a seminar presentad at the World
Bank on January 24 1983 which was jointly sponsored by the Agriculture
Department and the Projects Policy Department Office of Environmental Affairs
The Seminar was an outgrowth of awareness of elephant depredatioD in
the Jahore Land Settlement Project in Malaysia Upon recognizing this as an
issue demanding attention the Agriculture Department requested the Office of
Environmental Affairs to furnish information regarding similar problems created
by elephants in other Bank agriculture projects This request resulted in a
selected list of 13 Bank projects where elephants were a major consideration
The author Dr John Seidensticker Wildlife Ecologist National Zoological
Park Smithsonian Institution based this paper on his experiences with
elephants and wildlife management in Sri Lanka Indonesia Nepal and -
Bangladesh
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper draws heavily upon the extensive research and writing
of Dr John Eisenberg Ordway Professor of Ecosystem Conservation
University of Florida Drs R Goodland R Rudran S Lumpkin AJT
Johnsingh JC Daniel J McNeely and Ms J Tralka have helped in
crystalizing ideas and procedures presented here The World Bank and the
National Zoological Park Smithsonian Institution supported the preparation
of this report
COhnENTS
ABSTRACT
PREFACE
10 INTRODUCTION 1
11 About Elephants 22
20 PROJECT DESIGN 9
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management 12 22 Elephants in Project Design 14
30 PROJECT IMPLEIENTATION 22
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants 22 32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities 23
SUMMARY 24
ANNEX Bank-Assisted P-lects with Elephant Implications 27
REFERENCES o 29
TABLES
Table 1 Recent Reports on the Local Distribution of Elephants 11
Table 2 Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Behavior and Ecology oo 13
FIGURES
Figure 1 Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements 8
Figure 2 Water Level Relative to the Floodplain and the 15 Slope of Banks in Reservoirs -
Figure 3 Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management bull 18
I l0 INTRODUCTION
The World Bank and other international development agencies have
invested billions of dollars in hydroelectric agricultural forestry and
other projects in developing countries where excellent elephant habitat
occurs The main World Bank assisted projects are listed in the Annex
Recently there has been increasing concern for the welfare and survival of
the worlds estimated 23000-41000 Asian (Elephas maximus) and 13 million
African elephants (Loxodonta africana) Authorities have designated these
species as endangered and threatened and have listed them in the Red
Data Books of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources and on the United States List of Endangered Species(53)
Continual loss of elephant habitat (eg conversion of forests to
agriculture) is a major conservation problem which is further compounded
by the elephants They enter and eat the rich patches of food which
constitute the plantations of sugar cane rice teak rubber and oil palm
established in their traditional foraging areas usually in disregard of
the best efforts to keep them out This behavior has resulted in millions
of dollars in damage and in project cost overruns thus causing concern to
economists and project designers(451) The losses have to be stopped for
the benefit of elephant conservation for the affected projects as well as
for the investors Management measures implemented hL- to be sensitive to
the elephants status as threatened species
Elephants have been raiding crops for thousands of years but case
studies of such problems are not readily available to the economic planners
or wildlife managers who need them The fficacy of the preventive and
mitigatory measures frequently proposed need review in the light of what
has been learned in the last two decades about the behavioral ecology of
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elephants This paper is a step towards improved planning and management
in order to reconcile development priorities with tke increasingly urgent
need for effective conservation measures
11 About Elephants
The elephant Order Proboscidea has a lung and spectacular
evolutionary history from its beginnings in Africa during the Eocene(14)
The two surviving species of this evolution are placed in different
genera Elephas maximus is usually separated into 3 subspecies E m
maximus of Sri Lanka E M indicus of the Indian Subcontinent and Southshy
east Asia including Borneo and E m sumatranus from Sumatra The bush
elephants of East and South Africa are usually placed in Loxodonta africana
africana and the West African forest elephants in L a cyclotis(1846)
African elephants are slightly larger than Asian elephants Adult
males weigh up to 6000 kg females up to 3200 kg African elephants have a
concave shape to their back large ears relatively smooth skin and a
trunk with 2 fingers at the tip Asian elephants have a distinctive
convex shaped back smaller ears skin that appears wrinkled and a trunk
with one finger There are differences between the two species distinshy
guished by the number of ribs and vertebrae and in the morphology of the
cheek teeth Male and female African elephants have tusks female Asians
and a large percentage of males iti some populations do not have tusks
Lacking tusks both males and females may have an alternate type of modishy
fied incisor or tushes that are barely visible beyond the lip(182746)
From a management perspective an important difference between the
two species is their ability to tolerate the sun and utilize open habishy
tats Heat dissipation is a problem for both species Asian elephants
need access to shade during much of each day(15182733) while African
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elephants are much less restricted except when young with calves This
difference alone suggests that project design features which could
discourage Asian elephants may not succeed with African elephants
Therefore measures taken to manage elephants need to consider species as
well as site characteristics
Elephants are never the numerically dominant ungulate in their
habitat but they are frequently ecological dominants in terms of biomass
and the cycling of plant material The habitats occupied vary but usually
are ecotones between forest and grasslands and areas with moderate tree
cover grading into savanna The sites are always in association with
permanent water which is well dispersed in the vegetational mosaic ASian
elephants do not extend into desertic areas They do occur in dense rain
forest only if there is sufficient interspersion of water and grass
Secondary or disturbed forests contain more suitable food plants In
suitable South Asian habitats crude density of elephants can range from
01 to 1km2(1416) Habitats described as suitable for Asian elephants
also support the densest African elephant populations with the exception
noted that African elephants appear to have a greater tolerance for drier
conditions(7131416)
Asian and African elephant literature contain both useful and
confusing information on elephant husbandry and management(182746)
Resolving elephant-development conflicts requires data from which reliable
predictions can be made about the response of elephants to changes in the
patterns and processes in their habitat brought about by a particular
project This is customarily termed a facultative or behavioral response
to environmentl change as opposed to a numerical response or change in
population numbers
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An important distinction should be made here between crude and
ecological density because density estirates(7151633) are frequently
employed by wildlife managers Crude density estimates take the average
density of a species over the entire sample space Ecological density is
the crude density estimate corrected for habitat differences within a
non-homogenous habitat(16) Through some habitat modifications the
ecological density of elephanLs in a specific area might shift (a
behavioral response) but the overall or crude density of elephants in the
region might not (a numerical response)
The long-term problem of stabilizing elephant numbers in relation
to available resources requires knowledge of the genetic and quantitative
dynamics of populations and of the long-term coactions of these herbivores
with their food plants(282932374349) These issues which have
generated extensive elephant management literature(9) are important in the
management of elephant refuges but contribute little to solving the
problem of separating elephants and development projects
Long-term studies of elephant behavioral ecology have been carried
out or are in progress in Manayara Tanzania in Amboseli Kenya in Addo
South Africa and in the dry zone national parks of Sri Lanka
(615223355) These are monsoon areas with strong wet and dry seasons
There are few detailed behavioral and ecological data for elephants living
in wet high tropical forest areas of Africa or Asia This lack of
information is significant because of the large number of projects located
in this vegetation type (Annex) and because of the differences in movement
patterns and densities of elephants already noted(40)
Elephants are the largest grazing-browsing herbivores(14) that
improve the predictability of their food supply by maximizing the area over
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which they forage(Q) They push over trees or break them off to expand
their foraging space Iheir large size and efficient locomotion provide
for energetically cheap long-di3tance cruising with herd movement
The trunk enables them to feedconstrained only by the youngest members
on coarse forage ranging from short grasses to branches four meters and
more above the ground
Asian elephants may spend 70 to 90 of their time foraging with
An adult consumes 150kg of vegetationtwo major bouts per 24-hour day
African(wet weight) per day with an average intake rate of about 7kghr
While elephantselephants consume up to 220kgday(13141523273338)
may at one time or another eat or at least sample a wide variety of the
plant species in their foraging areas they have food preferences and
Grass for example is always a major dietary component During aneeds
cycle the rate of feeding varies with the food patch and increases
an optimum feeding site once theremarkedly as the animal approaches
feeding is at a maximum rate Drinking sites appear to be
Bouts of drinking and bathing by elephants arEtraditional(1533)
clustered in the morning and evening(13153355) and both species drink
often if water is availableonce a day or more
Studies of elephant sociality show that females live in small
cohesive groups of close relatives (mother-daughter and siblings) and their
offspring At puberty young females remain with the group while males
The age of puberty varies with nutrition duringleave or are expelled
These cow herds terl-d clans by Eisenberg(1214) divide
development
into smaller units during the daily cycle and reassemble when drinking and
moving from one area to another The subgroups frequently differ in sex
Females with their immediate offspring constitute the and age composition
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family units and tend to move in company with their small calves There
can be cohesive movement between females and half-grown young and between
males 6 or7 years old It is within the cow herd that the calf matures
and learns the template of its environment The cow herd serves as the
repository of traditional knowledge which includes routes to water-holes
to mineral sources and to seasonal foraging areas(1213141533)
Adult males live alone or occasionally in company with 1 to 3
satellite males with weak social bonds Adults are capable of breeding at
any time of year but when they reach an adequate nutritional plane they
enter a condition known as musth which is analogous to rut in bovids and
cervids When in musth maies are extremely aggressive and dangerous and
this condition probably allows them to dominate in contests with cows and
other males(14) In the dry zone of Sri Lanka males use restricted areas
that may be frequented by a number of cow groups More than one male at a
time may be in attendance with an estrous female in a cow herd(152233)
Under the strong wet-dry seasonal regime of East Africa bulls switch to a
strategy where they travel long distances in search of estroue females from
one that is associated with intensive feeding in restricted areas During
the dry and early wet season bulls maximize food intake a fat bull has a
better chance of rutting longer and still retaining sufficient energy
stores to survive the long dry season(3)
To visualize the impact a project may have on elephant movements
it is useful to examine how land-tenure and movement patterns reflect
elephant adaptations to different environments The environmental patterns
can be characterized by first seasonal flux in resources second predictshy
ability in the timing and amount that will become available during the
flux and third resource distribution These parameters are depicted in
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Figure 1 There can be strong Lntermediate or little seaconal flux and
the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable A useful rating of
the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by
plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously
available patches(14)
In the dry zone monsoon forests of Sri Lanka elephants forage in
areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches
These are usually of rather poor quality(233755) in a moderate or low
fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable Cow herds
display movements based on three time scales(34) 1) daily movements
associated with feeding and moving to and from water 2) seasonal
movements between dry season and wet season home ranges and 3) medium-term
For a cowmovements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1)
herd home ranges of 25 km2 and 60 kmrhave been determined for wet and dry
seasons respectively Ranges for adult males vary from 10 kmgto 17 km2 (24)
This contrasts with elephant movements in Kenyas huge Tsavo
National Park which is semi-arid savanna with notoriously irregulcr
rainfall Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small
localized dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources Food
in these areas however becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry
season Sensing rain from considerable distances the first and subsequent
rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements up to 50 km to eat
new grass growing where rain has fallen This is schematically depicted in
from dry season ranges are unpredictableFigure 1 Outward movements
return movements can be more accurately predicted Aggregations of 1000
elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season
which come predictably to restricted areas(31)
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Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
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Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
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5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
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TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
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Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
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TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
- 15 -
FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
- 17 shy
successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
- 19 shy
proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
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activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
- 22 shy
involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
- 23 shy
adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
- 24 shy
when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
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2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
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4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
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6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
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8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
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20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
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12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
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13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
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14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
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29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
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1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
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44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
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13265-286
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59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
food and other commodities that are
of importance to low-income can
sumers small farmers and resource-Door areasSector Paper
5ctor PolicyPaperJune 1981 IO pages (including annexes) EngiLsh
Frenchand Spanish
Stock No PP8101-E PP8101-f PP8101-S $euro00 paperback
odel forhDevericltthe Agricultural Se-ctor of Fortugal Alvin C Egbert and Iyung f Kim Spatial mathematical programming is used to develop comprehensive and quantitative methods to suggest development strategies in Portugals agriculture sector
The Johns Hopkins University Press
197 1o pages (including
hibliography)
LC 75-26662 ISBN 0-8018-1793-5$650 4i400) Daperback
Economic Aspects andolicy issues in Groundshy
water Development Ian Carruthers and Roy Stoner
Examlnes a wide range of economic
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World Bank Staff Working Paper
No 496 October 1981 110 pages
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Economic Return to Invest
meat In Irrigation in India Leslie A Abbie James Q Harrison
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Clarifies the relation between simple
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field of agricultural proiect anaivsis and emphasizes the more practical aspets of project preparation and gives guidance Eo mose responsiblefor planning in agriculture
EDI Series in Economic Development
The Johns Hopkitns University Press
1980 154 pages
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Fishery Highllts the imoortance of fisheries
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Setor Policy Paper December 1982
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Food Security in Food Deicit Countries Shlomo Reutlinger and Keith Knapp
World Bank Staff Working Paper No
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Forestry Graham Donaldson coordi-
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efficiency of investment In surfaceNo50Otbr1813pae and groundwater Irrigation In India
World Bank Staff Working Paper
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Improving Irrigated Agrlculshyture Institutional Reform and the Small Farmer Dan el W Br-omley
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1982 307 pages (incluaing index)
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A WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER
Managing Elephant Depredaitaon in Agricultural and Forestry Projects
John Seidensticker
The World Bank Washington DC USA
Copyright 1984 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 USA
First printing February 1984 All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America
This is a document pulished informally by the World Bank In order that
the information contained in it can be presented with the least possible
delay the typescript has not been prepared in accordance with the
procedures appropriate to formal printed texts and the World Bank accepts token charge tono responsibility for errors The publication is supplied at a
defray part of the cost of manufacture and distribution
The views and interpretations in this document are those of the author(s)
and should not be attributed to the World Bank to its affiliated
organizations or to any individual acting on their behalf Any maps used
have been prepared solely for the convenience of the readers the
denominations used and the boundaries shown do not imply on the part of
the World Bank and its affiliates any judgment on the legal status of any
territor or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries
The full range of World Bank publications both free and for sale is
described in the Catalog of Publications the continuing research pregram is
outlined in Abstracts of Current Studies Both booklets are updated arnually
the most recent edition of each is available without charge from the H Street NWPublications Siles Unit Department T The World Bank 1RI
Washington DC 0433 USA or from the European Office of the Bank 66 avenue X16na 75116 Paris France
John Seidensticker is a wildlife ecologist for the National Zoological Park
of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington DC and a consultant to the World Bank
The cover illustration shows that elephant herds are usually composed of
related females and their calves Bulls join these herds temporarily when a
cow is in estrus In African elephants (bottom) both sexes have tusks Only
male Asian elephants (top) have tusks and in some populations almost all
males are tuskless Grass is an important food for both species Drawing by Judy Gradwohl
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Seidensticker John Managing elephant depredation in agricultural and
forestry projects
(A World Bank technical paper ISSN 0253-7494)
Bibliography p 1 Elephants 2 Wildlife management 3 Wildlife
depredation I Title II Series
QL737P98S45 1984 63997961 83-23596
ISBN 0-8213-0297-3
ABSTRACT
Agricultural and forestry projects established in traditional
habitats of African and Asian elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas
maximus respectively) obligate elephants living there to modify their
movements and behavior Damage resulting in major financial losses has
occurred when elephants live in or enter and feed in project areas In
this paper procedures sensitive to elephants conservation status
(Asians are endangered Africans are threatened) are described to plan
for and manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas these
procedures are to be used in conjunction with overall project design
and operttions
A pre-project design assessment conducted with local wildlife
authorities can predict the response of elephants to a proposed project
and provide the basis for building measures into the project to avoid
major conflicts Final project design should include features that
prevent elephants from entering production areas and ensure local
elephant access to critical resources or provide these through habitat
enrichment Emphasis in the project design should be placed on passive
elephant-management features These-can include minor modification in
infastructure to either facilitate or block elephant movements and
the creation of buffer zones to effectively separate production areas
and forest refuges Careful scheduling of project activities ia
required to ensure that groups of elephants are not isolated or pocketed
in production areas Such elephants can be very dangerous and destructive
A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base Technical and financial assistance measures
which may be required by local wildlife management authorities are outlined
ABSTRAIT
Les projets agricoles et f~restiers entrepris dans des r6gions qui
constituent lhabitat naturel des 616phants dAfrique et dAsie (Loxodonta
africana et Elephas maximus) obligent ces animaux A modifier leurs d~pla-
Ii arrive que des 6l6phants vivant dans cements et leurs comportements
des zones de projet y p6n~trant ou sy nourrissant causent des digAts
Ce document d6crit desqui entrainent dimportantes pertes financi~res
procedures tenant compte de la situation des 6lphants (ceux dAsie sont
en danger et ceux dAfrique menac6s) et visant A mettre en oeuvre une
politique concrite A l6gard des 6liphants qui vivent dans des zones de
projet ou A proximiti Ces procedures doivent 6tre appliquies en harmonie
avec la conception du projet et son ex6cution
Une itude pr6alable effectuge en collaboration avec les autoritis
locales responsables de la faune sauvage peut prfvoir la riaction des
et assortir celui-ci de mesures suscepshy6lphants A un projet envisag6
Sous sa forme finale le projettibles diviter des problimes majeurs
itre conqu de telle faqon que les 616phants ne puissent pas p6n6shy
devrait
trer dans les zones productives quils aient accs A des ressources
Au vitales pour eux ou quon les leur assura en am6liorant
leur habitat
stade de la conception du projet il conviendrait de mettre laccent sur
des masures passives de gestion des 6l6phants consistant par example A
modifier 16g~rement linfrastructure ou bien A facillter ou empampcher leurs
d6placements et A crier des zones-tampons destin6es A bien s6parer lea
A
zones productives des refuges forestiers I1 importe de programmer soishy
gneusement les activitis dun projet pour faire en sorte que des groupes
d61iphants ne se trouvent pas isol6s ou bloqu~s dans des zones producshy
tives car dans ce cas ils peuvent devenir tr~s dangereux et causer des
d6g~ts consid6rables
Pour r~ussir un programme de gestion des troupeaux d6lphants doit
sappuyer sur des structures institutionnelles solides Les diff6rentes
formes dassistance technique et financi~re dont peuvent avoir besoin les
autorit~s locales responsables de la faune sauvage sont indiqu6es dans ce
document
EXTRACTO
Los proyectos agricolas y de silvicultura emplazados en los habitat tradishy
cionales de los elefantes africanos y asiAticos (Loxodonta africana y Elephas
maximus respectivamente) obligan a estos animales a modificar sus desplazamienshy
tos y comportamiento Los estragos causados cuando los elefantes habitan en
zonas de proyectos o las invaden para alimentarse redundan en fuertes p~rdidas
financieras En el presente estudio se describen procedimientos para prever y
controlar el comportamiento de los elefantes tanto en las zonas de los proyecshy
tos como en las adyacentes que tienen en cuenta los fines de protecci6n de la
especie (lot elefantes asiAticos esthn amenazados de extinci6n y los africanos
en peligro de llegar a estarlo) Estos procedimientos deben seguirse en al
disefto general y en las operaciones de los proyectos
p
Una evaluaci6n previa del disefto del proyecto realizada con la colaborashy
ci6n de las autoridades locales responsables de la fauna silvestre permite proshy
nosticar el comportamiento de los elefantes en relaci6n con un proyecto proshy
puesto y proporciona la base para incorporar a fste medidas que eviten conflicshy
tos graves El diseno definitivo del proyecto deberA incluir instalaciones pars
impedir la entrada de los elefantes a las Zonas de producci6n y al mismo
tiempo asegurarles acceso a los recursos necesarios para su supervivencia o
proporcionhrselos mediante un mejoramiento del habitat En el disefto del proshy
yecto se deberg hacer hincapi6 en la inclusi6n de medidas pasivas para el conshy
trol de los elefantes 6stas pueden ser modificaciones de menor importancia en
la infraestructura pars facilitar o bien entorpecer el trnsito de los elefanshy
tea y la creaci6n de zonas que separen eficazmente las Areas de producci6n de
las que constituyen refugios forestales Es preciso programar cuidadosamente
las actividades de los proyectos para asegurarse de que no queden grupos de eleshy
fantes aislados o arrinconados en las zonas de producci6n En esas condicioshy
nes los elefantes pueden ser muy peligrosos y destructores
Un buen programa de control y protecci6n de los elefantes exige Ina s6lida
base de apoyo institucional local En el documento tambi6n se esbozan las medishy
das de asistencia t~cnica y financiera que podrian necesitar las autoridades
locales a cargo de la fauna silvestre
N
PREFACE
This technical paper is based on a seminar presentad at the World
Bank on January 24 1983 which was jointly sponsored by the Agriculture
Department and the Projects Policy Department Office of Environmental Affairs
The Seminar was an outgrowth of awareness of elephant depredatioD in
the Jahore Land Settlement Project in Malaysia Upon recognizing this as an
issue demanding attention the Agriculture Department requested the Office of
Environmental Affairs to furnish information regarding similar problems created
by elephants in other Bank agriculture projects This request resulted in a
selected list of 13 Bank projects where elephants were a major consideration
The author Dr John Seidensticker Wildlife Ecologist National Zoological
Park Smithsonian Institution based this paper on his experiences with
elephants and wildlife management in Sri Lanka Indonesia Nepal and -
Bangladesh
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper draws heavily upon the extensive research and writing
of Dr John Eisenberg Ordway Professor of Ecosystem Conservation
University of Florida Drs R Goodland R Rudran S Lumpkin AJT
Johnsingh JC Daniel J McNeely and Ms J Tralka have helped in
crystalizing ideas and procedures presented here The World Bank and the
National Zoological Park Smithsonian Institution supported the preparation
of this report
COhnENTS
ABSTRACT
PREFACE
10 INTRODUCTION 1
11 About Elephants 22
20 PROJECT DESIGN 9
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management 12 22 Elephants in Project Design 14
30 PROJECT IMPLEIENTATION 22
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants 22 32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities 23
SUMMARY 24
ANNEX Bank-Assisted P-lects with Elephant Implications 27
REFERENCES o 29
TABLES
Table 1 Recent Reports on the Local Distribution of Elephants 11
Table 2 Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Behavior and Ecology oo 13
FIGURES
Figure 1 Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements 8
Figure 2 Water Level Relative to the Floodplain and the 15 Slope of Banks in Reservoirs -
Figure 3 Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management bull 18
I l0 INTRODUCTION
The World Bank and other international development agencies have
invested billions of dollars in hydroelectric agricultural forestry and
other projects in developing countries where excellent elephant habitat
occurs The main World Bank assisted projects are listed in the Annex
Recently there has been increasing concern for the welfare and survival of
the worlds estimated 23000-41000 Asian (Elephas maximus) and 13 million
African elephants (Loxodonta africana) Authorities have designated these
species as endangered and threatened and have listed them in the Red
Data Books of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources and on the United States List of Endangered Species(53)
Continual loss of elephant habitat (eg conversion of forests to
agriculture) is a major conservation problem which is further compounded
by the elephants They enter and eat the rich patches of food which
constitute the plantations of sugar cane rice teak rubber and oil palm
established in their traditional foraging areas usually in disregard of
the best efforts to keep them out This behavior has resulted in millions
of dollars in damage and in project cost overruns thus causing concern to
economists and project designers(451) The losses have to be stopped for
the benefit of elephant conservation for the affected projects as well as
for the investors Management measures implemented hL- to be sensitive to
the elephants status as threatened species
Elephants have been raiding crops for thousands of years but case
studies of such problems are not readily available to the economic planners
or wildlife managers who need them The fficacy of the preventive and
mitigatory measures frequently proposed need review in the light of what
has been learned in the last two decades about the behavioral ecology of
-2shy
elephants This paper is a step towards improved planning and management
in order to reconcile development priorities with tke increasingly urgent
need for effective conservation measures
11 About Elephants
The elephant Order Proboscidea has a lung and spectacular
evolutionary history from its beginnings in Africa during the Eocene(14)
The two surviving species of this evolution are placed in different
genera Elephas maximus is usually separated into 3 subspecies E m
maximus of Sri Lanka E M indicus of the Indian Subcontinent and Southshy
east Asia including Borneo and E m sumatranus from Sumatra The bush
elephants of East and South Africa are usually placed in Loxodonta africana
africana and the West African forest elephants in L a cyclotis(1846)
African elephants are slightly larger than Asian elephants Adult
males weigh up to 6000 kg females up to 3200 kg African elephants have a
concave shape to their back large ears relatively smooth skin and a
trunk with 2 fingers at the tip Asian elephants have a distinctive
convex shaped back smaller ears skin that appears wrinkled and a trunk
with one finger There are differences between the two species distinshy
guished by the number of ribs and vertebrae and in the morphology of the
cheek teeth Male and female African elephants have tusks female Asians
and a large percentage of males iti some populations do not have tusks
Lacking tusks both males and females may have an alternate type of modishy
fied incisor or tushes that are barely visible beyond the lip(182746)
From a management perspective an important difference between the
two species is their ability to tolerate the sun and utilize open habishy
tats Heat dissipation is a problem for both species Asian elephants
need access to shade during much of each day(15182733) while African
- 3 shy
elephants are much less restricted except when young with calves This
difference alone suggests that project design features which could
discourage Asian elephants may not succeed with African elephants
Therefore measures taken to manage elephants need to consider species as
well as site characteristics
Elephants are never the numerically dominant ungulate in their
habitat but they are frequently ecological dominants in terms of biomass
and the cycling of plant material The habitats occupied vary but usually
are ecotones between forest and grasslands and areas with moderate tree
cover grading into savanna The sites are always in association with
permanent water which is well dispersed in the vegetational mosaic ASian
elephants do not extend into desertic areas They do occur in dense rain
forest only if there is sufficient interspersion of water and grass
Secondary or disturbed forests contain more suitable food plants In
suitable South Asian habitats crude density of elephants can range from
01 to 1km2(1416) Habitats described as suitable for Asian elephants
also support the densest African elephant populations with the exception
noted that African elephants appear to have a greater tolerance for drier
conditions(7131416)
Asian and African elephant literature contain both useful and
confusing information on elephant husbandry and management(182746)
Resolving elephant-development conflicts requires data from which reliable
predictions can be made about the response of elephants to changes in the
patterns and processes in their habitat brought about by a particular
project This is customarily termed a facultative or behavioral response
to environmentl change as opposed to a numerical response or change in
population numbers
- 4 -
An important distinction should be made here between crude and
ecological density because density estirates(7151633) are frequently
employed by wildlife managers Crude density estimates take the average
density of a species over the entire sample space Ecological density is
the crude density estimate corrected for habitat differences within a
non-homogenous habitat(16) Through some habitat modifications the
ecological density of elephanLs in a specific area might shift (a
behavioral response) but the overall or crude density of elephants in the
region might not (a numerical response)
The long-term problem of stabilizing elephant numbers in relation
to available resources requires knowledge of the genetic and quantitative
dynamics of populations and of the long-term coactions of these herbivores
with their food plants(282932374349) These issues which have
generated extensive elephant management literature(9) are important in the
management of elephant refuges but contribute little to solving the
problem of separating elephants and development projects
Long-term studies of elephant behavioral ecology have been carried
out or are in progress in Manayara Tanzania in Amboseli Kenya in Addo
South Africa and in the dry zone national parks of Sri Lanka
(615223355) These are monsoon areas with strong wet and dry seasons
There are few detailed behavioral and ecological data for elephants living
in wet high tropical forest areas of Africa or Asia This lack of
information is significant because of the large number of projects located
in this vegetation type (Annex) and because of the differences in movement
patterns and densities of elephants already noted(40)
Elephants are the largest grazing-browsing herbivores(14) that
improve the predictability of their food supply by maximizing the area over
- 5 shy
which they forage(Q) They push over trees or break them off to expand
their foraging space Iheir large size and efficient locomotion provide
for energetically cheap long-di3tance cruising with herd movement
The trunk enables them to feedconstrained only by the youngest members
on coarse forage ranging from short grasses to branches four meters and
more above the ground
Asian elephants may spend 70 to 90 of their time foraging with
An adult consumes 150kg of vegetationtwo major bouts per 24-hour day
African(wet weight) per day with an average intake rate of about 7kghr
While elephantselephants consume up to 220kgday(13141523273338)
may at one time or another eat or at least sample a wide variety of the
plant species in their foraging areas they have food preferences and
Grass for example is always a major dietary component During aneeds
cycle the rate of feeding varies with the food patch and increases
an optimum feeding site once theremarkedly as the animal approaches
feeding is at a maximum rate Drinking sites appear to be
Bouts of drinking and bathing by elephants arEtraditional(1533)
clustered in the morning and evening(13153355) and both species drink
often if water is availableonce a day or more
Studies of elephant sociality show that females live in small
cohesive groups of close relatives (mother-daughter and siblings) and their
offspring At puberty young females remain with the group while males
The age of puberty varies with nutrition duringleave or are expelled
These cow herds terl-d clans by Eisenberg(1214) divide
development
into smaller units during the daily cycle and reassemble when drinking and
moving from one area to another The subgroups frequently differ in sex
Females with their immediate offspring constitute the and age composition
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family units and tend to move in company with their small calves There
can be cohesive movement between females and half-grown young and between
males 6 or7 years old It is within the cow herd that the calf matures
and learns the template of its environment The cow herd serves as the
repository of traditional knowledge which includes routes to water-holes
to mineral sources and to seasonal foraging areas(1213141533)
Adult males live alone or occasionally in company with 1 to 3
satellite males with weak social bonds Adults are capable of breeding at
any time of year but when they reach an adequate nutritional plane they
enter a condition known as musth which is analogous to rut in bovids and
cervids When in musth maies are extremely aggressive and dangerous and
this condition probably allows them to dominate in contests with cows and
other males(14) In the dry zone of Sri Lanka males use restricted areas
that may be frequented by a number of cow groups More than one male at a
time may be in attendance with an estrous female in a cow herd(152233)
Under the strong wet-dry seasonal regime of East Africa bulls switch to a
strategy where they travel long distances in search of estroue females from
one that is associated with intensive feeding in restricted areas During
the dry and early wet season bulls maximize food intake a fat bull has a
better chance of rutting longer and still retaining sufficient energy
stores to survive the long dry season(3)
To visualize the impact a project may have on elephant movements
it is useful to examine how land-tenure and movement patterns reflect
elephant adaptations to different environments The environmental patterns
can be characterized by first seasonal flux in resources second predictshy
ability in the timing and amount that will become available during the
flux and third resource distribution These parameters are depicted in
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Figure 1 There can be strong Lntermediate or little seaconal flux and
the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable A useful rating of
the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by
plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously
available patches(14)
In the dry zone monsoon forests of Sri Lanka elephants forage in
areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches
These are usually of rather poor quality(233755) in a moderate or low
fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable Cow herds
display movements based on three time scales(34) 1) daily movements
associated with feeding and moving to and from water 2) seasonal
movements between dry season and wet season home ranges and 3) medium-term
For a cowmovements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1)
herd home ranges of 25 km2 and 60 kmrhave been determined for wet and dry
seasons respectively Ranges for adult males vary from 10 kmgto 17 km2 (24)
This contrasts with elephant movements in Kenyas huge Tsavo
National Park which is semi-arid savanna with notoriously irregulcr
rainfall Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small
localized dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources Food
in these areas however becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry
season Sensing rain from considerable distances the first and subsequent
rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements up to 50 km to eat
new grass growing where rain has fallen This is schematically depicted in
from dry season ranges are unpredictableFigure 1 Outward movements
return movements can be more accurately predicted Aggregations of 1000
elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season
which come predictably to restricted areas(31)
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Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
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Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
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5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
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TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
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Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
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TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
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FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
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successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
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proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
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Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
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activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
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involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
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adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
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when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
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planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
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ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
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8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
REFERENCES
1 Asian Elephant Specialist Group Survival Service Commission 1980 The status of the Asian elephant in the Indian Sub-continent Gland Switzerland IUCN 74pp
2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
semiarid environment Anim Behav 301217-1223
4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
cultivation the confrontation between the Asian elephant and land
development in Peninsular Malaysia Land Dev Digest 227-59
5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
africana (Blumenbach)) East Afr Wildl J 10165-174
7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production Oecologia 22341-354
8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
age-structures of elephant populations and its use in Kidepo National Park East Afr Wildl J 1091-115
9 Croze H Hillman AKK and Lang EM 1981 Elephants and their habitats how do they tolerate each other Pages 297-316 in Fowler CW
and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
Wiley amp Sons
10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
migration paths in the Nilgiri Hills and inquiry into impediments to the free
movements of elephants there and recommendations for the provision of
corridors for their movement Bombay Bombay Nat Hist Society (Mimeogr)
20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
report Washington DC US Fish and Wildl Serv (Mimeogr) IO5pp
12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
- 30 shy
14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
food and other commodities that are
of importance to low-income can
sumers small farmers and resource-Door areasSector Paper
5ctor PolicyPaperJune 1981 IO pages (including annexes) EngiLsh
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odel forhDevericltthe Agricultural Se-ctor of Fortugal Alvin C Egbert and Iyung f Kim Spatial mathematical programming is used to develop comprehensive and quantitative methods to suggest development strategies in Portugals agriculture sector
The Johns Hopkins University Press
197 1o pages (including
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Economic Aspects andolicy issues in Groundshy
water Development Ian Carruthers and Roy Stoner
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World Bank Staff Working Paper
No 496 October 1981 110 pages
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Economic Return to Invest
meat In Irrigation in India Leslie A Abbie James Q Harrison
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Clarifies the relation between simple
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EDI Series in Economic Development
The Johns Hopkitns University Press
1980 154 pages
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EditorialTecnas 1982
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Fishery Highllts the imoortance of fisheries
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Setor Policy Paper December 1982
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Food Security in Food Deicit Countries Shlomo Reutlinger and Keith Knapp
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Forestry Graham Donaldson coordi-
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Increasing Aoricalturalrod ucUVit cu
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1982 307 pages (incluaing index)
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India Demand and Supply Prospects for Agriculture James Q Harrison Jon A Hitchings and John W Wall
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Agricultural Research and Productivity Robert E Evenson and Yoav Kislev Examines the role of scientific reswarh and technological change in increasing agnicularai prcxuctivity
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Provides and Illustrates a framework for analyzing and designing ar
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The Book of CHAC Programming Studies for Iexican Agricultural Policy Edited Dy RogeL-r D Noriton and Leooldo 51i M
n a n po tproject The principal tooi ot analysis is the se-wtr modei Cft named after the
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Thi--volum r)ort5 tne exenence of uainq tne ClA - mogje and also pre-_rtq itnmdOoyc3i materalpurlim-
TnWJ~n iwxn Lnrit
Q2 Dage Ua 080125857
2c (24 arc
indust~tl po icLSStockIndust roi ts gr
EDI Senes in Economic DevelopmenL
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1981224 pages incudwg appen-dixes bibliograhy and inae) LC 80-550 15BI0-8016-2412-5 $1650 (S1000) hardcovr ISBNM 0-8018-2413-3 S7_50 U425) paperback
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Argentina Country Case Study of Agricultural Prices
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Building NiationaJ Capacity to Develop Water Uiiers Asoocia6inw Lperizence from the PhilIppines
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donor uppcno outer small-scale programs and more
generally for orog-ams Involving village-levei work
World Bank Staff Working Paper NIo 528 July1982 u -69 pages (including references)
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C-12o y EJerccios Sobre Proyectos Agricolas Edited by Orlando T Espadas Three case studies prepared in conshyjunction with the EDIs Agricultural Projects Courses in Spanish and intended primarly for teachers of
at _Iysis
World Bank (EDI) March 1974 revised January 1975 480 pages (Available
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The Design of Organiza
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Ben A Thoolen World Bank Staff Working Paper No
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The Design of Rural Development Lessons from Africa Uma Lee Analyzes new ways of designing rural
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Managing Information for Rural Development Leson~from Eastern Aurrica s
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3 70pags5Sock79 Mach 180oil+
and they involve a variety of Invest-ments The need for monitoring and evaluaUng Wein during implementa-tion has been accepted in principlebut effective systems have notheretofore bten fonrnulated The con-
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World Sank Staff Working Paper No
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Nutritional Consequences of Agricultural Projects Conceptual Relationships and AssessmentApproaches Per Pinstrup-Andersen
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NEW Economic Analysis of Agricultural Projects Second edition compleeLy rev sed and erpanded J Price Gittinger
Thisbook entirelyoutnew editioncareful of thepracticalWorld Banksmethodlologjybest-sellingsets a and fora a y n u t ~ uanalyzing agricultural development projects and for using these analyses to compare proposed Investments It
what constitutes a project what must be conshysidered to identify possible agricultural projects the life cycle of a proqecL the strengths and pitfalls of pojectanalysis anc the calculations required to obtain financial and economic project accounts
In the ten years since Its publication the first edition has been accepted widely as a standard reference and texL Themethodology reflects the best of contemporary practice In government agencies and International developmentinstitutions concerned with Investing in agriculture and Isaccessible to a broad readership of agricultural planners
n i e r a n n l s sengineers and analysts This revision adds a wealth of recent project dataexpanded treatment of farm budgets and the efficiency
pnces used to calculate the effects of an Investment on national income a glossary of technical terms expandedappendixes on preparing an agricultural project report and using discounting tables and an expanded completely annotated bibliographyLI Series in Economic Development
The Johns Hopkins Univeity PrnS July 1982 528 pages
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John Seidensticker is a wildlife ecologist for the National Zoological Park
of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington DC and a consultant to the World Bank
The cover illustration shows that elephant herds are usually composed of
related females and their calves Bulls join these herds temporarily when a
cow is in estrus In African elephants (bottom) both sexes have tusks Only
male Asian elephants (top) have tusks and in some populations almost all
males are tuskless Grass is an important food for both species Drawing by Judy Gradwohl
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Seidensticker John Managing elephant depredation in agricultural and
forestry projects
(A World Bank technical paper ISSN 0253-7494)
Bibliography p 1 Elephants 2 Wildlife management 3 Wildlife
depredation I Title II Series
QL737P98S45 1984 63997961 83-23596
ISBN 0-8213-0297-3
ABSTRACT
Agricultural and forestry projects established in traditional
habitats of African and Asian elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas
maximus respectively) obligate elephants living there to modify their
movements and behavior Damage resulting in major financial losses has
occurred when elephants live in or enter and feed in project areas In
this paper procedures sensitive to elephants conservation status
(Asians are endangered Africans are threatened) are described to plan
for and manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas these
procedures are to be used in conjunction with overall project design
and operttions
A pre-project design assessment conducted with local wildlife
authorities can predict the response of elephants to a proposed project
and provide the basis for building measures into the project to avoid
major conflicts Final project design should include features that
prevent elephants from entering production areas and ensure local
elephant access to critical resources or provide these through habitat
enrichment Emphasis in the project design should be placed on passive
elephant-management features These-can include minor modification in
infastructure to either facilitate or block elephant movements and
the creation of buffer zones to effectively separate production areas
and forest refuges Careful scheduling of project activities ia
required to ensure that groups of elephants are not isolated or pocketed
in production areas Such elephants can be very dangerous and destructive
A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base Technical and financial assistance measures
which may be required by local wildlife management authorities are outlined
ABSTRAIT
Les projets agricoles et f~restiers entrepris dans des r6gions qui
constituent lhabitat naturel des 616phants dAfrique et dAsie (Loxodonta
africana et Elephas maximus) obligent ces animaux A modifier leurs d~pla-
Ii arrive que des 6l6phants vivant dans cements et leurs comportements
des zones de projet y p6n~trant ou sy nourrissant causent des digAts
Ce document d6crit desqui entrainent dimportantes pertes financi~res
procedures tenant compte de la situation des 6lphants (ceux dAsie sont
en danger et ceux dAfrique menac6s) et visant A mettre en oeuvre une
politique concrite A l6gard des 6liphants qui vivent dans des zones de
projet ou A proximiti Ces procedures doivent 6tre appliquies en harmonie
avec la conception du projet et son ex6cution
Une itude pr6alable effectuge en collaboration avec les autoritis
locales responsables de la faune sauvage peut prfvoir la riaction des
et assortir celui-ci de mesures suscepshy6lphants A un projet envisag6
Sous sa forme finale le projettibles diviter des problimes majeurs
itre conqu de telle faqon que les 616phants ne puissent pas p6n6shy
devrait
trer dans les zones productives quils aient accs A des ressources
Au vitales pour eux ou quon les leur assura en am6liorant
leur habitat
stade de la conception du projet il conviendrait de mettre laccent sur
des masures passives de gestion des 6l6phants consistant par example A
modifier 16g~rement linfrastructure ou bien A facillter ou empampcher leurs
d6placements et A crier des zones-tampons destin6es A bien s6parer lea
A
zones productives des refuges forestiers I1 importe de programmer soishy
gneusement les activitis dun projet pour faire en sorte que des groupes
d61iphants ne se trouvent pas isol6s ou bloqu~s dans des zones producshy
tives car dans ce cas ils peuvent devenir tr~s dangereux et causer des
d6g~ts consid6rables
Pour r~ussir un programme de gestion des troupeaux d6lphants doit
sappuyer sur des structures institutionnelles solides Les diff6rentes
formes dassistance technique et financi~re dont peuvent avoir besoin les
autorit~s locales responsables de la faune sauvage sont indiqu6es dans ce
document
EXTRACTO
Los proyectos agricolas y de silvicultura emplazados en los habitat tradishy
cionales de los elefantes africanos y asiAticos (Loxodonta africana y Elephas
maximus respectivamente) obligan a estos animales a modificar sus desplazamienshy
tos y comportamiento Los estragos causados cuando los elefantes habitan en
zonas de proyectos o las invaden para alimentarse redundan en fuertes p~rdidas
financieras En el presente estudio se describen procedimientos para prever y
controlar el comportamiento de los elefantes tanto en las zonas de los proyecshy
tos como en las adyacentes que tienen en cuenta los fines de protecci6n de la
especie (lot elefantes asiAticos esthn amenazados de extinci6n y los africanos
en peligro de llegar a estarlo) Estos procedimientos deben seguirse en al
disefto general y en las operaciones de los proyectos
p
Una evaluaci6n previa del disefto del proyecto realizada con la colaborashy
ci6n de las autoridades locales responsables de la fauna silvestre permite proshy
nosticar el comportamiento de los elefantes en relaci6n con un proyecto proshy
puesto y proporciona la base para incorporar a fste medidas que eviten conflicshy
tos graves El diseno definitivo del proyecto deberA incluir instalaciones pars
impedir la entrada de los elefantes a las Zonas de producci6n y al mismo
tiempo asegurarles acceso a los recursos necesarios para su supervivencia o
proporcionhrselos mediante un mejoramiento del habitat En el disefto del proshy
yecto se deberg hacer hincapi6 en la inclusi6n de medidas pasivas para el conshy
trol de los elefantes 6stas pueden ser modificaciones de menor importancia en
la infraestructura pars facilitar o bien entorpecer el trnsito de los elefanshy
tea y la creaci6n de zonas que separen eficazmente las Areas de producci6n de
las que constituyen refugios forestales Es preciso programar cuidadosamente
las actividades de los proyectos para asegurarse de que no queden grupos de eleshy
fantes aislados o arrinconados en las zonas de producci6n En esas condicioshy
nes los elefantes pueden ser muy peligrosos y destructores
Un buen programa de control y protecci6n de los elefantes exige Ina s6lida
base de apoyo institucional local En el documento tambi6n se esbozan las medishy
das de asistencia t~cnica y financiera que podrian necesitar las autoridades
locales a cargo de la fauna silvestre
N
PREFACE
This technical paper is based on a seminar presentad at the World
Bank on January 24 1983 which was jointly sponsored by the Agriculture
Department and the Projects Policy Department Office of Environmental Affairs
The Seminar was an outgrowth of awareness of elephant depredatioD in
the Jahore Land Settlement Project in Malaysia Upon recognizing this as an
issue demanding attention the Agriculture Department requested the Office of
Environmental Affairs to furnish information regarding similar problems created
by elephants in other Bank agriculture projects This request resulted in a
selected list of 13 Bank projects where elephants were a major consideration
The author Dr John Seidensticker Wildlife Ecologist National Zoological
Park Smithsonian Institution based this paper on his experiences with
elephants and wildlife management in Sri Lanka Indonesia Nepal and -
Bangladesh
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper draws heavily upon the extensive research and writing
of Dr John Eisenberg Ordway Professor of Ecosystem Conservation
University of Florida Drs R Goodland R Rudran S Lumpkin AJT
Johnsingh JC Daniel J McNeely and Ms J Tralka have helped in
crystalizing ideas and procedures presented here The World Bank and the
National Zoological Park Smithsonian Institution supported the preparation
of this report
COhnENTS
ABSTRACT
PREFACE
10 INTRODUCTION 1
11 About Elephants 22
20 PROJECT DESIGN 9
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management 12 22 Elephants in Project Design 14
30 PROJECT IMPLEIENTATION 22
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants 22 32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities 23
SUMMARY 24
ANNEX Bank-Assisted P-lects with Elephant Implications 27
REFERENCES o 29
TABLES
Table 1 Recent Reports on the Local Distribution of Elephants 11
Table 2 Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Behavior and Ecology oo 13
FIGURES
Figure 1 Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements 8
Figure 2 Water Level Relative to the Floodplain and the 15 Slope of Banks in Reservoirs -
Figure 3 Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management bull 18
I l0 INTRODUCTION
The World Bank and other international development agencies have
invested billions of dollars in hydroelectric agricultural forestry and
other projects in developing countries where excellent elephant habitat
occurs The main World Bank assisted projects are listed in the Annex
Recently there has been increasing concern for the welfare and survival of
the worlds estimated 23000-41000 Asian (Elephas maximus) and 13 million
African elephants (Loxodonta africana) Authorities have designated these
species as endangered and threatened and have listed them in the Red
Data Books of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources and on the United States List of Endangered Species(53)
Continual loss of elephant habitat (eg conversion of forests to
agriculture) is a major conservation problem which is further compounded
by the elephants They enter and eat the rich patches of food which
constitute the plantations of sugar cane rice teak rubber and oil palm
established in their traditional foraging areas usually in disregard of
the best efforts to keep them out This behavior has resulted in millions
of dollars in damage and in project cost overruns thus causing concern to
economists and project designers(451) The losses have to be stopped for
the benefit of elephant conservation for the affected projects as well as
for the investors Management measures implemented hL- to be sensitive to
the elephants status as threatened species
Elephants have been raiding crops for thousands of years but case
studies of such problems are not readily available to the economic planners
or wildlife managers who need them The fficacy of the preventive and
mitigatory measures frequently proposed need review in the light of what
has been learned in the last two decades about the behavioral ecology of
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elephants This paper is a step towards improved planning and management
in order to reconcile development priorities with tke increasingly urgent
need for effective conservation measures
11 About Elephants
The elephant Order Proboscidea has a lung and spectacular
evolutionary history from its beginnings in Africa during the Eocene(14)
The two surviving species of this evolution are placed in different
genera Elephas maximus is usually separated into 3 subspecies E m
maximus of Sri Lanka E M indicus of the Indian Subcontinent and Southshy
east Asia including Borneo and E m sumatranus from Sumatra The bush
elephants of East and South Africa are usually placed in Loxodonta africana
africana and the West African forest elephants in L a cyclotis(1846)
African elephants are slightly larger than Asian elephants Adult
males weigh up to 6000 kg females up to 3200 kg African elephants have a
concave shape to their back large ears relatively smooth skin and a
trunk with 2 fingers at the tip Asian elephants have a distinctive
convex shaped back smaller ears skin that appears wrinkled and a trunk
with one finger There are differences between the two species distinshy
guished by the number of ribs and vertebrae and in the morphology of the
cheek teeth Male and female African elephants have tusks female Asians
and a large percentage of males iti some populations do not have tusks
Lacking tusks both males and females may have an alternate type of modishy
fied incisor or tushes that are barely visible beyond the lip(182746)
From a management perspective an important difference between the
two species is their ability to tolerate the sun and utilize open habishy
tats Heat dissipation is a problem for both species Asian elephants
need access to shade during much of each day(15182733) while African
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elephants are much less restricted except when young with calves This
difference alone suggests that project design features which could
discourage Asian elephants may not succeed with African elephants
Therefore measures taken to manage elephants need to consider species as
well as site characteristics
Elephants are never the numerically dominant ungulate in their
habitat but they are frequently ecological dominants in terms of biomass
and the cycling of plant material The habitats occupied vary but usually
are ecotones between forest and grasslands and areas with moderate tree
cover grading into savanna The sites are always in association with
permanent water which is well dispersed in the vegetational mosaic ASian
elephants do not extend into desertic areas They do occur in dense rain
forest only if there is sufficient interspersion of water and grass
Secondary or disturbed forests contain more suitable food plants In
suitable South Asian habitats crude density of elephants can range from
01 to 1km2(1416) Habitats described as suitable for Asian elephants
also support the densest African elephant populations with the exception
noted that African elephants appear to have a greater tolerance for drier
conditions(7131416)
Asian and African elephant literature contain both useful and
confusing information on elephant husbandry and management(182746)
Resolving elephant-development conflicts requires data from which reliable
predictions can be made about the response of elephants to changes in the
patterns and processes in their habitat brought about by a particular
project This is customarily termed a facultative or behavioral response
to environmentl change as opposed to a numerical response or change in
population numbers
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An important distinction should be made here between crude and
ecological density because density estirates(7151633) are frequently
employed by wildlife managers Crude density estimates take the average
density of a species over the entire sample space Ecological density is
the crude density estimate corrected for habitat differences within a
non-homogenous habitat(16) Through some habitat modifications the
ecological density of elephanLs in a specific area might shift (a
behavioral response) but the overall or crude density of elephants in the
region might not (a numerical response)
The long-term problem of stabilizing elephant numbers in relation
to available resources requires knowledge of the genetic and quantitative
dynamics of populations and of the long-term coactions of these herbivores
with their food plants(282932374349) These issues which have
generated extensive elephant management literature(9) are important in the
management of elephant refuges but contribute little to solving the
problem of separating elephants and development projects
Long-term studies of elephant behavioral ecology have been carried
out or are in progress in Manayara Tanzania in Amboseli Kenya in Addo
South Africa and in the dry zone national parks of Sri Lanka
(615223355) These are monsoon areas with strong wet and dry seasons
There are few detailed behavioral and ecological data for elephants living
in wet high tropical forest areas of Africa or Asia This lack of
information is significant because of the large number of projects located
in this vegetation type (Annex) and because of the differences in movement
patterns and densities of elephants already noted(40)
Elephants are the largest grazing-browsing herbivores(14) that
improve the predictability of their food supply by maximizing the area over
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which they forage(Q) They push over trees or break them off to expand
their foraging space Iheir large size and efficient locomotion provide
for energetically cheap long-di3tance cruising with herd movement
The trunk enables them to feedconstrained only by the youngest members
on coarse forage ranging from short grasses to branches four meters and
more above the ground
Asian elephants may spend 70 to 90 of their time foraging with
An adult consumes 150kg of vegetationtwo major bouts per 24-hour day
African(wet weight) per day with an average intake rate of about 7kghr
While elephantselephants consume up to 220kgday(13141523273338)
may at one time or another eat or at least sample a wide variety of the
plant species in their foraging areas they have food preferences and
Grass for example is always a major dietary component During aneeds
cycle the rate of feeding varies with the food patch and increases
an optimum feeding site once theremarkedly as the animal approaches
feeding is at a maximum rate Drinking sites appear to be
Bouts of drinking and bathing by elephants arEtraditional(1533)
clustered in the morning and evening(13153355) and both species drink
often if water is availableonce a day or more
Studies of elephant sociality show that females live in small
cohesive groups of close relatives (mother-daughter and siblings) and their
offspring At puberty young females remain with the group while males
The age of puberty varies with nutrition duringleave or are expelled
These cow herds terl-d clans by Eisenberg(1214) divide
development
into smaller units during the daily cycle and reassemble when drinking and
moving from one area to another The subgroups frequently differ in sex
Females with their immediate offspring constitute the and age composition
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family units and tend to move in company with their small calves There
can be cohesive movement between females and half-grown young and between
males 6 or7 years old It is within the cow herd that the calf matures
and learns the template of its environment The cow herd serves as the
repository of traditional knowledge which includes routes to water-holes
to mineral sources and to seasonal foraging areas(1213141533)
Adult males live alone or occasionally in company with 1 to 3
satellite males with weak social bonds Adults are capable of breeding at
any time of year but when they reach an adequate nutritional plane they
enter a condition known as musth which is analogous to rut in bovids and
cervids When in musth maies are extremely aggressive and dangerous and
this condition probably allows them to dominate in contests with cows and
other males(14) In the dry zone of Sri Lanka males use restricted areas
that may be frequented by a number of cow groups More than one male at a
time may be in attendance with an estrous female in a cow herd(152233)
Under the strong wet-dry seasonal regime of East Africa bulls switch to a
strategy where they travel long distances in search of estroue females from
one that is associated with intensive feeding in restricted areas During
the dry and early wet season bulls maximize food intake a fat bull has a
better chance of rutting longer and still retaining sufficient energy
stores to survive the long dry season(3)
To visualize the impact a project may have on elephant movements
it is useful to examine how land-tenure and movement patterns reflect
elephant adaptations to different environments The environmental patterns
can be characterized by first seasonal flux in resources second predictshy
ability in the timing and amount that will become available during the
flux and third resource distribution These parameters are depicted in
- 7 -
Figure 1 There can be strong Lntermediate or little seaconal flux and
the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable A useful rating of
the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by
plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously
available patches(14)
In the dry zone monsoon forests of Sri Lanka elephants forage in
areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches
These are usually of rather poor quality(233755) in a moderate or low
fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable Cow herds
display movements based on three time scales(34) 1) daily movements
associated with feeding and moving to and from water 2) seasonal
movements between dry season and wet season home ranges and 3) medium-term
For a cowmovements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1)
herd home ranges of 25 km2 and 60 kmrhave been determined for wet and dry
seasons respectively Ranges for adult males vary from 10 kmgto 17 km2 (24)
This contrasts with elephant movements in Kenyas huge Tsavo
National Park which is semi-arid savanna with notoriously irregulcr
rainfall Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small
localized dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources Food
in these areas however becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry
season Sensing rain from considerable distances the first and subsequent
rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements up to 50 km to eat
new grass growing where rain has fallen This is schematically depicted in
from dry season ranges are unpredictableFigure 1 Outward movements
return movements can be more accurately predicted Aggregations of 1000
elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season
which come predictably to restricted areas(31)
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Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
-9-
Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
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5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
------------- ------------------------------------------------
TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
- 12 -
Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
------------------------------------------------------------------
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TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
- 15 -
FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
- 17 shy
successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
- 19 shy
proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
- 21 shy
activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
- 22 shy
involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
- 23 shy
adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
- 24 shy
when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
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3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
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4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
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and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
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11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
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13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
- 30 shy
14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
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44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
food and other commodities that are
of importance to low-income can
sumers small farmers and resource-Door areasSector Paper
5ctor PolicyPaperJune 1981 IO pages (including annexes) EngiLsh
Frenchand Spanish
Stock No PP8101-E PP8101-f PP8101-S $euro00 paperback
odel forhDevericltthe Agricultural Se-ctor of Fortugal Alvin C Egbert and Iyung f Kim Spatial mathematical programming is used to develop comprehensive and quantitative methods to suggest development strategies in Portugals agriculture sector
The Johns Hopkins University Press
197 1o pages (including
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LC 75-26662 ISBN 0-8018-1793-5$650 4i400) Daperback
Economic Aspects andolicy issues in Groundshy
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World Bank Staff Working Paper
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Economic Return to Invest
meat In Irrigation in India Leslie A Abbie James Q Harrison
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Clarifies the relation between simple
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EDI Series in Economic Development
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1980 154 pages
LC 79-3704 ISBN 0-8018-2386-2 $1500 (S1oo hardcour ISBN 8-8015-2367-0 $650 (450) paperbackSpnLsh Prupuestos Va fincas
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Fishery Highllts the imoortance of fisheries
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Setor Policy Paper December 1982
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Food Security in Food Deicit Countries Shlomo Reutlinger and Keith Knapp
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1982 307 pages (incluaing index)
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India Demand and Supply Prospects for Agriculture James Q Harrison Jon A Hitchings and John W Wall
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Agricultural Research and Productivity Robert E Evenson and Yoav Kislev Examines the role of scientific reswarh and technological change in increasing agnicularai prcxuctivity
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The Book of CHAC Programming Studies for Iexican Agricultural Policy Edited Dy RogeL-r D Noriton and Leooldo 51i M
n a n po tproject The principal tooi ot analysis is the se-wtr modei Cft named after the
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Building NiationaJ Capacity to Develop Water Uiiers Asoocia6inw Lperizence from the PhilIppines
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ABSTRACT
Agricultural and forestry projects established in traditional
habitats of African and Asian elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas
maximus respectively) obligate elephants living there to modify their
movements and behavior Damage resulting in major financial losses has
occurred when elephants live in or enter and feed in project areas In
this paper procedures sensitive to elephants conservation status
(Asians are endangered Africans are threatened) are described to plan
for and manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas these
procedures are to be used in conjunction with overall project design
and operttions
A pre-project design assessment conducted with local wildlife
authorities can predict the response of elephants to a proposed project
and provide the basis for building measures into the project to avoid
major conflicts Final project design should include features that
prevent elephants from entering production areas and ensure local
elephant access to critical resources or provide these through habitat
enrichment Emphasis in the project design should be placed on passive
elephant-management features These-can include minor modification in
infastructure to either facilitate or block elephant movements and
the creation of buffer zones to effectively separate production areas
and forest refuges Careful scheduling of project activities ia
required to ensure that groups of elephants are not isolated or pocketed
in production areas Such elephants can be very dangerous and destructive
A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base Technical and financial assistance measures
which may be required by local wildlife management authorities are outlined
ABSTRAIT
Les projets agricoles et f~restiers entrepris dans des r6gions qui
constituent lhabitat naturel des 616phants dAfrique et dAsie (Loxodonta
africana et Elephas maximus) obligent ces animaux A modifier leurs d~pla-
Ii arrive que des 6l6phants vivant dans cements et leurs comportements
des zones de projet y p6n~trant ou sy nourrissant causent des digAts
Ce document d6crit desqui entrainent dimportantes pertes financi~res
procedures tenant compte de la situation des 6lphants (ceux dAsie sont
en danger et ceux dAfrique menac6s) et visant A mettre en oeuvre une
politique concrite A l6gard des 6liphants qui vivent dans des zones de
projet ou A proximiti Ces procedures doivent 6tre appliquies en harmonie
avec la conception du projet et son ex6cution
Une itude pr6alable effectuge en collaboration avec les autoritis
locales responsables de la faune sauvage peut prfvoir la riaction des
et assortir celui-ci de mesures suscepshy6lphants A un projet envisag6
Sous sa forme finale le projettibles diviter des problimes majeurs
itre conqu de telle faqon que les 616phants ne puissent pas p6n6shy
devrait
trer dans les zones productives quils aient accs A des ressources
Au vitales pour eux ou quon les leur assura en am6liorant
leur habitat
stade de la conception du projet il conviendrait de mettre laccent sur
des masures passives de gestion des 6l6phants consistant par example A
modifier 16g~rement linfrastructure ou bien A facillter ou empampcher leurs
d6placements et A crier des zones-tampons destin6es A bien s6parer lea
A
zones productives des refuges forestiers I1 importe de programmer soishy
gneusement les activitis dun projet pour faire en sorte que des groupes
d61iphants ne se trouvent pas isol6s ou bloqu~s dans des zones producshy
tives car dans ce cas ils peuvent devenir tr~s dangereux et causer des
d6g~ts consid6rables
Pour r~ussir un programme de gestion des troupeaux d6lphants doit
sappuyer sur des structures institutionnelles solides Les diff6rentes
formes dassistance technique et financi~re dont peuvent avoir besoin les
autorit~s locales responsables de la faune sauvage sont indiqu6es dans ce
document
EXTRACTO
Los proyectos agricolas y de silvicultura emplazados en los habitat tradishy
cionales de los elefantes africanos y asiAticos (Loxodonta africana y Elephas
maximus respectivamente) obligan a estos animales a modificar sus desplazamienshy
tos y comportamiento Los estragos causados cuando los elefantes habitan en
zonas de proyectos o las invaden para alimentarse redundan en fuertes p~rdidas
financieras En el presente estudio se describen procedimientos para prever y
controlar el comportamiento de los elefantes tanto en las zonas de los proyecshy
tos como en las adyacentes que tienen en cuenta los fines de protecci6n de la
especie (lot elefantes asiAticos esthn amenazados de extinci6n y los africanos
en peligro de llegar a estarlo) Estos procedimientos deben seguirse en al
disefto general y en las operaciones de los proyectos
p
Una evaluaci6n previa del disefto del proyecto realizada con la colaborashy
ci6n de las autoridades locales responsables de la fauna silvestre permite proshy
nosticar el comportamiento de los elefantes en relaci6n con un proyecto proshy
puesto y proporciona la base para incorporar a fste medidas que eviten conflicshy
tos graves El diseno definitivo del proyecto deberA incluir instalaciones pars
impedir la entrada de los elefantes a las Zonas de producci6n y al mismo
tiempo asegurarles acceso a los recursos necesarios para su supervivencia o
proporcionhrselos mediante un mejoramiento del habitat En el disefto del proshy
yecto se deberg hacer hincapi6 en la inclusi6n de medidas pasivas para el conshy
trol de los elefantes 6stas pueden ser modificaciones de menor importancia en
la infraestructura pars facilitar o bien entorpecer el trnsito de los elefanshy
tea y la creaci6n de zonas que separen eficazmente las Areas de producci6n de
las que constituyen refugios forestales Es preciso programar cuidadosamente
las actividades de los proyectos para asegurarse de que no queden grupos de eleshy
fantes aislados o arrinconados en las zonas de producci6n En esas condicioshy
nes los elefantes pueden ser muy peligrosos y destructores
Un buen programa de control y protecci6n de los elefantes exige Ina s6lida
base de apoyo institucional local En el documento tambi6n se esbozan las medishy
das de asistencia t~cnica y financiera que podrian necesitar las autoridades
locales a cargo de la fauna silvestre
N
PREFACE
This technical paper is based on a seminar presentad at the World
Bank on January 24 1983 which was jointly sponsored by the Agriculture
Department and the Projects Policy Department Office of Environmental Affairs
The Seminar was an outgrowth of awareness of elephant depredatioD in
the Jahore Land Settlement Project in Malaysia Upon recognizing this as an
issue demanding attention the Agriculture Department requested the Office of
Environmental Affairs to furnish information regarding similar problems created
by elephants in other Bank agriculture projects This request resulted in a
selected list of 13 Bank projects where elephants were a major consideration
The author Dr John Seidensticker Wildlife Ecologist National Zoological
Park Smithsonian Institution based this paper on his experiences with
elephants and wildlife management in Sri Lanka Indonesia Nepal and -
Bangladesh
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper draws heavily upon the extensive research and writing
of Dr John Eisenberg Ordway Professor of Ecosystem Conservation
University of Florida Drs R Goodland R Rudran S Lumpkin AJT
Johnsingh JC Daniel J McNeely and Ms J Tralka have helped in
crystalizing ideas and procedures presented here The World Bank and the
National Zoological Park Smithsonian Institution supported the preparation
of this report
COhnENTS
ABSTRACT
PREFACE
10 INTRODUCTION 1
11 About Elephants 22
20 PROJECT DESIGN 9
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management 12 22 Elephants in Project Design 14
30 PROJECT IMPLEIENTATION 22
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants 22 32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities 23
SUMMARY 24
ANNEX Bank-Assisted P-lects with Elephant Implications 27
REFERENCES o 29
TABLES
Table 1 Recent Reports on the Local Distribution of Elephants 11
Table 2 Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Behavior and Ecology oo 13
FIGURES
Figure 1 Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements 8
Figure 2 Water Level Relative to the Floodplain and the 15 Slope of Banks in Reservoirs -
Figure 3 Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management bull 18
I l0 INTRODUCTION
The World Bank and other international development agencies have
invested billions of dollars in hydroelectric agricultural forestry and
other projects in developing countries where excellent elephant habitat
occurs The main World Bank assisted projects are listed in the Annex
Recently there has been increasing concern for the welfare and survival of
the worlds estimated 23000-41000 Asian (Elephas maximus) and 13 million
African elephants (Loxodonta africana) Authorities have designated these
species as endangered and threatened and have listed them in the Red
Data Books of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources and on the United States List of Endangered Species(53)
Continual loss of elephant habitat (eg conversion of forests to
agriculture) is a major conservation problem which is further compounded
by the elephants They enter and eat the rich patches of food which
constitute the plantations of sugar cane rice teak rubber and oil palm
established in their traditional foraging areas usually in disregard of
the best efforts to keep them out This behavior has resulted in millions
of dollars in damage and in project cost overruns thus causing concern to
economists and project designers(451) The losses have to be stopped for
the benefit of elephant conservation for the affected projects as well as
for the investors Management measures implemented hL- to be sensitive to
the elephants status as threatened species
Elephants have been raiding crops for thousands of years but case
studies of such problems are not readily available to the economic planners
or wildlife managers who need them The fficacy of the preventive and
mitigatory measures frequently proposed need review in the light of what
has been learned in the last two decades about the behavioral ecology of
-2shy
elephants This paper is a step towards improved planning and management
in order to reconcile development priorities with tke increasingly urgent
need for effective conservation measures
11 About Elephants
The elephant Order Proboscidea has a lung and spectacular
evolutionary history from its beginnings in Africa during the Eocene(14)
The two surviving species of this evolution are placed in different
genera Elephas maximus is usually separated into 3 subspecies E m
maximus of Sri Lanka E M indicus of the Indian Subcontinent and Southshy
east Asia including Borneo and E m sumatranus from Sumatra The bush
elephants of East and South Africa are usually placed in Loxodonta africana
africana and the West African forest elephants in L a cyclotis(1846)
African elephants are slightly larger than Asian elephants Adult
males weigh up to 6000 kg females up to 3200 kg African elephants have a
concave shape to their back large ears relatively smooth skin and a
trunk with 2 fingers at the tip Asian elephants have a distinctive
convex shaped back smaller ears skin that appears wrinkled and a trunk
with one finger There are differences between the two species distinshy
guished by the number of ribs and vertebrae and in the morphology of the
cheek teeth Male and female African elephants have tusks female Asians
and a large percentage of males iti some populations do not have tusks
Lacking tusks both males and females may have an alternate type of modishy
fied incisor or tushes that are barely visible beyond the lip(182746)
From a management perspective an important difference between the
two species is their ability to tolerate the sun and utilize open habishy
tats Heat dissipation is a problem for both species Asian elephants
need access to shade during much of each day(15182733) while African
- 3 shy
elephants are much less restricted except when young with calves This
difference alone suggests that project design features which could
discourage Asian elephants may not succeed with African elephants
Therefore measures taken to manage elephants need to consider species as
well as site characteristics
Elephants are never the numerically dominant ungulate in their
habitat but they are frequently ecological dominants in terms of biomass
and the cycling of plant material The habitats occupied vary but usually
are ecotones between forest and grasslands and areas with moderate tree
cover grading into savanna The sites are always in association with
permanent water which is well dispersed in the vegetational mosaic ASian
elephants do not extend into desertic areas They do occur in dense rain
forest only if there is sufficient interspersion of water and grass
Secondary or disturbed forests contain more suitable food plants In
suitable South Asian habitats crude density of elephants can range from
01 to 1km2(1416) Habitats described as suitable for Asian elephants
also support the densest African elephant populations with the exception
noted that African elephants appear to have a greater tolerance for drier
conditions(7131416)
Asian and African elephant literature contain both useful and
confusing information on elephant husbandry and management(182746)
Resolving elephant-development conflicts requires data from which reliable
predictions can be made about the response of elephants to changes in the
patterns and processes in their habitat brought about by a particular
project This is customarily termed a facultative or behavioral response
to environmentl change as opposed to a numerical response or change in
population numbers
- 4 -
An important distinction should be made here between crude and
ecological density because density estirates(7151633) are frequently
employed by wildlife managers Crude density estimates take the average
density of a species over the entire sample space Ecological density is
the crude density estimate corrected for habitat differences within a
non-homogenous habitat(16) Through some habitat modifications the
ecological density of elephanLs in a specific area might shift (a
behavioral response) but the overall or crude density of elephants in the
region might not (a numerical response)
The long-term problem of stabilizing elephant numbers in relation
to available resources requires knowledge of the genetic and quantitative
dynamics of populations and of the long-term coactions of these herbivores
with their food plants(282932374349) These issues which have
generated extensive elephant management literature(9) are important in the
management of elephant refuges but contribute little to solving the
problem of separating elephants and development projects
Long-term studies of elephant behavioral ecology have been carried
out or are in progress in Manayara Tanzania in Amboseli Kenya in Addo
South Africa and in the dry zone national parks of Sri Lanka
(615223355) These are monsoon areas with strong wet and dry seasons
There are few detailed behavioral and ecological data for elephants living
in wet high tropical forest areas of Africa or Asia This lack of
information is significant because of the large number of projects located
in this vegetation type (Annex) and because of the differences in movement
patterns and densities of elephants already noted(40)
Elephants are the largest grazing-browsing herbivores(14) that
improve the predictability of their food supply by maximizing the area over
- 5 shy
which they forage(Q) They push over trees or break them off to expand
their foraging space Iheir large size and efficient locomotion provide
for energetically cheap long-di3tance cruising with herd movement
The trunk enables them to feedconstrained only by the youngest members
on coarse forage ranging from short grasses to branches four meters and
more above the ground
Asian elephants may spend 70 to 90 of their time foraging with
An adult consumes 150kg of vegetationtwo major bouts per 24-hour day
African(wet weight) per day with an average intake rate of about 7kghr
While elephantselephants consume up to 220kgday(13141523273338)
may at one time or another eat or at least sample a wide variety of the
plant species in their foraging areas they have food preferences and
Grass for example is always a major dietary component During aneeds
cycle the rate of feeding varies with the food patch and increases
an optimum feeding site once theremarkedly as the animal approaches
feeding is at a maximum rate Drinking sites appear to be
Bouts of drinking and bathing by elephants arEtraditional(1533)
clustered in the morning and evening(13153355) and both species drink
often if water is availableonce a day or more
Studies of elephant sociality show that females live in small
cohesive groups of close relatives (mother-daughter and siblings) and their
offspring At puberty young females remain with the group while males
The age of puberty varies with nutrition duringleave or are expelled
These cow herds terl-d clans by Eisenberg(1214) divide
development
into smaller units during the daily cycle and reassemble when drinking and
moving from one area to another The subgroups frequently differ in sex
Females with their immediate offspring constitute the and age composition
- 6 shy
family units and tend to move in company with their small calves There
can be cohesive movement between females and half-grown young and between
males 6 or7 years old It is within the cow herd that the calf matures
and learns the template of its environment The cow herd serves as the
repository of traditional knowledge which includes routes to water-holes
to mineral sources and to seasonal foraging areas(1213141533)
Adult males live alone or occasionally in company with 1 to 3
satellite males with weak social bonds Adults are capable of breeding at
any time of year but when they reach an adequate nutritional plane they
enter a condition known as musth which is analogous to rut in bovids and
cervids When in musth maies are extremely aggressive and dangerous and
this condition probably allows them to dominate in contests with cows and
other males(14) In the dry zone of Sri Lanka males use restricted areas
that may be frequented by a number of cow groups More than one male at a
time may be in attendance with an estrous female in a cow herd(152233)
Under the strong wet-dry seasonal regime of East Africa bulls switch to a
strategy where they travel long distances in search of estroue females from
one that is associated with intensive feeding in restricted areas During
the dry and early wet season bulls maximize food intake a fat bull has a
better chance of rutting longer and still retaining sufficient energy
stores to survive the long dry season(3)
To visualize the impact a project may have on elephant movements
it is useful to examine how land-tenure and movement patterns reflect
elephant adaptations to different environments The environmental patterns
can be characterized by first seasonal flux in resources second predictshy
ability in the timing and amount that will become available during the
flux and third resource distribution These parameters are depicted in
- 7 -
Figure 1 There can be strong Lntermediate or little seaconal flux and
the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable A useful rating of
the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by
plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously
available patches(14)
In the dry zone monsoon forests of Sri Lanka elephants forage in
areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches
These are usually of rather poor quality(233755) in a moderate or low
fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable Cow herds
display movements based on three time scales(34) 1) daily movements
associated with feeding and moving to and from water 2) seasonal
movements between dry season and wet season home ranges and 3) medium-term
For a cowmovements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1)
herd home ranges of 25 km2 and 60 kmrhave been determined for wet and dry
seasons respectively Ranges for adult males vary from 10 kmgto 17 km2 (24)
This contrasts with elephant movements in Kenyas huge Tsavo
National Park which is semi-arid savanna with notoriously irregulcr
rainfall Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small
localized dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources Food
in these areas however becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry
season Sensing rain from considerable distances the first and subsequent
rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements up to 50 km to eat
new grass growing where rain has fallen This is schematically depicted in
from dry season ranges are unpredictableFigure 1 Outward movements
return movements can be more accurately predicted Aggregations of 1000
elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season
which come predictably to restricted areas(31)
-8-
Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
-9-
Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
- 10 shy
5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
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TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
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Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
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TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
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FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
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successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
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proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
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Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
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activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
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involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
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adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
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when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
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planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
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ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
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8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
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47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
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what constitutes a project what must be conshysidered to identify possible agricultural projects the life cycle of a proqecL the strengths and pitfalls of pojectanalysis anc the calculations required to obtain financial and economic project accounts
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ABSTRAIT
Les projets agricoles et f~restiers entrepris dans des r6gions qui
constituent lhabitat naturel des 616phants dAfrique et dAsie (Loxodonta
africana et Elephas maximus) obligent ces animaux A modifier leurs d~pla-
Ii arrive que des 6l6phants vivant dans cements et leurs comportements
des zones de projet y p6n~trant ou sy nourrissant causent des digAts
Ce document d6crit desqui entrainent dimportantes pertes financi~res
procedures tenant compte de la situation des 6lphants (ceux dAsie sont
en danger et ceux dAfrique menac6s) et visant A mettre en oeuvre une
politique concrite A l6gard des 6liphants qui vivent dans des zones de
projet ou A proximiti Ces procedures doivent 6tre appliquies en harmonie
avec la conception du projet et son ex6cution
Une itude pr6alable effectuge en collaboration avec les autoritis
locales responsables de la faune sauvage peut prfvoir la riaction des
et assortir celui-ci de mesures suscepshy6lphants A un projet envisag6
Sous sa forme finale le projettibles diviter des problimes majeurs
itre conqu de telle faqon que les 616phants ne puissent pas p6n6shy
devrait
trer dans les zones productives quils aient accs A des ressources
Au vitales pour eux ou quon les leur assura en am6liorant
leur habitat
stade de la conception du projet il conviendrait de mettre laccent sur
des masures passives de gestion des 6l6phants consistant par example A
modifier 16g~rement linfrastructure ou bien A facillter ou empampcher leurs
d6placements et A crier des zones-tampons destin6es A bien s6parer lea
A
zones productives des refuges forestiers I1 importe de programmer soishy
gneusement les activitis dun projet pour faire en sorte que des groupes
d61iphants ne se trouvent pas isol6s ou bloqu~s dans des zones producshy
tives car dans ce cas ils peuvent devenir tr~s dangereux et causer des
d6g~ts consid6rables
Pour r~ussir un programme de gestion des troupeaux d6lphants doit
sappuyer sur des structures institutionnelles solides Les diff6rentes
formes dassistance technique et financi~re dont peuvent avoir besoin les
autorit~s locales responsables de la faune sauvage sont indiqu6es dans ce
document
EXTRACTO
Los proyectos agricolas y de silvicultura emplazados en los habitat tradishy
cionales de los elefantes africanos y asiAticos (Loxodonta africana y Elephas
maximus respectivamente) obligan a estos animales a modificar sus desplazamienshy
tos y comportamiento Los estragos causados cuando los elefantes habitan en
zonas de proyectos o las invaden para alimentarse redundan en fuertes p~rdidas
financieras En el presente estudio se describen procedimientos para prever y
controlar el comportamiento de los elefantes tanto en las zonas de los proyecshy
tos como en las adyacentes que tienen en cuenta los fines de protecci6n de la
especie (lot elefantes asiAticos esthn amenazados de extinci6n y los africanos
en peligro de llegar a estarlo) Estos procedimientos deben seguirse en al
disefto general y en las operaciones de los proyectos
p
Una evaluaci6n previa del disefto del proyecto realizada con la colaborashy
ci6n de las autoridades locales responsables de la fauna silvestre permite proshy
nosticar el comportamiento de los elefantes en relaci6n con un proyecto proshy
puesto y proporciona la base para incorporar a fste medidas que eviten conflicshy
tos graves El diseno definitivo del proyecto deberA incluir instalaciones pars
impedir la entrada de los elefantes a las Zonas de producci6n y al mismo
tiempo asegurarles acceso a los recursos necesarios para su supervivencia o
proporcionhrselos mediante un mejoramiento del habitat En el disefto del proshy
yecto se deberg hacer hincapi6 en la inclusi6n de medidas pasivas para el conshy
trol de los elefantes 6stas pueden ser modificaciones de menor importancia en
la infraestructura pars facilitar o bien entorpecer el trnsito de los elefanshy
tea y la creaci6n de zonas que separen eficazmente las Areas de producci6n de
las que constituyen refugios forestales Es preciso programar cuidadosamente
las actividades de los proyectos para asegurarse de que no queden grupos de eleshy
fantes aislados o arrinconados en las zonas de producci6n En esas condicioshy
nes los elefantes pueden ser muy peligrosos y destructores
Un buen programa de control y protecci6n de los elefantes exige Ina s6lida
base de apoyo institucional local En el documento tambi6n se esbozan las medishy
das de asistencia t~cnica y financiera que podrian necesitar las autoridades
locales a cargo de la fauna silvestre
N
PREFACE
This technical paper is based on a seminar presentad at the World
Bank on January 24 1983 which was jointly sponsored by the Agriculture
Department and the Projects Policy Department Office of Environmental Affairs
The Seminar was an outgrowth of awareness of elephant depredatioD in
the Jahore Land Settlement Project in Malaysia Upon recognizing this as an
issue demanding attention the Agriculture Department requested the Office of
Environmental Affairs to furnish information regarding similar problems created
by elephants in other Bank agriculture projects This request resulted in a
selected list of 13 Bank projects where elephants were a major consideration
The author Dr John Seidensticker Wildlife Ecologist National Zoological
Park Smithsonian Institution based this paper on his experiences with
elephants and wildlife management in Sri Lanka Indonesia Nepal and -
Bangladesh
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper draws heavily upon the extensive research and writing
of Dr John Eisenberg Ordway Professor of Ecosystem Conservation
University of Florida Drs R Goodland R Rudran S Lumpkin AJT
Johnsingh JC Daniel J McNeely and Ms J Tralka have helped in
crystalizing ideas and procedures presented here The World Bank and the
National Zoological Park Smithsonian Institution supported the preparation
of this report
COhnENTS
ABSTRACT
PREFACE
10 INTRODUCTION 1
11 About Elephants 22
20 PROJECT DESIGN 9
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management 12 22 Elephants in Project Design 14
30 PROJECT IMPLEIENTATION 22
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants 22 32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities 23
SUMMARY 24
ANNEX Bank-Assisted P-lects with Elephant Implications 27
REFERENCES o 29
TABLES
Table 1 Recent Reports on the Local Distribution of Elephants 11
Table 2 Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Behavior and Ecology oo 13
FIGURES
Figure 1 Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements 8
Figure 2 Water Level Relative to the Floodplain and the 15 Slope of Banks in Reservoirs -
Figure 3 Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management bull 18
I l0 INTRODUCTION
The World Bank and other international development agencies have
invested billions of dollars in hydroelectric agricultural forestry and
other projects in developing countries where excellent elephant habitat
occurs The main World Bank assisted projects are listed in the Annex
Recently there has been increasing concern for the welfare and survival of
the worlds estimated 23000-41000 Asian (Elephas maximus) and 13 million
African elephants (Loxodonta africana) Authorities have designated these
species as endangered and threatened and have listed them in the Red
Data Books of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources and on the United States List of Endangered Species(53)
Continual loss of elephant habitat (eg conversion of forests to
agriculture) is a major conservation problem which is further compounded
by the elephants They enter and eat the rich patches of food which
constitute the plantations of sugar cane rice teak rubber and oil palm
established in their traditional foraging areas usually in disregard of
the best efforts to keep them out This behavior has resulted in millions
of dollars in damage and in project cost overruns thus causing concern to
economists and project designers(451) The losses have to be stopped for
the benefit of elephant conservation for the affected projects as well as
for the investors Management measures implemented hL- to be sensitive to
the elephants status as threatened species
Elephants have been raiding crops for thousands of years but case
studies of such problems are not readily available to the economic planners
or wildlife managers who need them The fficacy of the preventive and
mitigatory measures frequently proposed need review in the light of what
has been learned in the last two decades about the behavioral ecology of
-2shy
elephants This paper is a step towards improved planning and management
in order to reconcile development priorities with tke increasingly urgent
need for effective conservation measures
11 About Elephants
The elephant Order Proboscidea has a lung and spectacular
evolutionary history from its beginnings in Africa during the Eocene(14)
The two surviving species of this evolution are placed in different
genera Elephas maximus is usually separated into 3 subspecies E m
maximus of Sri Lanka E M indicus of the Indian Subcontinent and Southshy
east Asia including Borneo and E m sumatranus from Sumatra The bush
elephants of East and South Africa are usually placed in Loxodonta africana
africana and the West African forest elephants in L a cyclotis(1846)
African elephants are slightly larger than Asian elephants Adult
males weigh up to 6000 kg females up to 3200 kg African elephants have a
concave shape to their back large ears relatively smooth skin and a
trunk with 2 fingers at the tip Asian elephants have a distinctive
convex shaped back smaller ears skin that appears wrinkled and a trunk
with one finger There are differences between the two species distinshy
guished by the number of ribs and vertebrae and in the morphology of the
cheek teeth Male and female African elephants have tusks female Asians
and a large percentage of males iti some populations do not have tusks
Lacking tusks both males and females may have an alternate type of modishy
fied incisor or tushes that are barely visible beyond the lip(182746)
From a management perspective an important difference between the
two species is their ability to tolerate the sun and utilize open habishy
tats Heat dissipation is a problem for both species Asian elephants
need access to shade during much of each day(15182733) while African
- 3 shy
elephants are much less restricted except when young with calves This
difference alone suggests that project design features which could
discourage Asian elephants may not succeed with African elephants
Therefore measures taken to manage elephants need to consider species as
well as site characteristics
Elephants are never the numerically dominant ungulate in their
habitat but they are frequently ecological dominants in terms of biomass
and the cycling of plant material The habitats occupied vary but usually
are ecotones between forest and grasslands and areas with moderate tree
cover grading into savanna The sites are always in association with
permanent water which is well dispersed in the vegetational mosaic ASian
elephants do not extend into desertic areas They do occur in dense rain
forest only if there is sufficient interspersion of water and grass
Secondary or disturbed forests contain more suitable food plants In
suitable South Asian habitats crude density of elephants can range from
01 to 1km2(1416) Habitats described as suitable for Asian elephants
also support the densest African elephant populations with the exception
noted that African elephants appear to have a greater tolerance for drier
conditions(7131416)
Asian and African elephant literature contain both useful and
confusing information on elephant husbandry and management(182746)
Resolving elephant-development conflicts requires data from which reliable
predictions can be made about the response of elephants to changes in the
patterns and processes in their habitat brought about by a particular
project This is customarily termed a facultative or behavioral response
to environmentl change as opposed to a numerical response or change in
population numbers
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An important distinction should be made here between crude and
ecological density because density estirates(7151633) are frequently
employed by wildlife managers Crude density estimates take the average
density of a species over the entire sample space Ecological density is
the crude density estimate corrected for habitat differences within a
non-homogenous habitat(16) Through some habitat modifications the
ecological density of elephanLs in a specific area might shift (a
behavioral response) but the overall or crude density of elephants in the
region might not (a numerical response)
The long-term problem of stabilizing elephant numbers in relation
to available resources requires knowledge of the genetic and quantitative
dynamics of populations and of the long-term coactions of these herbivores
with their food plants(282932374349) These issues which have
generated extensive elephant management literature(9) are important in the
management of elephant refuges but contribute little to solving the
problem of separating elephants and development projects
Long-term studies of elephant behavioral ecology have been carried
out or are in progress in Manayara Tanzania in Amboseli Kenya in Addo
South Africa and in the dry zone national parks of Sri Lanka
(615223355) These are monsoon areas with strong wet and dry seasons
There are few detailed behavioral and ecological data for elephants living
in wet high tropical forest areas of Africa or Asia This lack of
information is significant because of the large number of projects located
in this vegetation type (Annex) and because of the differences in movement
patterns and densities of elephants already noted(40)
Elephants are the largest grazing-browsing herbivores(14) that
improve the predictability of their food supply by maximizing the area over
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which they forage(Q) They push over trees or break them off to expand
their foraging space Iheir large size and efficient locomotion provide
for energetically cheap long-di3tance cruising with herd movement
The trunk enables them to feedconstrained only by the youngest members
on coarse forage ranging from short grasses to branches four meters and
more above the ground
Asian elephants may spend 70 to 90 of their time foraging with
An adult consumes 150kg of vegetationtwo major bouts per 24-hour day
African(wet weight) per day with an average intake rate of about 7kghr
While elephantselephants consume up to 220kgday(13141523273338)
may at one time or another eat or at least sample a wide variety of the
plant species in their foraging areas they have food preferences and
Grass for example is always a major dietary component During aneeds
cycle the rate of feeding varies with the food patch and increases
an optimum feeding site once theremarkedly as the animal approaches
feeding is at a maximum rate Drinking sites appear to be
Bouts of drinking and bathing by elephants arEtraditional(1533)
clustered in the morning and evening(13153355) and both species drink
often if water is availableonce a day or more
Studies of elephant sociality show that females live in small
cohesive groups of close relatives (mother-daughter and siblings) and their
offspring At puberty young females remain with the group while males
The age of puberty varies with nutrition duringleave or are expelled
These cow herds terl-d clans by Eisenberg(1214) divide
development
into smaller units during the daily cycle and reassemble when drinking and
moving from one area to another The subgroups frequently differ in sex
Females with their immediate offspring constitute the and age composition
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family units and tend to move in company with their small calves There
can be cohesive movement between females and half-grown young and between
males 6 or7 years old It is within the cow herd that the calf matures
and learns the template of its environment The cow herd serves as the
repository of traditional knowledge which includes routes to water-holes
to mineral sources and to seasonal foraging areas(1213141533)
Adult males live alone or occasionally in company with 1 to 3
satellite males with weak social bonds Adults are capable of breeding at
any time of year but when they reach an adequate nutritional plane they
enter a condition known as musth which is analogous to rut in bovids and
cervids When in musth maies are extremely aggressive and dangerous and
this condition probably allows them to dominate in contests with cows and
other males(14) In the dry zone of Sri Lanka males use restricted areas
that may be frequented by a number of cow groups More than one male at a
time may be in attendance with an estrous female in a cow herd(152233)
Under the strong wet-dry seasonal regime of East Africa bulls switch to a
strategy where they travel long distances in search of estroue females from
one that is associated with intensive feeding in restricted areas During
the dry and early wet season bulls maximize food intake a fat bull has a
better chance of rutting longer and still retaining sufficient energy
stores to survive the long dry season(3)
To visualize the impact a project may have on elephant movements
it is useful to examine how land-tenure and movement patterns reflect
elephant adaptations to different environments The environmental patterns
can be characterized by first seasonal flux in resources second predictshy
ability in the timing and amount that will become available during the
flux and third resource distribution These parameters are depicted in
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Figure 1 There can be strong Lntermediate or little seaconal flux and
the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable A useful rating of
the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by
plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously
available patches(14)
In the dry zone monsoon forests of Sri Lanka elephants forage in
areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches
These are usually of rather poor quality(233755) in a moderate or low
fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable Cow herds
display movements based on three time scales(34) 1) daily movements
associated with feeding and moving to and from water 2) seasonal
movements between dry season and wet season home ranges and 3) medium-term
For a cowmovements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1)
herd home ranges of 25 km2 and 60 kmrhave been determined for wet and dry
seasons respectively Ranges for adult males vary from 10 kmgto 17 km2 (24)
This contrasts with elephant movements in Kenyas huge Tsavo
National Park which is semi-arid savanna with notoriously irregulcr
rainfall Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small
localized dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources Food
in these areas however becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry
season Sensing rain from considerable distances the first and subsequent
rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements up to 50 km to eat
new grass growing where rain has fallen This is schematically depicted in
from dry season ranges are unpredictableFigure 1 Outward movements
return movements can be more accurately predicted Aggregations of 1000
elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season
which come predictably to restricted areas(31)
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Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
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Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
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5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
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TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
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Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
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TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
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FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
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successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
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proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
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Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
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activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
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involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
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adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
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when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
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planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
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ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
REFERENCES
1 Asian Elephant Specialist Group Survival Service Commission 1980 The status of the Asian elephant in the Indian Sub-continent Gland Switzerland IUCN 74pp
2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
semiarid environment Anim Behav 301217-1223
4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
cultivation the confrontation between the Asian elephant and land
development in Peninsular Malaysia Land Dev Digest 227-59
5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
africana (Blumenbach)) East Afr Wildl J 10165-174
7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production Oecologia 22341-354
8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
age-structures of elephant populations and its use in Kidepo National Park East Afr Wildl J 1091-115
9 Croze H Hillman AKK and Lang EM 1981 Elephants and their habitats how do they tolerate each other Pages 297-316 in Fowler CW
and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
Wiley amp Sons
10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
migration paths in the Nilgiri Hills and inquiry into impediments to the free
movements of elephants there and recommendations for the provision of
corridors for their movement Bombay Bombay Nat Hist Society (Mimeogr)
20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
report Washington DC US Fish and Wildl Serv (Mimeogr) IO5pp
12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
- 30 shy
14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
food and other commodities that are
of importance to low-income can
sumers small farmers and resource-Door areasSector Paper
5ctor PolicyPaperJune 1981 IO pages (including annexes) EngiLsh
Frenchand Spanish
Stock No PP8101-E PP8101-f PP8101-S $euro00 paperback
odel forhDevericltthe Agricultural Se-ctor of Fortugal Alvin C Egbert and Iyung f Kim Spatial mathematical programming is used to develop comprehensive and quantitative methods to suggest development strategies in Portugals agriculture sector
The Johns Hopkins University Press
197 1o pages (including
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LC 75-26662 ISBN 0-8018-1793-5$650 4i400) Daperback
Economic Aspects andolicy issues in Groundshy
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World Bank Staff Working Paper
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Economic Return to Invest
meat In Irrigation in India Leslie A Abbie James Q Harrison
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Agricultural Project AnalysLs Maxwell L Brown
Clarifies the relation between simple
farm Income analysis and the broader
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EDI Series in Economic Development
The Johns Hopkitns University Press
1980 154 pages
LC 79-3704 ISBN 0-8018-2386-2 $1500 (S1oo hardcour ISBN 8-8015-2367-0 $650 (450) paperbackSpnLsh Prupuestos Va fincas
EditorialTecnas 1982
ISBN 84-309-0886-2 725 oesetas
Fishery Highllts the imoortance of fisheries
to the economies of developing coun-
tries and recommends that the World
ank provide assistance to those
countries that have the fishery are willing to developresources and
reoure re them further
Setor Policy Paper December 1982
ISBN 0-8213-0138-1 $500 paperback
Food Security in Food Deicit Countries Shlomo Reutlinger and Keith Knapp
World Bank Staff Working Paper No
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Forestry Graham Donaldson coordi-
rmaornating author Lxamlnes the significance of forests Ineconomic development and con-cludes that the World Bank should
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efficiency of investment In surfaceNo50Otbr1813pae and groundwater Irrigation In India
World Bank Staff Working Paper
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Improving Irrigated Agrlculshyture Institutional Reform and the Small Farmer Dan el W Br-omley
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Wort 51ank taf Working Paper
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Increasing Aoricalturalrod ucUVit cu
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These proceedings are tne third In a series of recoras of Agricultural 5ecshy
tor Symposia presented at the World
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speakers cnapersonsstatements and summaries of the discussions prepared by the rapporteurs
1982 307 pages (incluaing index)
15BN 0-8213-0099-7 $1500
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India Demand and Supply Prospects for Agriculture James Q Harrison Jon A Hitchings and John W Wall
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me World Banks economic work In
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Agricultural Research and Productivity Robert E Evenson and Yoav Kislev Examines the role of scientific reswarh and technological change in increasing agnicularai prcxuctivity
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Provides and Illustrates a framework for analyzing and designing ar
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The Book of CHAC Programming Studies for Iexican Agricultural Policy Edited Dy RogeL-r D Noriton and Leooldo 51i M
n a n po tproject The principal tooi ot analysis is the se-wtr modei Cft named after the
Mayan rain gcd This model can be hrougno the sector to cover
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Thi--volum r)ort5 tne exenence of uainq tne ClA - mogje and also pre-_rtq itnmdOoyc3i materalpurlim-
TnWJ~n iwxn Lnrit
Q2 Dage Ua 080125857
2c (24 arc
indust~tl po icLSStockIndust roi ts gr
EDI Senes in Economic DevelopmenL
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1981224 pages incudwg appen-dixes bibliograhy and inae) LC 80-550 15BI0-8016-2412-5 $1650 (S1000) hardcovr ISBNM 0-8018-2413-3 S7_50 U425) paperback
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Argentina Country Case Study of Agricultural Prices
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World Bank Staff Working Paper No
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Building NiationaJ Capacity to Develop Water Uiiers Asoocia6inw Lperizence from the PhilIppines
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Over a fiv-year pDeno_ Lht National
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the agency as a result of the develop-ment of tnesc associatnv prior to the contruction of the pnysical wystem and the involvement of
association mmDirs in the olanning
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and ciiuasse the implications or
donor uppcno outer small-scale programs and more
generally for orog-ams Involving village-levei work
World Bank Staff Working Paper NIo 528 July1982 u -69 pages (including references)
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C-12o y EJerccios Sobre Proyectos Agricolas Edited by Orlando T Espadas Three case studies prepared in conshyjunction with the EDIs Agricultural Projects Courses in Spanish and intended primarly for teachers of
at _Iysis
World Bank (EDI) March 1974 revised January 1975 480 pages (Available
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The Design of Organiza
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rancis J Lethem and
Ben A Thoolen World Bank Staff Working Paper No
375 March 1980 48 pages English
and French WP-O5 73-PNo WP-O5 75-C Stoco
The Design of Rural Development Lessons from Africa Uma Lee Analyzes new ways of designing rural
development projects to reach large numbers of low-income subsistence populations The paperback reprintshying In 1979 contains a new chapter by the author updating her findings
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Managing Information for Rural Development Leson~from Eastern Aurrica s
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3 70pags5Sock79 Mach 180oil+
and they involve a variety of Invest-ments The need for monitoring and evaluaUng Wein during implementa-tion has been accepted in principlebut effective systems have notheretofore bten fonrnulated The con-
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World Sank Staff Working Paper No
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Nutritional Consequences of Agricultural Projects Conceptual Relationships and AssessmentApproaches Per Pinstrup-Andersen
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of Techique in S i Rice Prledctot CPe Fkumphreys and Scott R Person World ank ampprint Series f umber 199 Pepriitdfom food Resarch Studies uol 17
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Sociolloicad Dimeninlao of Extension Orpanizatson Tne Introduction of the TSV oystem in India Michael M Cemea
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NEW Economic Analysis of Agricultural Projects Second edition compleeLy rev sed and erpanded J Price Gittinger
Thisbook entirelyoutnew editioncareful of thepracticalWorld Banksmethodlologjybest-sellingsets a and fora a y n u t ~ uanalyzing agricultural development projects and for using these analyses to compare proposed Investments It
what constitutes a project what must be conshysidered to identify possible agricultural projects the life cycle of a proqecL the strengths and pitfalls of pojectanalysis anc the calculations required to obtain financial and economic project accounts
In the ten years since Its publication the first edition has been accepted widely as a standard reference and texL Themethodology reflects the best of contemporary practice In government agencies and International developmentinstitutions concerned with Investing in agriculture and Isaccessible to a broad readership of agricultural planners
n i e r a n n l s sengineers and analysts This revision adds a wealth of recent project dataexpanded treatment of farm budgets and the efficiency
pnces used to calculate the effects of an Investment on national income a glossary of technical terms expandedappendixes on preparing an agricultural project report and using discounting tables and an expanded completely annotated bibliographyLI Series in Economic Development
The Johns Hopkins Univeity PrnS July 1982 528 pages
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zones productives des refuges forestiers I1 importe de programmer soishy
gneusement les activitis dun projet pour faire en sorte que des groupes
d61iphants ne se trouvent pas isol6s ou bloqu~s dans des zones producshy
tives car dans ce cas ils peuvent devenir tr~s dangereux et causer des
d6g~ts consid6rables
Pour r~ussir un programme de gestion des troupeaux d6lphants doit
sappuyer sur des structures institutionnelles solides Les diff6rentes
formes dassistance technique et financi~re dont peuvent avoir besoin les
autorit~s locales responsables de la faune sauvage sont indiqu6es dans ce
document
EXTRACTO
Los proyectos agricolas y de silvicultura emplazados en los habitat tradishy
cionales de los elefantes africanos y asiAticos (Loxodonta africana y Elephas
maximus respectivamente) obligan a estos animales a modificar sus desplazamienshy
tos y comportamiento Los estragos causados cuando los elefantes habitan en
zonas de proyectos o las invaden para alimentarse redundan en fuertes p~rdidas
financieras En el presente estudio se describen procedimientos para prever y
controlar el comportamiento de los elefantes tanto en las zonas de los proyecshy
tos como en las adyacentes que tienen en cuenta los fines de protecci6n de la
especie (lot elefantes asiAticos esthn amenazados de extinci6n y los africanos
en peligro de llegar a estarlo) Estos procedimientos deben seguirse en al
disefto general y en las operaciones de los proyectos
p
Una evaluaci6n previa del disefto del proyecto realizada con la colaborashy
ci6n de las autoridades locales responsables de la fauna silvestre permite proshy
nosticar el comportamiento de los elefantes en relaci6n con un proyecto proshy
puesto y proporciona la base para incorporar a fste medidas que eviten conflicshy
tos graves El diseno definitivo del proyecto deberA incluir instalaciones pars
impedir la entrada de los elefantes a las Zonas de producci6n y al mismo
tiempo asegurarles acceso a los recursos necesarios para su supervivencia o
proporcionhrselos mediante un mejoramiento del habitat En el disefto del proshy
yecto se deberg hacer hincapi6 en la inclusi6n de medidas pasivas para el conshy
trol de los elefantes 6stas pueden ser modificaciones de menor importancia en
la infraestructura pars facilitar o bien entorpecer el trnsito de los elefanshy
tea y la creaci6n de zonas que separen eficazmente las Areas de producci6n de
las que constituyen refugios forestales Es preciso programar cuidadosamente
las actividades de los proyectos para asegurarse de que no queden grupos de eleshy
fantes aislados o arrinconados en las zonas de producci6n En esas condicioshy
nes los elefantes pueden ser muy peligrosos y destructores
Un buen programa de control y protecci6n de los elefantes exige Ina s6lida
base de apoyo institucional local En el documento tambi6n se esbozan las medishy
das de asistencia t~cnica y financiera que podrian necesitar las autoridades
locales a cargo de la fauna silvestre
N
PREFACE
This technical paper is based on a seminar presentad at the World
Bank on January 24 1983 which was jointly sponsored by the Agriculture
Department and the Projects Policy Department Office of Environmental Affairs
The Seminar was an outgrowth of awareness of elephant depredatioD in
the Jahore Land Settlement Project in Malaysia Upon recognizing this as an
issue demanding attention the Agriculture Department requested the Office of
Environmental Affairs to furnish information regarding similar problems created
by elephants in other Bank agriculture projects This request resulted in a
selected list of 13 Bank projects where elephants were a major consideration
The author Dr John Seidensticker Wildlife Ecologist National Zoological
Park Smithsonian Institution based this paper on his experiences with
elephants and wildlife management in Sri Lanka Indonesia Nepal and -
Bangladesh
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper draws heavily upon the extensive research and writing
of Dr John Eisenberg Ordway Professor of Ecosystem Conservation
University of Florida Drs R Goodland R Rudran S Lumpkin AJT
Johnsingh JC Daniel J McNeely and Ms J Tralka have helped in
crystalizing ideas and procedures presented here The World Bank and the
National Zoological Park Smithsonian Institution supported the preparation
of this report
COhnENTS
ABSTRACT
PREFACE
10 INTRODUCTION 1
11 About Elephants 22
20 PROJECT DESIGN 9
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management 12 22 Elephants in Project Design 14
30 PROJECT IMPLEIENTATION 22
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants 22 32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities 23
SUMMARY 24
ANNEX Bank-Assisted P-lects with Elephant Implications 27
REFERENCES o 29
TABLES
Table 1 Recent Reports on the Local Distribution of Elephants 11
Table 2 Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Behavior and Ecology oo 13
FIGURES
Figure 1 Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements 8
Figure 2 Water Level Relative to the Floodplain and the 15 Slope of Banks in Reservoirs -
Figure 3 Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management bull 18
I l0 INTRODUCTION
The World Bank and other international development agencies have
invested billions of dollars in hydroelectric agricultural forestry and
other projects in developing countries where excellent elephant habitat
occurs The main World Bank assisted projects are listed in the Annex
Recently there has been increasing concern for the welfare and survival of
the worlds estimated 23000-41000 Asian (Elephas maximus) and 13 million
African elephants (Loxodonta africana) Authorities have designated these
species as endangered and threatened and have listed them in the Red
Data Books of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources and on the United States List of Endangered Species(53)
Continual loss of elephant habitat (eg conversion of forests to
agriculture) is a major conservation problem which is further compounded
by the elephants They enter and eat the rich patches of food which
constitute the plantations of sugar cane rice teak rubber and oil palm
established in their traditional foraging areas usually in disregard of
the best efforts to keep them out This behavior has resulted in millions
of dollars in damage and in project cost overruns thus causing concern to
economists and project designers(451) The losses have to be stopped for
the benefit of elephant conservation for the affected projects as well as
for the investors Management measures implemented hL- to be sensitive to
the elephants status as threatened species
Elephants have been raiding crops for thousands of years but case
studies of such problems are not readily available to the economic planners
or wildlife managers who need them The fficacy of the preventive and
mitigatory measures frequently proposed need review in the light of what
has been learned in the last two decades about the behavioral ecology of
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elephants This paper is a step towards improved planning and management
in order to reconcile development priorities with tke increasingly urgent
need for effective conservation measures
11 About Elephants
The elephant Order Proboscidea has a lung and spectacular
evolutionary history from its beginnings in Africa during the Eocene(14)
The two surviving species of this evolution are placed in different
genera Elephas maximus is usually separated into 3 subspecies E m
maximus of Sri Lanka E M indicus of the Indian Subcontinent and Southshy
east Asia including Borneo and E m sumatranus from Sumatra The bush
elephants of East and South Africa are usually placed in Loxodonta africana
africana and the West African forest elephants in L a cyclotis(1846)
African elephants are slightly larger than Asian elephants Adult
males weigh up to 6000 kg females up to 3200 kg African elephants have a
concave shape to their back large ears relatively smooth skin and a
trunk with 2 fingers at the tip Asian elephants have a distinctive
convex shaped back smaller ears skin that appears wrinkled and a trunk
with one finger There are differences between the two species distinshy
guished by the number of ribs and vertebrae and in the morphology of the
cheek teeth Male and female African elephants have tusks female Asians
and a large percentage of males iti some populations do not have tusks
Lacking tusks both males and females may have an alternate type of modishy
fied incisor or tushes that are barely visible beyond the lip(182746)
From a management perspective an important difference between the
two species is their ability to tolerate the sun and utilize open habishy
tats Heat dissipation is a problem for both species Asian elephants
need access to shade during much of each day(15182733) while African
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elephants are much less restricted except when young with calves This
difference alone suggests that project design features which could
discourage Asian elephants may not succeed with African elephants
Therefore measures taken to manage elephants need to consider species as
well as site characteristics
Elephants are never the numerically dominant ungulate in their
habitat but they are frequently ecological dominants in terms of biomass
and the cycling of plant material The habitats occupied vary but usually
are ecotones between forest and grasslands and areas with moderate tree
cover grading into savanna The sites are always in association with
permanent water which is well dispersed in the vegetational mosaic ASian
elephants do not extend into desertic areas They do occur in dense rain
forest only if there is sufficient interspersion of water and grass
Secondary or disturbed forests contain more suitable food plants In
suitable South Asian habitats crude density of elephants can range from
01 to 1km2(1416) Habitats described as suitable for Asian elephants
also support the densest African elephant populations with the exception
noted that African elephants appear to have a greater tolerance for drier
conditions(7131416)
Asian and African elephant literature contain both useful and
confusing information on elephant husbandry and management(182746)
Resolving elephant-development conflicts requires data from which reliable
predictions can be made about the response of elephants to changes in the
patterns and processes in their habitat brought about by a particular
project This is customarily termed a facultative or behavioral response
to environmentl change as opposed to a numerical response or change in
population numbers
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An important distinction should be made here between crude and
ecological density because density estirates(7151633) are frequently
employed by wildlife managers Crude density estimates take the average
density of a species over the entire sample space Ecological density is
the crude density estimate corrected for habitat differences within a
non-homogenous habitat(16) Through some habitat modifications the
ecological density of elephanLs in a specific area might shift (a
behavioral response) but the overall or crude density of elephants in the
region might not (a numerical response)
The long-term problem of stabilizing elephant numbers in relation
to available resources requires knowledge of the genetic and quantitative
dynamics of populations and of the long-term coactions of these herbivores
with their food plants(282932374349) These issues which have
generated extensive elephant management literature(9) are important in the
management of elephant refuges but contribute little to solving the
problem of separating elephants and development projects
Long-term studies of elephant behavioral ecology have been carried
out or are in progress in Manayara Tanzania in Amboseli Kenya in Addo
South Africa and in the dry zone national parks of Sri Lanka
(615223355) These are monsoon areas with strong wet and dry seasons
There are few detailed behavioral and ecological data for elephants living
in wet high tropical forest areas of Africa or Asia This lack of
information is significant because of the large number of projects located
in this vegetation type (Annex) and because of the differences in movement
patterns and densities of elephants already noted(40)
Elephants are the largest grazing-browsing herbivores(14) that
improve the predictability of their food supply by maximizing the area over
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which they forage(Q) They push over trees or break them off to expand
their foraging space Iheir large size and efficient locomotion provide
for energetically cheap long-di3tance cruising with herd movement
The trunk enables them to feedconstrained only by the youngest members
on coarse forage ranging from short grasses to branches four meters and
more above the ground
Asian elephants may spend 70 to 90 of their time foraging with
An adult consumes 150kg of vegetationtwo major bouts per 24-hour day
African(wet weight) per day with an average intake rate of about 7kghr
While elephantselephants consume up to 220kgday(13141523273338)
may at one time or another eat or at least sample a wide variety of the
plant species in their foraging areas they have food preferences and
Grass for example is always a major dietary component During aneeds
cycle the rate of feeding varies with the food patch and increases
an optimum feeding site once theremarkedly as the animal approaches
feeding is at a maximum rate Drinking sites appear to be
Bouts of drinking and bathing by elephants arEtraditional(1533)
clustered in the morning and evening(13153355) and both species drink
often if water is availableonce a day or more
Studies of elephant sociality show that females live in small
cohesive groups of close relatives (mother-daughter and siblings) and their
offspring At puberty young females remain with the group while males
The age of puberty varies with nutrition duringleave or are expelled
These cow herds terl-d clans by Eisenberg(1214) divide
development
into smaller units during the daily cycle and reassemble when drinking and
moving from one area to another The subgroups frequently differ in sex
Females with their immediate offspring constitute the and age composition
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family units and tend to move in company with their small calves There
can be cohesive movement between females and half-grown young and between
males 6 or7 years old It is within the cow herd that the calf matures
and learns the template of its environment The cow herd serves as the
repository of traditional knowledge which includes routes to water-holes
to mineral sources and to seasonal foraging areas(1213141533)
Adult males live alone or occasionally in company with 1 to 3
satellite males with weak social bonds Adults are capable of breeding at
any time of year but when they reach an adequate nutritional plane they
enter a condition known as musth which is analogous to rut in bovids and
cervids When in musth maies are extremely aggressive and dangerous and
this condition probably allows them to dominate in contests with cows and
other males(14) In the dry zone of Sri Lanka males use restricted areas
that may be frequented by a number of cow groups More than one male at a
time may be in attendance with an estrous female in a cow herd(152233)
Under the strong wet-dry seasonal regime of East Africa bulls switch to a
strategy where they travel long distances in search of estroue females from
one that is associated with intensive feeding in restricted areas During
the dry and early wet season bulls maximize food intake a fat bull has a
better chance of rutting longer and still retaining sufficient energy
stores to survive the long dry season(3)
To visualize the impact a project may have on elephant movements
it is useful to examine how land-tenure and movement patterns reflect
elephant adaptations to different environments The environmental patterns
can be characterized by first seasonal flux in resources second predictshy
ability in the timing and amount that will become available during the
flux and third resource distribution These parameters are depicted in
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Figure 1 There can be strong Lntermediate or little seaconal flux and
the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable A useful rating of
the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by
plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously
available patches(14)
In the dry zone monsoon forests of Sri Lanka elephants forage in
areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches
These are usually of rather poor quality(233755) in a moderate or low
fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable Cow herds
display movements based on three time scales(34) 1) daily movements
associated with feeding and moving to and from water 2) seasonal
movements between dry season and wet season home ranges and 3) medium-term
For a cowmovements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1)
herd home ranges of 25 km2 and 60 kmrhave been determined for wet and dry
seasons respectively Ranges for adult males vary from 10 kmgto 17 km2 (24)
This contrasts with elephant movements in Kenyas huge Tsavo
National Park which is semi-arid savanna with notoriously irregulcr
rainfall Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small
localized dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources Food
in these areas however becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry
season Sensing rain from considerable distances the first and subsequent
rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements up to 50 km to eat
new grass growing where rain has fallen This is schematically depicted in
from dry season ranges are unpredictableFigure 1 Outward movements
return movements can be more accurately predicted Aggregations of 1000
elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season
which come predictably to restricted areas(31)
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Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
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Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
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5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
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TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
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Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
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TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
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FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
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successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
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proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
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activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
- 22 shy
involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
- 23 shy
adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
- 24 shy
when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
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2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
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4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
cultivation the confrontation between the Asian elephant and land
development in Peninsular Malaysia Land Dev Digest 227-59
5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
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7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production Oecologia 22341-354
8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
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9 Croze H Hillman AKK and Lang EM 1981 Elephants and their habitats how do they tolerate each other Pages 297-316 in Fowler CW
and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
Wiley amp Sons
10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
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corridors for their movement Bombay Bombay Nat Hist Society (Mimeogr)
20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
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12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
- 30 shy
14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
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of Techique in S i Rice Prledctot CPe Fkumphreys and Scott R Person World ank ampprint Series f umber 199 Pepriitdfom food Resarch Studies uol 17
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NEW Economic Analysis of Agricultural Projects Second edition compleeLy rev sed and erpanded J Price Gittinger
Thisbook entirelyoutnew editioncareful of thepracticalWorld Banksmethodlologjybest-sellingsets a and fora a y n u t ~ uanalyzing agricultural development projects and for using these analyses to compare proposed Investments It
what constitutes a project what must be conshysidered to identify possible agricultural projects the life cycle of a proqecL the strengths and pitfalls of pojectanalysis anc the calculations required to obtain financial and economic project accounts
In the ten years since Its publication the first edition has been accepted widely as a standard reference and texL Themethodology reflects the best of contemporary practice In government agencies and International developmentinstitutions concerned with Investing in agriculture and Isaccessible to a broad readership of agricultural planners
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pnces used to calculate the effects of an Investment on national income a glossary of technical terms expandedappendixes on preparing an agricultural project report and using discounting tables and an expanded completely annotated bibliographyLI Series in Economic Development
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Una evaluaci6n previa del disefto del proyecto realizada con la colaborashy
ci6n de las autoridades locales responsables de la fauna silvestre permite proshy
nosticar el comportamiento de los elefantes en relaci6n con un proyecto proshy
puesto y proporciona la base para incorporar a fste medidas que eviten conflicshy
tos graves El diseno definitivo del proyecto deberA incluir instalaciones pars
impedir la entrada de los elefantes a las Zonas de producci6n y al mismo
tiempo asegurarles acceso a los recursos necesarios para su supervivencia o
proporcionhrselos mediante un mejoramiento del habitat En el disefto del proshy
yecto se deberg hacer hincapi6 en la inclusi6n de medidas pasivas para el conshy
trol de los elefantes 6stas pueden ser modificaciones de menor importancia en
la infraestructura pars facilitar o bien entorpecer el trnsito de los elefanshy
tea y la creaci6n de zonas que separen eficazmente las Areas de producci6n de
las que constituyen refugios forestales Es preciso programar cuidadosamente
las actividades de los proyectos para asegurarse de que no queden grupos de eleshy
fantes aislados o arrinconados en las zonas de producci6n En esas condicioshy
nes los elefantes pueden ser muy peligrosos y destructores
Un buen programa de control y protecci6n de los elefantes exige Ina s6lida
base de apoyo institucional local En el documento tambi6n se esbozan las medishy
das de asistencia t~cnica y financiera que podrian necesitar las autoridades
locales a cargo de la fauna silvestre
N
PREFACE
This technical paper is based on a seminar presentad at the World
Bank on January 24 1983 which was jointly sponsored by the Agriculture
Department and the Projects Policy Department Office of Environmental Affairs
The Seminar was an outgrowth of awareness of elephant depredatioD in
the Jahore Land Settlement Project in Malaysia Upon recognizing this as an
issue demanding attention the Agriculture Department requested the Office of
Environmental Affairs to furnish information regarding similar problems created
by elephants in other Bank agriculture projects This request resulted in a
selected list of 13 Bank projects where elephants were a major consideration
The author Dr John Seidensticker Wildlife Ecologist National Zoological
Park Smithsonian Institution based this paper on his experiences with
elephants and wildlife management in Sri Lanka Indonesia Nepal and -
Bangladesh
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper draws heavily upon the extensive research and writing
of Dr John Eisenberg Ordway Professor of Ecosystem Conservation
University of Florida Drs R Goodland R Rudran S Lumpkin AJT
Johnsingh JC Daniel J McNeely and Ms J Tralka have helped in
crystalizing ideas and procedures presented here The World Bank and the
National Zoological Park Smithsonian Institution supported the preparation
of this report
COhnENTS
ABSTRACT
PREFACE
10 INTRODUCTION 1
11 About Elephants 22
20 PROJECT DESIGN 9
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management 12 22 Elephants in Project Design 14
30 PROJECT IMPLEIENTATION 22
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants 22 32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities 23
SUMMARY 24
ANNEX Bank-Assisted P-lects with Elephant Implications 27
REFERENCES o 29
TABLES
Table 1 Recent Reports on the Local Distribution of Elephants 11
Table 2 Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Behavior and Ecology oo 13
FIGURES
Figure 1 Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements 8
Figure 2 Water Level Relative to the Floodplain and the 15 Slope of Banks in Reservoirs -
Figure 3 Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management bull 18
I l0 INTRODUCTION
The World Bank and other international development agencies have
invested billions of dollars in hydroelectric agricultural forestry and
other projects in developing countries where excellent elephant habitat
occurs The main World Bank assisted projects are listed in the Annex
Recently there has been increasing concern for the welfare and survival of
the worlds estimated 23000-41000 Asian (Elephas maximus) and 13 million
African elephants (Loxodonta africana) Authorities have designated these
species as endangered and threatened and have listed them in the Red
Data Books of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources and on the United States List of Endangered Species(53)
Continual loss of elephant habitat (eg conversion of forests to
agriculture) is a major conservation problem which is further compounded
by the elephants They enter and eat the rich patches of food which
constitute the plantations of sugar cane rice teak rubber and oil palm
established in their traditional foraging areas usually in disregard of
the best efforts to keep them out This behavior has resulted in millions
of dollars in damage and in project cost overruns thus causing concern to
economists and project designers(451) The losses have to be stopped for
the benefit of elephant conservation for the affected projects as well as
for the investors Management measures implemented hL- to be sensitive to
the elephants status as threatened species
Elephants have been raiding crops for thousands of years but case
studies of such problems are not readily available to the economic planners
or wildlife managers who need them The fficacy of the preventive and
mitigatory measures frequently proposed need review in the light of what
has been learned in the last two decades about the behavioral ecology of
-2shy
elephants This paper is a step towards improved planning and management
in order to reconcile development priorities with tke increasingly urgent
need for effective conservation measures
11 About Elephants
The elephant Order Proboscidea has a lung and spectacular
evolutionary history from its beginnings in Africa during the Eocene(14)
The two surviving species of this evolution are placed in different
genera Elephas maximus is usually separated into 3 subspecies E m
maximus of Sri Lanka E M indicus of the Indian Subcontinent and Southshy
east Asia including Borneo and E m sumatranus from Sumatra The bush
elephants of East and South Africa are usually placed in Loxodonta africana
africana and the West African forest elephants in L a cyclotis(1846)
African elephants are slightly larger than Asian elephants Adult
males weigh up to 6000 kg females up to 3200 kg African elephants have a
concave shape to their back large ears relatively smooth skin and a
trunk with 2 fingers at the tip Asian elephants have a distinctive
convex shaped back smaller ears skin that appears wrinkled and a trunk
with one finger There are differences between the two species distinshy
guished by the number of ribs and vertebrae and in the morphology of the
cheek teeth Male and female African elephants have tusks female Asians
and a large percentage of males iti some populations do not have tusks
Lacking tusks both males and females may have an alternate type of modishy
fied incisor or tushes that are barely visible beyond the lip(182746)
From a management perspective an important difference between the
two species is their ability to tolerate the sun and utilize open habishy
tats Heat dissipation is a problem for both species Asian elephants
need access to shade during much of each day(15182733) while African
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elephants are much less restricted except when young with calves This
difference alone suggests that project design features which could
discourage Asian elephants may not succeed with African elephants
Therefore measures taken to manage elephants need to consider species as
well as site characteristics
Elephants are never the numerically dominant ungulate in their
habitat but they are frequently ecological dominants in terms of biomass
and the cycling of plant material The habitats occupied vary but usually
are ecotones between forest and grasslands and areas with moderate tree
cover grading into savanna The sites are always in association with
permanent water which is well dispersed in the vegetational mosaic ASian
elephants do not extend into desertic areas They do occur in dense rain
forest only if there is sufficient interspersion of water and grass
Secondary or disturbed forests contain more suitable food plants In
suitable South Asian habitats crude density of elephants can range from
01 to 1km2(1416) Habitats described as suitable for Asian elephants
also support the densest African elephant populations with the exception
noted that African elephants appear to have a greater tolerance for drier
conditions(7131416)
Asian and African elephant literature contain both useful and
confusing information on elephant husbandry and management(182746)
Resolving elephant-development conflicts requires data from which reliable
predictions can be made about the response of elephants to changes in the
patterns and processes in their habitat brought about by a particular
project This is customarily termed a facultative or behavioral response
to environmentl change as opposed to a numerical response or change in
population numbers
- 4 -
An important distinction should be made here between crude and
ecological density because density estirates(7151633) are frequently
employed by wildlife managers Crude density estimates take the average
density of a species over the entire sample space Ecological density is
the crude density estimate corrected for habitat differences within a
non-homogenous habitat(16) Through some habitat modifications the
ecological density of elephanLs in a specific area might shift (a
behavioral response) but the overall or crude density of elephants in the
region might not (a numerical response)
The long-term problem of stabilizing elephant numbers in relation
to available resources requires knowledge of the genetic and quantitative
dynamics of populations and of the long-term coactions of these herbivores
with their food plants(282932374349) These issues which have
generated extensive elephant management literature(9) are important in the
management of elephant refuges but contribute little to solving the
problem of separating elephants and development projects
Long-term studies of elephant behavioral ecology have been carried
out or are in progress in Manayara Tanzania in Amboseli Kenya in Addo
South Africa and in the dry zone national parks of Sri Lanka
(615223355) These are monsoon areas with strong wet and dry seasons
There are few detailed behavioral and ecological data for elephants living
in wet high tropical forest areas of Africa or Asia This lack of
information is significant because of the large number of projects located
in this vegetation type (Annex) and because of the differences in movement
patterns and densities of elephants already noted(40)
Elephants are the largest grazing-browsing herbivores(14) that
improve the predictability of their food supply by maximizing the area over
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which they forage(Q) They push over trees or break them off to expand
their foraging space Iheir large size and efficient locomotion provide
for energetically cheap long-di3tance cruising with herd movement
The trunk enables them to feedconstrained only by the youngest members
on coarse forage ranging from short grasses to branches four meters and
more above the ground
Asian elephants may spend 70 to 90 of their time foraging with
An adult consumes 150kg of vegetationtwo major bouts per 24-hour day
African(wet weight) per day with an average intake rate of about 7kghr
While elephantselephants consume up to 220kgday(13141523273338)
may at one time or another eat or at least sample a wide variety of the
plant species in their foraging areas they have food preferences and
Grass for example is always a major dietary component During aneeds
cycle the rate of feeding varies with the food patch and increases
an optimum feeding site once theremarkedly as the animal approaches
feeding is at a maximum rate Drinking sites appear to be
Bouts of drinking and bathing by elephants arEtraditional(1533)
clustered in the morning and evening(13153355) and both species drink
often if water is availableonce a day or more
Studies of elephant sociality show that females live in small
cohesive groups of close relatives (mother-daughter and siblings) and their
offspring At puberty young females remain with the group while males
The age of puberty varies with nutrition duringleave or are expelled
These cow herds terl-d clans by Eisenberg(1214) divide
development
into smaller units during the daily cycle and reassemble when drinking and
moving from one area to another The subgroups frequently differ in sex
Females with their immediate offspring constitute the and age composition
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family units and tend to move in company with their small calves There
can be cohesive movement between females and half-grown young and between
males 6 or7 years old It is within the cow herd that the calf matures
and learns the template of its environment The cow herd serves as the
repository of traditional knowledge which includes routes to water-holes
to mineral sources and to seasonal foraging areas(1213141533)
Adult males live alone or occasionally in company with 1 to 3
satellite males with weak social bonds Adults are capable of breeding at
any time of year but when they reach an adequate nutritional plane they
enter a condition known as musth which is analogous to rut in bovids and
cervids When in musth maies are extremely aggressive and dangerous and
this condition probably allows them to dominate in contests with cows and
other males(14) In the dry zone of Sri Lanka males use restricted areas
that may be frequented by a number of cow groups More than one male at a
time may be in attendance with an estrous female in a cow herd(152233)
Under the strong wet-dry seasonal regime of East Africa bulls switch to a
strategy where they travel long distances in search of estroue females from
one that is associated with intensive feeding in restricted areas During
the dry and early wet season bulls maximize food intake a fat bull has a
better chance of rutting longer and still retaining sufficient energy
stores to survive the long dry season(3)
To visualize the impact a project may have on elephant movements
it is useful to examine how land-tenure and movement patterns reflect
elephant adaptations to different environments The environmental patterns
can be characterized by first seasonal flux in resources second predictshy
ability in the timing and amount that will become available during the
flux and third resource distribution These parameters are depicted in
- 7 -
Figure 1 There can be strong Lntermediate or little seaconal flux and
the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable A useful rating of
the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by
plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously
available patches(14)
In the dry zone monsoon forests of Sri Lanka elephants forage in
areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches
These are usually of rather poor quality(233755) in a moderate or low
fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable Cow herds
display movements based on three time scales(34) 1) daily movements
associated with feeding and moving to and from water 2) seasonal
movements between dry season and wet season home ranges and 3) medium-term
For a cowmovements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1)
herd home ranges of 25 km2 and 60 kmrhave been determined for wet and dry
seasons respectively Ranges for adult males vary from 10 kmgto 17 km2 (24)
This contrasts with elephant movements in Kenyas huge Tsavo
National Park which is semi-arid savanna with notoriously irregulcr
rainfall Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small
localized dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources Food
in these areas however becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry
season Sensing rain from considerable distances the first and subsequent
rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements up to 50 km to eat
new grass growing where rain has fallen This is schematically depicted in
from dry season ranges are unpredictableFigure 1 Outward movements
return movements can be more accurately predicted Aggregations of 1000
elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season
which come predictably to restricted areas(31)
-8-
Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
-9-
Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
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5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
------------- ------------------------------------------------
TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
- 12 -
Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
------------------------------------------------------------------
- 13 -
TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
- 15 -
FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
- 16 shy
an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
- 17 shy
successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
- 18 -
FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
- 19 shy
proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
- 21 shy
activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
- 22 shy
involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
- 23 shy
adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
- 24 shy
when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
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2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
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4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
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6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
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7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
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8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
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and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
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10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
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20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
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12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
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14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
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44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
food and other commodities that are
of importance to low-income can
sumers small farmers and resource-Door areasSector Paper
5ctor PolicyPaperJune 1981 IO pages (including annexes) EngiLsh
Frenchand Spanish
Stock No PP8101-E PP8101-f PP8101-S $euro00 paperback
odel forhDevericltthe Agricultural Se-ctor of Fortugal Alvin C Egbert and Iyung f Kim Spatial mathematical programming is used to develop comprehensive and quantitative methods to suggest development strategies in Portugals agriculture sector
The Johns Hopkins University Press
197 1o pages (including
hibliography)
LC 75-26662 ISBN 0-8018-1793-5$650 4i400) Daperback
Economic Aspects andolicy issues in Groundshy
water Development Ian Carruthers and Roy Stoner
Examlnes a wide range of economic
and policy L3ues related to develop-ment of groundwater for irrigation
World Bank Staff Working Paper
No 496 October 1981 110 pages
(including annex bibliography)
Stock No WP-0496 $500
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Economic Return to Invest
meat In Irrigation in India Leslie A Abbie James Q Harrison
andJon als
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Farm Budgets From Farm Income Analysis to
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Clarifies the relation between simple
farm Income analysis and the broader
field of agricultural proiect anaivsis and emphasizes the more practical aspets of project preparation and gives guidance Eo mose responsiblefor planning in agriculture
EDI Series in Economic Development
The Johns Hopkitns University Press
1980 154 pages
LC 79-3704 ISBN 0-8018-2386-2 $1500 (S1oo hardcour ISBN 8-8015-2367-0 $650 (450) paperbackSpnLsh Prupuestos Va fincas
EditorialTecnas 1982
ISBN 84-309-0886-2 725 oesetas
Fishery Highllts the imoortance of fisheries
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ank provide assistance to those
countries that have the fishery are willing to developresources and
reoure re them further
Setor Policy Paper December 1982
ISBN 0-8213-0138-1 $500 paperback
Food Security in Food Deicit Countries Shlomo Reutlinger and Keith Knapp
World Bank Staff Working Paper No
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Forestry Graham Donaldson coordi-
rmaornating author Lxamlnes the significance of forests Ineconomic development and con-cludes that the World Bank should
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efficiency of investment In surfaceNo50Otbr1813pae and groundwater Irrigation In India
World Bank Staff Working Paper
No 5361982 52 pages
ISBI 0-82130083-0 $300
Sector Policy Paper february 1978 63 pages (including 7 annexes) English French and SpanishStock NosPP-7804-C PP-7804-f
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INEW
Improving Irrigated Agrlculshyture Institutional Reform and the Small Farmer Dan el W Br-omley
A mclei of farmer InterdeDendence is devcopeci to provioe suggestions for improving existing irrigation systems as well as for designing new ones
Wort 51ank taf Working Paper
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Increasing Aoricalturalrod ucUVit cu
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Ted J Davis editor
These proceedings are tne third In a series of recoras of Agricultural 5ecshy
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speakers cnapersonsstatements and summaries of the discussions prepared by the rapporteurs
1982 307 pages (incluaing index)
15BN 0-8213-0099-7 $1500
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India Demand and Supply Prospects for Agriculture James Q Harrison Jon A Hitchings and John W Wall
Contains four papers that report on
me World Banks economic work In
the agricultural sector in India and
the implications of this development
both for foodgrains and for other agncultural commodities
rocuses on the demand for agncultural commodities through the
year 2000 the foodgrain economy the vegetable oil economy and the sugar economy
World b nk Staff Working Paper No500 October 1981 153 pag
(including 5 appendixes references annex) Stock No WP-050o $500
Agricultural Research and Productivity Robert E Evenson and Yoav Kislev Examines the role of scientific reswarh and technological change in increasing agnicularai prcxuctivity
Yale Unierslty Pnss 302 Temple 5treeL New laven Connecticut 06520 U-SA
1975 xi --204 pages inciuding 10 appenxes rerences
LC 74-15210 ISBN 0-300-0185-0 $1500 hardcover ISBN 0-300-01877-0
5395 paperback Spanish nvestigacn agricoia Ypr
ductividad Editorial Tecnos 1976
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Agroindustrial Project
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Provides and Illustrates a framework for analyzing and designing ar
NW
The Book of CHAC Programming Studies for Iexican Agricultural Policy Edited Dy RogeL-r D Noriton and Leooldo 51i M
n a n po tproject The principal tooi ot analysis is the se-wtr modei Cft named after the
Mayan rain gcd This model can be hrougno the sector to cover
-snort-cycle crop their inputs and their marKetL It can alviobe broken down into suDmodeis for particular
Dcalitres it morc Cetaiien analysis is recuired Tnc moce hcD- pianners Swc ne cos3 arcn policy goals wnicu_ can vary from regon to region
Thi--volum r)ort5 tne exenence of uainq tne ClA - mogje and also pre-_rtq itnmdOoyc3i materalpurlim-
TnWJ~n iwxn Lnrit
Q2 Dage Ua 080125857
2c (24 arc
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PREFACE
This technical paper is based on a seminar presentad at the World
Bank on January 24 1983 which was jointly sponsored by the Agriculture
Department and the Projects Policy Department Office of Environmental Affairs
The Seminar was an outgrowth of awareness of elephant depredatioD in
the Jahore Land Settlement Project in Malaysia Upon recognizing this as an
issue demanding attention the Agriculture Department requested the Office of
Environmental Affairs to furnish information regarding similar problems created
by elephants in other Bank agriculture projects This request resulted in a
selected list of 13 Bank projects where elephants were a major consideration
The author Dr John Seidensticker Wildlife Ecologist National Zoological
Park Smithsonian Institution based this paper on his experiences with
elephants and wildlife management in Sri Lanka Indonesia Nepal and -
Bangladesh
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper draws heavily upon the extensive research and writing
of Dr John Eisenberg Ordway Professor of Ecosystem Conservation
University of Florida Drs R Goodland R Rudran S Lumpkin AJT
Johnsingh JC Daniel J McNeely and Ms J Tralka have helped in
crystalizing ideas and procedures presented here The World Bank and the
National Zoological Park Smithsonian Institution supported the preparation
of this report
COhnENTS
ABSTRACT
PREFACE
10 INTRODUCTION 1
11 About Elephants 22
20 PROJECT DESIGN 9
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management 12 22 Elephants in Project Design 14
30 PROJECT IMPLEIENTATION 22
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants 22 32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities 23
SUMMARY 24
ANNEX Bank-Assisted P-lects with Elephant Implications 27
REFERENCES o 29
TABLES
Table 1 Recent Reports on the Local Distribution of Elephants 11
Table 2 Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Behavior and Ecology oo 13
FIGURES
Figure 1 Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements 8
Figure 2 Water Level Relative to the Floodplain and the 15 Slope of Banks in Reservoirs -
Figure 3 Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management bull 18
I l0 INTRODUCTION
The World Bank and other international development agencies have
invested billions of dollars in hydroelectric agricultural forestry and
other projects in developing countries where excellent elephant habitat
occurs The main World Bank assisted projects are listed in the Annex
Recently there has been increasing concern for the welfare and survival of
the worlds estimated 23000-41000 Asian (Elephas maximus) and 13 million
African elephants (Loxodonta africana) Authorities have designated these
species as endangered and threatened and have listed them in the Red
Data Books of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources and on the United States List of Endangered Species(53)
Continual loss of elephant habitat (eg conversion of forests to
agriculture) is a major conservation problem which is further compounded
by the elephants They enter and eat the rich patches of food which
constitute the plantations of sugar cane rice teak rubber and oil palm
established in their traditional foraging areas usually in disregard of
the best efforts to keep them out This behavior has resulted in millions
of dollars in damage and in project cost overruns thus causing concern to
economists and project designers(451) The losses have to be stopped for
the benefit of elephant conservation for the affected projects as well as
for the investors Management measures implemented hL- to be sensitive to
the elephants status as threatened species
Elephants have been raiding crops for thousands of years but case
studies of such problems are not readily available to the economic planners
or wildlife managers who need them The fficacy of the preventive and
mitigatory measures frequently proposed need review in the light of what
has been learned in the last two decades about the behavioral ecology of
-2shy
elephants This paper is a step towards improved planning and management
in order to reconcile development priorities with tke increasingly urgent
need for effective conservation measures
11 About Elephants
The elephant Order Proboscidea has a lung and spectacular
evolutionary history from its beginnings in Africa during the Eocene(14)
The two surviving species of this evolution are placed in different
genera Elephas maximus is usually separated into 3 subspecies E m
maximus of Sri Lanka E M indicus of the Indian Subcontinent and Southshy
east Asia including Borneo and E m sumatranus from Sumatra The bush
elephants of East and South Africa are usually placed in Loxodonta africana
africana and the West African forest elephants in L a cyclotis(1846)
African elephants are slightly larger than Asian elephants Adult
males weigh up to 6000 kg females up to 3200 kg African elephants have a
concave shape to their back large ears relatively smooth skin and a
trunk with 2 fingers at the tip Asian elephants have a distinctive
convex shaped back smaller ears skin that appears wrinkled and a trunk
with one finger There are differences between the two species distinshy
guished by the number of ribs and vertebrae and in the morphology of the
cheek teeth Male and female African elephants have tusks female Asians
and a large percentage of males iti some populations do not have tusks
Lacking tusks both males and females may have an alternate type of modishy
fied incisor or tushes that are barely visible beyond the lip(182746)
From a management perspective an important difference between the
two species is their ability to tolerate the sun and utilize open habishy
tats Heat dissipation is a problem for both species Asian elephants
need access to shade during much of each day(15182733) while African
- 3 shy
elephants are much less restricted except when young with calves This
difference alone suggests that project design features which could
discourage Asian elephants may not succeed with African elephants
Therefore measures taken to manage elephants need to consider species as
well as site characteristics
Elephants are never the numerically dominant ungulate in their
habitat but they are frequently ecological dominants in terms of biomass
and the cycling of plant material The habitats occupied vary but usually
are ecotones between forest and grasslands and areas with moderate tree
cover grading into savanna The sites are always in association with
permanent water which is well dispersed in the vegetational mosaic ASian
elephants do not extend into desertic areas They do occur in dense rain
forest only if there is sufficient interspersion of water and grass
Secondary or disturbed forests contain more suitable food plants In
suitable South Asian habitats crude density of elephants can range from
01 to 1km2(1416) Habitats described as suitable for Asian elephants
also support the densest African elephant populations with the exception
noted that African elephants appear to have a greater tolerance for drier
conditions(7131416)
Asian and African elephant literature contain both useful and
confusing information on elephant husbandry and management(182746)
Resolving elephant-development conflicts requires data from which reliable
predictions can be made about the response of elephants to changes in the
patterns and processes in their habitat brought about by a particular
project This is customarily termed a facultative or behavioral response
to environmentl change as opposed to a numerical response or change in
population numbers
- 4 -
An important distinction should be made here between crude and
ecological density because density estirates(7151633) are frequently
employed by wildlife managers Crude density estimates take the average
density of a species over the entire sample space Ecological density is
the crude density estimate corrected for habitat differences within a
non-homogenous habitat(16) Through some habitat modifications the
ecological density of elephanLs in a specific area might shift (a
behavioral response) but the overall or crude density of elephants in the
region might not (a numerical response)
The long-term problem of stabilizing elephant numbers in relation
to available resources requires knowledge of the genetic and quantitative
dynamics of populations and of the long-term coactions of these herbivores
with their food plants(282932374349) These issues which have
generated extensive elephant management literature(9) are important in the
management of elephant refuges but contribute little to solving the
problem of separating elephants and development projects
Long-term studies of elephant behavioral ecology have been carried
out or are in progress in Manayara Tanzania in Amboseli Kenya in Addo
South Africa and in the dry zone national parks of Sri Lanka
(615223355) These are monsoon areas with strong wet and dry seasons
There are few detailed behavioral and ecological data for elephants living
in wet high tropical forest areas of Africa or Asia This lack of
information is significant because of the large number of projects located
in this vegetation type (Annex) and because of the differences in movement
patterns and densities of elephants already noted(40)
Elephants are the largest grazing-browsing herbivores(14) that
improve the predictability of their food supply by maximizing the area over
- 5 shy
which they forage(Q) They push over trees or break them off to expand
their foraging space Iheir large size and efficient locomotion provide
for energetically cheap long-di3tance cruising with herd movement
The trunk enables them to feedconstrained only by the youngest members
on coarse forage ranging from short grasses to branches four meters and
more above the ground
Asian elephants may spend 70 to 90 of their time foraging with
An adult consumes 150kg of vegetationtwo major bouts per 24-hour day
African(wet weight) per day with an average intake rate of about 7kghr
While elephantselephants consume up to 220kgday(13141523273338)
may at one time or another eat or at least sample a wide variety of the
plant species in their foraging areas they have food preferences and
Grass for example is always a major dietary component During aneeds
cycle the rate of feeding varies with the food patch and increases
an optimum feeding site once theremarkedly as the animal approaches
feeding is at a maximum rate Drinking sites appear to be
Bouts of drinking and bathing by elephants arEtraditional(1533)
clustered in the morning and evening(13153355) and both species drink
often if water is availableonce a day or more
Studies of elephant sociality show that females live in small
cohesive groups of close relatives (mother-daughter and siblings) and their
offspring At puberty young females remain with the group while males
The age of puberty varies with nutrition duringleave or are expelled
These cow herds terl-d clans by Eisenberg(1214) divide
development
into smaller units during the daily cycle and reassemble when drinking and
moving from one area to another The subgroups frequently differ in sex
Females with their immediate offspring constitute the and age composition
- 6 shy
family units and tend to move in company with their small calves There
can be cohesive movement between females and half-grown young and between
males 6 or7 years old It is within the cow herd that the calf matures
and learns the template of its environment The cow herd serves as the
repository of traditional knowledge which includes routes to water-holes
to mineral sources and to seasonal foraging areas(1213141533)
Adult males live alone or occasionally in company with 1 to 3
satellite males with weak social bonds Adults are capable of breeding at
any time of year but when they reach an adequate nutritional plane they
enter a condition known as musth which is analogous to rut in bovids and
cervids When in musth maies are extremely aggressive and dangerous and
this condition probably allows them to dominate in contests with cows and
other males(14) In the dry zone of Sri Lanka males use restricted areas
that may be frequented by a number of cow groups More than one male at a
time may be in attendance with an estrous female in a cow herd(152233)
Under the strong wet-dry seasonal regime of East Africa bulls switch to a
strategy where they travel long distances in search of estroue females from
one that is associated with intensive feeding in restricted areas During
the dry and early wet season bulls maximize food intake a fat bull has a
better chance of rutting longer and still retaining sufficient energy
stores to survive the long dry season(3)
To visualize the impact a project may have on elephant movements
it is useful to examine how land-tenure and movement patterns reflect
elephant adaptations to different environments The environmental patterns
can be characterized by first seasonal flux in resources second predictshy
ability in the timing and amount that will become available during the
flux and third resource distribution These parameters are depicted in
- 7 -
Figure 1 There can be strong Lntermediate or little seaconal flux and
the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable A useful rating of
the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by
plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously
available patches(14)
In the dry zone monsoon forests of Sri Lanka elephants forage in
areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches
These are usually of rather poor quality(233755) in a moderate or low
fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable Cow herds
display movements based on three time scales(34) 1) daily movements
associated with feeding and moving to and from water 2) seasonal
movements between dry season and wet season home ranges and 3) medium-term
For a cowmovements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1)
herd home ranges of 25 km2 and 60 kmrhave been determined for wet and dry
seasons respectively Ranges for adult males vary from 10 kmgto 17 km2 (24)
This contrasts with elephant movements in Kenyas huge Tsavo
National Park which is semi-arid savanna with notoriously irregulcr
rainfall Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small
localized dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources Food
in these areas however becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry
season Sensing rain from considerable distances the first and subsequent
rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements up to 50 km to eat
new grass growing where rain has fallen This is schematically depicted in
from dry season ranges are unpredictableFigure 1 Outward movements
return movements can be more accurately predicted Aggregations of 1000
elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season
which come predictably to restricted areas(31)
-8-
Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
-9-
Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
- 10 shy
5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
------------- ------------------------------------------------
TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
- 12 -
Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
------------------------------------------------------------------
- 13 -
TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
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FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
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successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
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proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
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activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
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involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
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adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
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when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
REFERENCES
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2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
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6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
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8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
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and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
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10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
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20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
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12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
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13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
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14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
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29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
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Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
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for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
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Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
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1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
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44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
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47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
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59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
food and other commodities that are
of importance to low-income can
sumers small farmers and resource-Door areasSector Paper
5ctor PolicyPaperJune 1981 IO pages (including annexes) EngiLsh
Frenchand Spanish
Stock No PP8101-E PP8101-f PP8101-S $euro00 paperback
odel forhDevericltthe Agricultural Se-ctor of Fortugal Alvin C Egbert and Iyung f Kim Spatial mathematical programming is used to develop comprehensive and quantitative methods to suggest development strategies in Portugals agriculture sector
The Johns Hopkins University Press
197 1o pages (including
hibliography)
LC 75-26662 ISBN 0-8018-1793-5$650 4i400) Daperback
Economic Aspects andolicy issues in Groundshy
water Development Ian Carruthers and Roy Stoner
Examlnes a wide range of economic
and policy L3ues related to develop-ment of groundwater for irrigation
World Bank Staff Working Paper
No 496 October 1981 110 pages
(including annex bibliography)
Stock No WP-0496 $500
lEW
Economic Return to Invest
meat In Irrigation in India Leslie A Abbie James Q Harrison
andJon als
and John W WallReports on an investigation into the
Farm Budgets From Farm Income Analysis to
Agricultural Project AnalysLs Maxwell L Brown
Clarifies the relation between simple
farm Income analysis and the broader
field of agricultural proiect anaivsis and emphasizes the more practical aspets of project preparation and gives guidance Eo mose responsiblefor planning in agriculture
EDI Series in Economic Development
The Johns Hopkitns University Press
1980 154 pages
LC 79-3704 ISBN 0-8018-2386-2 $1500 (S1oo hardcour ISBN 8-8015-2367-0 $650 (450) paperbackSpnLsh Prupuestos Va fincas
EditorialTecnas 1982
ISBN 84-309-0886-2 725 oesetas
Fishery Highllts the imoortance of fisheries
to the economies of developing coun-
tries and recommends that the World
ank provide assistance to those
countries that have the fishery are willing to developresources and
reoure re them further
Setor Policy Paper December 1982
ISBN 0-8213-0138-1 $500 paperback
Food Security in Food Deicit Countries Shlomo Reutlinger and Keith Knapp
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NEW Economic Analysis of Agricultural Projects Second edition compleeLy rev sed and erpanded J Price Gittinger
Thisbook entirelyoutnew editioncareful of thepracticalWorld Banksmethodlologjybest-sellingsets a and fora a y n u t ~ uanalyzing agricultural development projects and for using these analyses to compare proposed Investments It
what constitutes a project what must be conshysidered to identify possible agricultural projects the life cycle of a proqecL the strengths and pitfalls of pojectanalysis anc the calculations required to obtain financial and economic project accounts
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper draws heavily upon the extensive research and writing
of Dr John Eisenberg Ordway Professor of Ecosystem Conservation
University of Florida Drs R Goodland R Rudran S Lumpkin AJT
Johnsingh JC Daniel J McNeely and Ms J Tralka have helped in
crystalizing ideas and procedures presented here The World Bank and the
National Zoological Park Smithsonian Institution supported the preparation
of this report
COhnENTS
ABSTRACT
PREFACE
10 INTRODUCTION 1
11 About Elephants 22
20 PROJECT DESIGN 9
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management 12 22 Elephants in Project Design 14
30 PROJECT IMPLEIENTATION 22
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants 22 32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities 23
SUMMARY 24
ANNEX Bank-Assisted P-lects with Elephant Implications 27
REFERENCES o 29
TABLES
Table 1 Recent Reports on the Local Distribution of Elephants 11
Table 2 Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Behavior and Ecology oo 13
FIGURES
Figure 1 Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements 8
Figure 2 Water Level Relative to the Floodplain and the 15 Slope of Banks in Reservoirs -
Figure 3 Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management bull 18
I l0 INTRODUCTION
The World Bank and other international development agencies have
invested billions of dollars in hydroelectric agricultural forestry and
other projects in developing countries where excellent elephant habitat
occurs The main World Bank assisted projects are listed in the Annex
Recently there has been increasing concern for the welfare and survival of
the worlds estimated 23000-41000 Asian (Elephas maximus) and 13 million
African elephants (Loxodonta africana) Authorities have designated these
species as endangered and threatened and have listed them in the Red
Data Books of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources and on the United States List of Endangered Species(53)
Continual loss of elephant habitat (eg conversion of forests to
agriculture) is a major conservation problem which is further compounded
by the elephants They enter and eat the rich patches of food which
constitute the plantations of sugar cane rice teak rubber and oil palm
established in their traditional foraging areas usually in disregard of
the best efforts to keep them out This behavior has resulted in millions
of dollars in damage and in project cost overruns thus causing concern to
economists and project designers(451) The losses have to be stopped for
the benefit of elephant conservation for the affected projects as well as
for the investors Management measures implemented hL- to be sensitive to
the elephants status as threatened species
Elephants have been raiding crops for thousands of years but case
studies of such problems are not readily available to the economic planners
or wildlife managers who need them The fficacy of the preventive and
mitigatory measures frequently proposed need review in the light of what
has been learned in the last two decades about the behavioral ecology of
-2shy
elephants This paper is a step towards improved planning and management
in order to reconcile development priorities with tke increasingly urgent
need for effective conservation measures
11 About Elephants
The elephant Order Proboscidea has a lung and spectacular
evolutionary history from its beginnings in Africa during the Eocene(14)
The two surviving species of this evolution are placed in different
genera Elephas maximus is usually separated into 3 subspecies E m
maximus of Sri Lanka E M indicus of the Indian Subcontinent and Southshy
east Asia including Borneo and E m sumatranus from Sumatra The bush
elephants of East and South Africa are usually placed in Loxodonta africana
africana and the West African forest elephants in L a cyclotis(1846)
African elephants are slightly larger than Asian elephants Adult
males weigh up to 6000 kg females up to 3200 kg African elephants have a
concave shape to their back large ears relatively smooth skin and a
trunk with 2 fingers at the tip Asian elephants have a distinctive
convex shaped back smaller ears skin that appears wrinkled and a trunk
with one finger There are differences between the two species distinshy
guished by the number of ribs and vertebrae and in the morphology of the
cheek teeth Male and female African elephants have tusks female Asians
and a large percentage of males iti some populations do not have tusks
Lacking tusks both males and females may have an alternate type of modishy
fied incisor or tushes that are barely visible beyond the lip(182746)
From a management perspective an important difference between the
two species is their ability to tolerate the sun and utilize open habishy
tats Heat dissipation is a problem for both species Asian elephants
need access to shade during much of each day(15182733) while African
- 3 shy
elephants are much less restricted except when young with calves This
difference alone suggests that project design features which could
discourage Asian elephants may not succeed with African elephants
Therefore measures taken to manage elephants need to consider species as
well as site characteristics
Elephants are never the numerically dominant ungulate in their
habitat but they are frequently ecological dominants in terms of biomass
and the cycling of plant material The habitats occupied vary but usually
are ecotones between forest and grasslands and areas with moderate tree
cover grading into savanna The sites are always in association with
permanent water which is well dispersed in the vegetational mosaic ASian
elephants do not extend into desertic areas They do occur in dense rain
forest only if there is sufficient interspersion of water and grass
Secondary or disturbed forests contain more suitable food plants In
suitable South Asian habitats crude density of elephants can range from
01 to 1km2(1416) Habitats described as suitable for Asian elephants
also support the densest African elephant populations with the exception
noted that African elephants appear to have a greater tolerance for drier
conditions(7131416)
Asian and African elephant literature contain both useful and
confusing information on elephant husbandry and management(182746)
Resolving elephant-development conflicts requires data from which reliable
predictions can be made about the response of elephants to changes in the
patterns and processes in their habitat brought about by a particular
project This is customarily termed a facultative or behavioral response
to environmentl change as opposed to a numerical response or change in
population numbers
- 4 -
An important distinction should be made here between crude and
ecological density because density estirates(7151633) are frequently
employed by wildlife managers Crude density estimates take the average
density of a species over the entire sample space Ecological density is
the crude density estimate corrected for habitat differences within a
non-homogenous habitat(16) Through some habitat modifications the
ecological density of elephanLs in a specific area might shift (a
behavioral response) but the overall or crude density of elephants in the
region might not (a numerical response)
The long-term problem of stabilizing elephant numbers in relation
to available resources requires knowledge of the genetic and quantitative
dynamics of populations and of the long-term coactions of these herbivores
with their food plants(282932374349) These issues which have
generated extensive elephant management literature(9) are important in the
management of elephant refuges but contribute little to solving the
problem of separating elephants and development projects
Long-term studies of elephant behavioral ecology have been carried
out or are in progress in Manayara Tanzania in Amboseli Kenya in Addo
South Africa and in the dry zone national parks of Sri Lanka
(615223355) These are monsoon areas with strong wet and dry seasons
There are few detailed behavioral and ecological data for elephants living
in wet high tropical forest areas of Africa or Asia This lack of
information is significant because of the large number of projects located
in this vegetation type (Annex) and because of the differences in movement
patterns and densities of elephants already noted(40)
Elephants are the largest grazing-browsing herbivores(14) that
improve the predictability of their food supply by maximizing the area over
- 5 shy
which they forage(Q) They push over trees or break them off to expand
their foraging space Iheir large size and efficient locomotion provide
for energetically cheap long-di3tance cruising with herd movement
The trunk enables them to feedconstrained only by the youngest members
on coarse forage ranging from short grasses to branches four meters and
more above the ground
Asian elephants may spend 70 to 90 of their time foraging with
An adult consumes 150kg of vegetationtwo major bouts per 24-hour day
African(wet weight) per day with an average intake rate of about 7kghr
While elephantselephants consume up to 220kgday(13141523273338)
may at one time or another eat or at least sample a wide variety of the
plant species in their foraging areas they have food preferences and
Grass for example is always a major dietary component During aneeds
cycle the rate of feeding varies with the food patch and increases
an optimum feeding site once theremarkedly as the animal approaches
feeding is at a maximum rate Drinking sites appear to be
Bouts of drinking and bathing by elephants arEtraditional(1533)
clustered in the morning and evening(13153355) and both species drink
often if water is availableonce a day or more
Studies of elephant sociality show that females live in small
cohesive groups of close relatives (mother-daughter and siblings) and their
offspring At puberty young females remain with the group while males
The age of puberty varies with nutrition duringleave or are expelled
These cow herds terl-d clans by Eisenberg(1214) divide
development
into smaller units during the daily cycle and reassemble when drinking and
moving from one area to another The subgroups frequently differ in sex
Females with their immediate offspring constitute the and age composition
- 6 shy
family units and tend to move in company with their small calves There
can be cohesive movement between females and half-grown young and between
males 6 or7 years old It is within the cow herd that the calf matures
and learns the template of its environment The cow herd serves as the
repository of traditional knowledge which includes routes to water-holes
to mineral sources and to seasonal foraging areas(1213141533)
Adult males live alone or occasionally in company with 1 to 3
satellite males with weak social bonds Adults are capable of breeding at
any time of year but when they reach an adequate nutritional plane they
enter a condition known as musth which is analogous to rut in bovids and
cervids When in musth maies are extremely aggressive and dangerous and
this condition probably allows them to dominate in contests with cows and
other males(14) In the dry zone of Sri Lanka males use restricted areas
that may be frequented by a number of cow groups More than one male at a
time may be in attendance with an estrous female in a cow herd(152233)
Under the strong wet-dry seasonal regime of East Africa bulls switch to a
strategy where they travel long distances in search of estroue females from
one that is associated with intensive feeding in restricted areas During
the dry and early wet season bulls maximize food intake a fat bull has a
better chance of rutting longer and still retaining sufficient energy
stores to survive the long dry season(3)
To visualize the impact a project may have on elephant movements
it is useful to examine how land-tenure and movement patterns reflect
elephant adaptations to different environments The environmental patterns
can be characterized by first seasonal flux in resources second predictshy
ability in the timing and amount that will become available during the
flux and third resource distribution These parameters are depicted in
- 7 -
Figure 1 There can be strong Lntermediate or little seaconal flux and
the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable A useful rating of
the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by
plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously
available patches(14)
In the dry zone monsoon forests of Sri Lanka elephants forage in
areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches
These are usually of rather poor quality(233755) in a moderate or low
fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable Cow herds
display movements based on three time scales(34) 1) daily movements
associated with feeding and moving to and from water 2) seasonal
movements between dry season and wet season home ranges and 3) medium-term
For a cowmovements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1)
herd home ranges of 25 km2 and 60 kmrhave been determined for wet and dry
seasons respectively Ranges for adult males vary from 10 kmgto 17 km2 (24)
This contrasts with elephant movements in Kenyas huge Tsavo
National Park which is semi-arid savanna with notoriously irregulcr
rainfall Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small
localized dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources Food
in these areas however becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry
season Sensing rain from considerable distances the first and subsequent
rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements up to 50 km to eat
new grass growing where rain has fallen This is schematically depicted in
from dry season ranges are unpredictableFigure 1 Outward movements
return movements can be more accurately predicted Aggregations of 1000
elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season
which come predictably to restricted areas(31)
-8-
Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
-9-
Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
- 10 shy
5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
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TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
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Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
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TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
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FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
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successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
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proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
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Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
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activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
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involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
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adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
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when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
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planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
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ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
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8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
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1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
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COhnENTS
ABSTRACT
PREFACE
10 INTRODUCTION 1
11 About Elephants 22
20 PROJECT DESIGN 9
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management 12 22 Elephants in Project Design 14
30 PROJECT IMPLEIENTATION 22
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants 22 32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities 23
SUMMARY 24
ANNEX Bank-Assisted P-lects with Elephant Implications 27
REFERENCES o 29
TABLES
Table 1 Recent Reports on the Local Distribution of Elephants 11
Table 2 Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Behavior and Ecology oo 13
FIGURES
Figure 1 Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements 8
Figure 2 Water Level Relative to the Floodplain and the 15 Slope of Banks in Reservoirs -
Figure 3 Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management bull 18
I l0 INTRODUCTION
The World Bank and other international development agencies have
invested billions of dollars in hydroelectric agricultural forestry and
other projects in developing countries where excellent elephant habitat
occurs The main World Bank assisted projects are listed in the Annex
Recently there has been increasing concern for the welfare and survival of
the worlds estimated 23000-41000 Asian (Elephas maximus) and 13 million
African elephants (Loxodonta africana) Authorities have designated these
species as endangered and threatened and have listed them in the Red
Data Books of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources and on the United States List of Endangered Species(53)
Continual loss of elephant habitat (eg conversion of forests to
agriculture) is a major conservation problem which is further compounded
by the elephants They enter and eat the rich patches of food which
constitute the plantations of sugar cane rice teak rubber and oil palm
established in their traditional foraging areas usually in disregard of
the best efforts to keep them out This behavior has resulted in millions
of dollars in damage and in project cost overruns thus causing concern to
economists and project designers(451) The losses have to be stopped for
the benefit of elephant conservation for the affected projects as well as
for the investors Management measures implemented hL- to be sensitive to
the elephants status as threatened species
Elephants have been raiding crops for thousands of years but case
studies of such problems are not readily available to the economic planners
or wildlife managers who need them The fficacy of the preventive and
mitigatory measures frequently proposed need review in the light of what
has been learned in the last two decades about the behavioral ecology of
-2shy
elephants This paper is a step towards improved planning and management
in order to reconcile development priorities with tke increasingly urgent
need for effective conservation measures
11 About Elephants
The elephant Order Proboscidea has a lung and spectacular
evolutionary history from its beginnings in Africa during the Eocene(14)
The two surviving species of this evolution are placed in different
genera Elephas maximus is usually separated into 3 subspecies E m
maximus of Sri Lanka E M indicus of the Indian Subcontinent and Southshy
east Asia including Borneo and E m sumatranus from Sumatra The bush
elephants of East and South Africa are usually placed in Loxodonta africana
africana and the West African forest elephants in L a cyclotis(1846)
African elephants are slightly larger than Asian elephants Adult
males weigh up to 6000 kg females up to 3200 kg African elephants have a
concave shape to their back large ears relatively smooth skin and a
trunk with 2 fingers at the tip Asian elephants have a distinctive
convex shaped back smaller ears skin that appears wrinkled and a trunk
with one finger There are differences between the two species distinshy
guished by the number of ribs and vertebrae and in the morphology of the
cheek teeth Male and female African elephants have tusks female Asians
and a large percentage of males iti some populations do not have tusks
Lacking tusks both males and females may have an alternate type of modishy
fied incisor or tushes that are barely visible beyond the lip(182746)
From a management perspective an important difference between the
two species is their ability to tolerate the sun and utilize open habishy
tats Heat dissipation is a problem for both species Asian elephants
need access to shade during much of each day(15182733) while African
- 3 shy
elephants are much less restricted except when young with calves This
difference alone suggests that project design features which could
discourage Asian elephants may not succeed with African elephants
Therefore measures taken to manage elephants need to consider species as
well as site characteristics
Elephants are never the numerically dominant ungulate in their
habitat but they are frequently ecological dominants in terms of biomass
and the cycling of plant material The habitats occupied vary but usually
are ecotones between forest and grasslands and areas with moderate tree
cover grading into savanna The sites are always in association with
permanent water which is well dispersed in the vegetational mosaic ASian
elephants do not extend into desertic areas They do occur in dense rain
forest only if there is sufficient interspersion of water and grass
Secondary or disturbed forests contain more suitable food plants In
suitable South Asian habitats crude density of elephants can range from
01 to 1km2(1416) Habitats described as suitable for Asian elephants
also support the densest African elephant populations with the exception
noted that African elephants appear to have a greater tolerance for drier
conditions(7131416)
Asian and African elephant literature contain both useful and
confusing information on elephant husbandry and management(182746)
Resolving elephant-development conflicts requires data from which reliable
predictions can be made about the response of elephants to changes in the
patterns and processes in their habitat brought about by a particular
project This is customarily termed a facultative or behavioral response
to environmentl change as opposed to a numerical response or change in
population numbers
- 4 -
An important distinction should be made here between crude and
ecological density because density estirates(7151633) are frequently
employed by wildlife managers Crude density estimates take the average
density of a species over the entire sample space Ecological density is
the crude density estimate corrected for habitat differences within a
non-homogenous habitat(16) Through some habitat modifications the
ecological density of elephanLs in a specific area might shift (a
behavioral response) but the overall or crude density of elephants in the
region might not (a numerical response)
The long-term problem of stabilizing elephant numbers in relation
to available resources requires knowledge of the genetic and quantitative
dynamics of populations and of the long-term coactions of these herbivores
with their food plants(282932374349) These issues which have
generated extensive elephant management literature(9) are important in the
management of elephant refuges but contribute little to solving the
problem of separating elephants and development projects
Long-term studies of elephant behavioral ecology have been carried
out or are in progress in Manayara Tanzania in Amboseli Kenya in Addo
South Africa and in the dry zone national parks of Sri Lanka
(615223355) These are monsoon areas with strong wet and dry seasons
There are few detailed behavioral and ecological data for elephants living
in wet high tropical forest areas of Africa or Asia This lack of
information is significant because of the large number of projects located
in this vegetation type (Annex) and because of the differences in movement
patterns and densities of elephants already noted(40)
Elephants are the largest grazing-browsing herbivores(14) that
improve the predictability of their food supply by maximizing the area over
- 5 shy
which they forage(Q) They push over trees or break them off to expand
their foraging space Iheir large size and efficient locomotion provide
for energetically cheap long-di3tance cruising with herd movement
The trunk enables them to feedconstrained only by the youngest members
on coarse forage ranging from short grasses to branches four meters and
more above the ground
Asian elephants may spend 70 to 90 of their time foraging with
An adult consumes 150kg of vegetationtwo major bouts per 24-hour day
African(wet weight) per day with an average intake rate of about 7kghr
While elephantselephants consume up to 220kgday(13141523273338)
may at one time or another eat or at least sample a wide variety of the
plant species in their foraging areas they have food preferences and
Grass for example is always a major dietary component During aneeds
cycle the rate of feeding varies with the food patch and increases
an optimum feeding site once theremarkedly as the animal approaches
feeding is at a maximum rate Drinking sites appear to be
Bouts of drinking and bathing by elephants arEtraditional(1533)
clustered in the morning and evening(13153355) and both species drink
often if water is availableonce a day or more
Studies of elephant sociality show that females live in small
cohesive groups of close relatives (mother-daughter and siblings) and their
offspring At puberty young females remain with the group while males
The age of puberty varies with nutrition duringleave or are expelled
These cow herds terl-d clans by Eisenberg(1214) divide
development
into smaller units during the daily cycle and reassemble when drinking and
moving from one area to another The subgroups frequently differ in sex
Females with their immediate offspring constitute the and age composition
- 6 shy
family units and tend to move in company with their small calves There
can be cohesive movement between females and half-grown young and between
males 6 or7 years old It is within the cow herd that the calf matures
and learns the template of its environment The cow herd serves as the
repository of traditional knowledge which includes routes to water-holes
to mineral sources and to seasonal foraging areas(1213141533)
Adult males live alone or occasionally in company with 1 to 3
satellite males with weak social bonds Adults are capable of breeding at
any time of year but when they reach an adequate nutritional plane they
enter a condition known as musth which is analogous to rut in bovids and
cervids When in musth maies are extremely aggressive and dangerous and
this condition probably allows them to dominate in contests with cows and
other males(14) In the dry zone of Sri Lanka males use restricted areas
that may be frequented by a number of cow groups More than one male at a
time may be in attendance with an estrous female in a cow herd(152233)
Under the strong wet-dry seasonal regime of East Africa bulls switch to a
strategy where they travel long distances in search of estroue females from
one that is associated with intensive feeding in restricted areas During
the dry and early wet season bulls maximize food intake a fat bull has a
better chance of rutting longer and still retaining sufficient energy
stores to survive the long dry season(3)
To visualize the impact a project may have on elephant movements
it is useful to examine how land-tenure and movement patterns reflect
elephant adaptations to different environments The environmental patterns
can be characterized by first seasonal flux in resources second predictshy
ability in the timing and amount that will become available during the
flux and third resource distribution These parameters are depicted in
- 7 -
Figure 1 There can be strong Lntermediate or little seaconal flux and
the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable A useful rating of
the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by
plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously
available patches(14)
In the dry zone monsoon forests of Sri Lanka elephants forage in
areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches
These are usually of rather poor quality(233755) in a moderate or low
fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable Cow herds
display movements based on three time scales(34) 1) daily movements
associated with feeding and moving to and from water 2) seasonal
movements between dry season and wet season home ranges and 3) medium-term
For a cowmovements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1)
herd home ranges of 25 km2 and 60 kmrhave been determined for wet and dry
seasons respectively Ranges for adult males vary from 10 kmgto 17 km2 (24)
This contrasts with elephant movements in Kenyas huge Tsavo
National Park which is semi-arid savanna with notoriously irregulcr
rainfall Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small
localized dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources Food
in these areas however becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry
season Sensing rain from considerable distances the first and subsequent
rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements up to 50 km to eat
new grass growing where rain has fallen This is schematically depicted in
from dry season ranges are unpredictableFigure 1 Outward movements
return movements can be more accurately predicted Aggregations of 1000
elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season
which come predictably to restricted areas(31)
-8-
Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
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Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
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5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
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TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
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Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
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TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
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FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
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successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
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proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
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Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
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activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
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involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
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adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
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when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
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planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
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ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
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8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
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4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
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27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
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29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
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1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
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sumers small farmers and resource-Door areasSector Paper
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Economic Aspects andolicy issues in Groundshy
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World Bank Staff Working Paper
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Economic Return to Invest
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Clarifies the relation between simple
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EDI Series in Economic Development
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1980 154 pages
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Food Security in Food Deicit Countries Shlomo Reutlinger and Keith Knapp
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Forestry Graham Donaldson coordi-
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World Bank Staff Working Paper NIo 528 July1982 u -69 pages (including references)
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C-12o y EJerccios Sobre Proyectos Agricolas Edited by Orlando T Espadas Three case studies prepared in conshyjunction with the EDIs Agricultural Projects Courses in Spanish and intended primarly for teachers of
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The Design of Organiza
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Ben A Thoolen World Bank Staff Working Paper No
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The Design of Rural Development Lessons from Africa Uma Lee Analyzes new ways of designing rural
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REPRINTS
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of Techique in S i Rice Prledctot CPe Fkumphreys and Scott R Person World ank ampprint Series f umber 199 Pepriitdfom food Resarch Studies uol 17
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NEW Economic Analysis of Agricultural Projects Second edition compleeLy rev sed and erpanded J Price Gittinger
Thisbook entirelyoutnew editioncareful of thepracticalWorld Banksmethodlologjybest-sellingsets a and fora a y n u t ~ uanalyzing agricultural development projects and for using these analyses to compare proposed Investments It
what constitutes a project what must be conshysidered to identify possible agricultural projects the life cycle of a proqecL the strengths and pitfalls of pojectanalysis anc the calculations required to obtain financial and economic project accounts
In the ten years since Its publication the first edition has been accepted widely as a standard reference and texL Themethodology reflects the best of contemporary practice In government agencies and International developmentinstitutions concerned with Investing in agriculture and Isaccessible to a broad readership of agricultural planners
n i e r a n n l s sengineers and analysts This revision adds a wealth of recent project dataexpanded treatment of farm budgets and the efficiency
pnces used to calculate the effects of an Investment on national income a glossary of technical terms expandedappendixes on preparing an agricultural project report and using discounting tables and an expanded completely annotated bibliographyLI Series in Economic Development
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I l0 INTRODUCTION
The World Bank and other international development agencies have
invested billions of dollars in hydroelectric agricultural forestry and
other projects in developing countries where excellent elephant habitat
occurs The main World Bank assisted projects are listed in the Annex
Recently there has been increasing concern for the welfare and survival of
the worlds estimated 23000-41000 Asian (Elephas maximus) and 13 million
African elephants (Loxodonta africana) Authorities have designated these
species as endangered and threatened and have listed them in the Red
Data Books of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources and on the United States List of Endangered Species(53)
Continual loss of elephant habitat (eg conversion of forests to
agriculture) is a major conservation problem which is further compounded
by the elephants They enter and eat the rich patches of food which
constitute the plantations of sugar cane rice teak rubber and oil palm
established in their traditional foraging areas usually in disregard of
the best efforts to keep them out This behavior has resulted in millions
of dollars in damage and in project cost overruns thus causing concern to
economists and project designers(451) The losses have to be stopped for
the benefit of elephant conservation for the affected projects as well as
for the investors Management measures implemented hL- to be sensitive to
the elephants status as threatened species
Elephants have been raiding crops for thousands of years but case
studies of such problems are not readily available to the economic planners
or wildlife managers who need them The fficacy of the preventive and
mitigatory measures frequently proposed need review in the light of what
has been learned in the last two decades about the behavioral ecology of
-2shy
elephants This paper is a step towards improved planning and management
in order to reconcile development priorities with tke increasingly urgent
need for effective conservation measures
11 About Elephants
The elephant Order Proboscidea has a lung and spectacular
evolutionary history from its beginnings in Africa during the Eocene(14)
The two surviving species of this evolution are placed in different
genera Elephas maximus is usually separated into 3 subspecies E m
maximus of Sri Lanka E M indicus of the Indian Subcontinent and Southshy
east Asia including Borneo and E m sumatranus from Sumatra The bush
elephants of East and South Africa are usually placed in Loxodonta africana
africana and the West African forest elephants in L a cyclotis(1846)
African elephants are slightly larger than Asian elephants Adult
males weigh up to 6000 kg females up to 3200 kg African elephants have a
concave shape to their back large ears relatively smooth skin and a
trunk with 2 fingers at the tip Asian elephants have a distinctive
convex shaped back smaller ears skin that appears wrinkled and a trunk
with one finger There are differences between the two species distinshy
guished by the number of ribs and vertebrae and in the morphology of the
cheek teeth Male and female African elephants have tusks female Asians
and a large percentage of males iti some populations do not have tusks
Lacking tusks both males and females may have an alternate type of modishy
fied incisor or tushes that are barely visible beyond the lip(182746)
From a management perspective an important difference between the
two species is their ability to tolerate the sun and utilize open habishy
tats Heat dissipation is a problem for both species Asian elephants
need access to shade during much of each day(15182733) while African
- 3 shy
elephants are much less restricted except when young with calves This
difference alone suggests that project design features which could
discourage Asian elephants may not succeed with African elephants
Therefore measures taken to manage elephants need to consider species as
well as site characteristics
Elephants are never the numerically dominant ungulate in their
habitat but they are frequently ecological dominants in terms of biomass
and the cycling of plant material The habitats occupied vary but usually
are ecotones between forest and grasslands and areas with moderate tree
cover grading into savanna The sites are always in association with
permanent water which is well dispersed in the vegetational mosaic ASian
elephants do not extend into desertic areas They do occur in dense rain
forest only if there is sufficient interspersion of water and grass
Secondary or disturbed forests contain more suitable food plants In
suitable South Asian habitats crude density of elephants can range from
01 to 1km2(1416) Habitats described as suitable for Asian elephants
also support the densest African elephant populations with the exception
noted that African elephants appear to have a greater tolerance for drier
conditions(7131416)
Asian and African elephant literature contain both useful and
confusing information on elephant husbandry and management(182746)
Resolving elephant-development conflicts requires data from which reliable
predictions can be made about the response of elephants to changes in the
patterns and processes in their habitat brought about by a particular
project This is customarily termed a facultative or behavioral response
to environmentl change as opposed to a numerical response or change in
population numbers
- 4 -
An important distinction should be made here between crude and
ecological density because density estirates(7151633) are frequently
employed by wildlife managers Crude density estimates take the average
density of a species over the entire sample space Ecological density is
the crude density estimate corrected for habitat differences within a
non-homogenous habitat(16) Through some habitat modifications the
ecological density of elephanLs in a specific area might shift (a
behavioral response) but the overall or crude density of elephants in the
region might not (a numerical response)
The long-term problem of stabilizing elephant numbers in relation
to available resources requires knowledge of the genetic and quantitative
dynamics of populations and of the long-term coactions of these herbivores
with their food plants(282932374349) These issues which have
generated extensive elephant management literature(9) are important in the
management of elephant refuges but contribute little to solving the
problem of separating elephants and development projects
Long-term studies of elephant behavioral ecology have been carried
out or are in progress in Manayara Tanzania in Amboseli Kenya in Addo
South Africa and in the dry zone national parks of Sri Lanka
(615223355) These are monsoon areas with strong wet and dry seasons
There are few detailed behavioral and ecological data for elephants living
in wet high tropical forest areas of Africa or Asia This lack of
information is significant because of the large number of projects located
in this vegetation type (Annex) and because of the differences in movement
patterns and densities of elephants already noted(40)
Elephants are the largest grazing-browsing herbivores(14) that
improve the predictability of their food supply by maximizing the area over
- 5 shy
which they forage(Q) They push over trees or break them off to expand
their foraging space Iheir large size and efficient locomotion provide
for energetically cheap long-di3tance cruising with herd movement
The trunk enables them to feedconstrained only by the youngest members
on coarse forage ranging from short grasses to branches four meters and
more above the ground
Asian elephants may spend 70 to 90 of their time foraging with
An adult consumes 150kg of vegetationtwo major bouts per 24-hour day
African(wet weight) per day with an average intake rate of about 7kghr
While elephantselephants consume up to 220kgday(13141523273338)
may at one time or another eat or at least sample a wide variety of the
plant species in their foraging areas they have food preferences and
Grass for example is always a major dietary component During aneeds
cycle the rate of feeding varies with the food patch and increases
an optimum feeding site once theremarkedly as the animal approaches
feeding is at a maximum rate Drinking sites appear to be
Bouts of drinking and bathing by elephants arEtraditional(1533)
clustered in the morning and evening(13153355) and both species drink
often if water is availableonce a day or more
Studies of elephant sociality show that females live in small
cohesive groups of close relatives (mother-daughter and siblings) and their
offspring At puberty young females remain with the group while males
The age of puberty varies with nutrition duringleave or are expelled
These cow herds terl-d clans by Eisenberg(1214) divide
development
into smaller units during the daily cycle and reassemble when drinking and
moving from one area to another The subgroups frequently differ in sex
Females with their immediate offspring constitute the and age composition
- 6 shy
family units and tend to move in company with their small calves There
can be cohesive movement between females and half-grown young and between
males 6 or7 years old It is within the cow herd that the calf matures
and learns the template of its environment The cow herd serves as the
repository of traditional knowledge which includes routes to water-holes
to mineral sources and to seasonal foraging areas(1213141533)
Adult males live alone or occasionally in company with 1 to 3
satellite males with weak social bonds Adults are capable of breeding at
any time of year but when they reach an adequate nutritional plane they
enter a condition known as musth which is analogous to rut in bovids and
cervids When in musth maies are extremely aggressive and dangerous and
this condition probably allows them to dominate in contests with cows and
other males(14) In the dry zone of Sri Lanka males use restricted areas
that may be frequented by a number of cow groups More than one male at a
time may be in attendance with an estrous female in a cow herd(152233)
Under the strong wet-dry seasonal regime of East Africa bulls switch to a
strategy where they travel long distances in search of estroue females from
one that is associated with intensive feeding in restricted areas During
the dry and early wet season bulls maximize food intake a fat bull has a
better chance of rutting longer and still retaining sufficient energy
stores to survive the long dry season(3)
To visualize the impact a project may have on elephant movements
it is useful to examine how land-tenure and movement patterns reflect
elephant adaptations to different environments The environmental patterns
can be characterized by first seasonal flux in resources second predictshy
ability in the timing and amount that will become available during the
flux and third resource distribution These parameters are depicted in
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Figure 1 There can be strong Lntermediate or little seaconal flux and
the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable A useful rating of
the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by
plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously
available patches(14)
In the dry zone monsoon forests of Sri Lanka elephants forage in
areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches
These are usually of rather poor quality(233755) in a moderate or low
fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable Cow herds
display movements based on three time scales(34) 1) daily movements
associated with feeding and moving to and from water 2) seasonal
movements between dry season and wet season home ranges and 3) medium-term
For a cowmovements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1)
herd home ranges of 25 km2 and 60 kmrhave been determined for wet and dry
seasons respectively Ranges for adult males vary from 10 kmgto 17 km2 (24)
This contrasts with elephant movements in Kenyas huge Tsavo
National Park which is semi-arid savanna with notoriously irregulcr
rainfall Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small
localized dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources Food
in these areas however becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry
season Sensing rain from considerable distances the first and subsequent
rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements up to 50 km to eat
new grass growing where rain has fallen This is schematically depicted in
from dry season ranges are unpredictableFigure 1 Outward movements
return movements can be more accurately predicted Aggregations of 1000
elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season
which come predictably to restricted areas(31)
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Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
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Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
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5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
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TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
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Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
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TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
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FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
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successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
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proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
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Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
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activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
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involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
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adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
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when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
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planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
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ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
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8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
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REFERENCES
1 Asian Elephant Specialist Group Survival Service Commission 1980 The status of the Asian elephant in the Indian Sub-continent Gland Switzerland IUCN 74pp
2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
semiarid environment Anim Behav 301217-1223
4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
cultivation the confrontation between the Asian elephant and land
development in Peninsular Malaysia Land Dev Digest 227-59
5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
africana (Blumenbach)) East Afr Wildl J 10165-174
7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production Oecologia 22341-354
8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
age-structures of elephant populations and its use in Kidepo National Park East Afr Wildl J 1091-115
9 Croze H Hillman AKK and Lang EM 1981 Elephants and their habitats how do they tolerate each other Pages 297-316 in Fowler CW
and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
Wiley amp Sons
10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
migration paths in the Nilgiri Hills and inquiry into impediments to the free
movements of elephants there and recommendations for the provision of
corridors for their movement Bombay Bombay Nat Hist Society (Mimeogr)
20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
report Washington DC US Fish and Wildl Serv (Mimeogr) IO5pp
12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
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14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
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-2shy
elephants This paper is a step towards improved planning and management
in order to reconcile development priorities with tke increasingly urgent
need for effective conservation measures
11 About Elephants
The elephant Order Proboscidea has a lung and spectacular
evolutionary history from its beginnings in Africa during the Eocene(14)
The two surviving species of this evolution are placed in different
genera Elephas maximus is usually separated into 3 subspecies E m
maximus of Sri Lanka E M indicus of the Indian Subcontinent and Southshy
east Asia including Borneo and E m sumatranus from Sumatra The bush
elephants of East and South Africa are usually placed in Loxodonta africana
africana and the West African forest elephants in L a cyclotis(1846)
African elephants are slightly larger than Asian elephants Adult
males weigh up to 6000 kg females up to 3200 kg African elephants have a
concave shape to their back large ears relatively smooth skin and a
trunk with 2 fingers at the tip Asian elephants have a distinctive
convex shaped back smaller ears skin that appears wrinkled and a trunk
with one finger There are differences between the two species distinshy
guished by the number of ribs and vertebrae and in the morphology of the
cheek teeth Male and female African elephants have tusks female Asians
and a large percentage of males iti some populations do not have tusks
Lacking tusks both males and females may have an alternate type of modishy
fied incisor or tushes that are barely visible beyond the lip(182746)
From a management perspective an important difference between the
two species is their ability to tolerate the sun and utilize open habishy
tats Heat dissipation is a problem for both species Asian elephants
need access to shade during much of each day(15182733) while African
- 3 shy
elephants are much less restricted except when young with calves This
difference alone suggests that project design features which could
discourage Asian elephants may not succeed with African elephants
Therefore measures taken to manage elephants need to consider species as
well as site characteristics
Elephants are never the numerically dominant ungulate in their
habitat but they are frequently ecological dominants in terms of biomass
and the cycling of plant material The habitats occupied vary but usually
are ecotones between forest and grasslands and areas with moderate tree
cover grading into savanna The sites are always in association with
permanent water which is well dispersed in the vegetational mosaic ASian
elephants do not extend into desertic areas They do occur in dense rain
forest only if there is sufficient interspersion of water and grass
Secondary or disturbed forests contain more suitable food plants In
suitable South Asian habitats crude density of elephants can range from
01 to 1km2(1416) Habitats described as suitable for Asian elephants
also support the densest African elephant populations with the exception
noted that African elephants appear to have a greater tolerance for drier
conditions(7131416)
Asian and African elephant literature contain both useful and
confusing information on elephant husbandry and management(182746)
Resolving elephant-development conflicts requires data from which reliable
predictions can be made about the response of elephants to changes in the
patterns and processes in their habitat brought about by a particular
project This is customarily termed a facultative or behavioral response
to environmentl change as opposed to a numerical response or change in
population numbers
- 4 -
An important distinction should be made here between crude and
ecological density because density estirates(7151633) are frequently
employed by wildlife managers Crude density estimates take the average
density of a species over the entire sample space Ecological density is
the crude density estimate corrected for habitat differences within a
non-homogenous habitat(16) Through some habitat modifications the
ecological density of elephanLs in a specific area might shift (a
behavioral response) but the overall or crude density of elephants in the
region might not (a numerical response)
The long-term problem of stabilizing elephant numbers in relation
to available resources requires knowledge of the genetic and quantitative
dynamics of populations and of the long-term coactions of these herbivores
with their food plants(282932374349) These issues which have
generated extensive elephant management literature(9) are important in the
management of elephant refuges but contribute little to solving the
problem of separating elephants and development projects
Long-term studies of elephant behavioral ecology have been carried
out or are in progress in Manayara Tanzania in Amboseli Kenya in Addo
South Africa and in the dry zone national parks of Sri Lanka
(615223355) These are monsoon areas with strong wet and dry seasons
There are few detailed behavioral and ecological data for elephants living
in wet high tropical forest areas of Africa or Asia This lack of
information is significant because of the large number of projects located
in this vegetation type (Annex) and because of the differences in movement
patterns and densities of elephants already noted(40)
Elephants are the largest grazing-browsing herbivores(14) that
improve the predictability of their food supply by maximizing the area over
- 5 shy
which they forage(Q) They push over trees or break them off to expand
their foraging space Iheir large size and efficient locomotion provide
for energetically cheap long-di3tance cruising with herd movement
The trunk enables them to feedconstrained only by the youngest members
on coarse forage ranging from short grasses to branches four meters and
more above the ground
Asian elephants may spend 70 to 90 of their time foraging with
An adult consumes 150kg of vegetationtwo major bouts per 24-hour day
African(wet weight) per day with an average intake rate of about 7kghr
While elephantselephants consume up to 220kgday(13141523273338)
may at one time or another eat or at least sample a wide variety of the
plant species in their foraging areas they have food preferences and
Grass for example is always a major dietary component During aneeds
cycle the rate of feeding varies with the food patch and increases
an optimum feeding site once theremarkedly as the animal approaches
feeding is at a maximum rate Drinking sites appear to be
Bouts of drinking and bathing by elephants arEtraditional(1533)
clustered in the morning and evening(13153355) and both species drink
often if water is availableonce a day or more
Studies of elephant sociality show that females live in small
cohesive groups of close relatives (mother-daughter and siblings) and their
offspring At puberty young females remain with the group while males
The age of puberty varies with nutrition duringleave or are expelled
These cow herds terl-d clans by Eisenberg(1214) divide
development
into smaller units during the daily cycle and reassemble when drinking and
moving from one area to another The subgroups frequently differ in sex
Females with their immediate offspring constitute the and age composition
- 6 shy
family units and tend to move in company with their small calves There
can be cohesive movement between females and half-grown young and between
males 6 or7 years old It is within the cow herd that the calf matures
and learns the template of its environment The cow herd serves as the
repository of traditional knowledge which includes routes to water-holes
to mineral sources and to seasonal foraging areas(1213141533)
Adult males live alone or occasionally in company with 1 to 3
satellite males with weak social bonds Adults are capable of breeding at
any time of year but when they reach an adequate nutritional plane they
enter a condition known as musth which is analogous to rut in bovids and
cervids When in musth maies are extremely aggressive and dangerous and
this condition probably allows them to dominate in contests with cows and
other males(14) In the dry zone of Sri Lanka males use restricted areas
that may be frequented by a number of cow groups More than one male at a
time may be in attendance with an estrous female in a cow herd(152233)
Under the strong wet-dry seasonal regime of East Africa bulls switch to a
strategy where they travel long distances in search of estroue females from
one that is associated with intensive feeding in restricted areas During
the dry and early wet season bulls maximize food intake a fat bull has a
better chance of rutting longer and still retaining sufficient energy
stores to survive the long dry season(3)
To visualize the impact a project may have on elephant movements
it is useful to examine how land-tenure and movement patterns reflect
elephant adaptations to different environments The environmental patterns
can be characterized by first seasonal flux in resources second predictshy
ability in the timing and amount that will become available during the
flux and third resource distribution These parameters are depicted in
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Figure 1 There can be strong Lntermediate or little seaconal flux and
the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable A useful rating of
the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by
plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously
available patches(14)
In the dry zone monsoon forests of Sri Lanka elephants forage in
areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches
These are usually of rather poor quality(233755) in a moderate or low
fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable Cow herds
display movements based on three time scales(34) 1) daily movements
associated with feeding and moving to and from water 2) seasonal
movements between dry season and wet season home ranges and 3) medium-term
For a cowmovements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1)
herd home ranges of 25 km2 and 60 kmrhave been determined for wet and dry
seasons respectively Ranges for adult males vary from 10 kmgto 17 km2 (24)
This contrasts with elephant movements in Kenyas huge Tsavo
National Park which is semi-arid savanna with notoriously irregulcr
rainfall Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small
localized dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources Food
in these areas however becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry
season Sensing rain from considerable distances the first and subsequent
rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements up to 50 km to eat
new grass growing where rain has fallen This is schematically depicted in
from dry season ranges are unpredictableFigure 1 Outward movements
return movements can be more accurately predicted Aggregations of 1000
elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season
which come predictably to restricted areas(31)
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Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
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Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
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5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
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TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
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Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
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TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
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FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
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successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
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proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
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Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
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activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
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involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
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adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
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when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
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planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
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ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
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8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
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REFERENCES
1 Asian Elephant Specialist Group Survival Service Commission 1980 The status of the Asian elephant in the Indian Sub-continent Gland Switzerland IUCN 74pp
2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
semiarid environment Anim Behav 301217-1223
4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
cultivation the confrontation between the Asian elephant and land
development in Peninsular Malaysia Land Dev Digest 227-59
5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
africana (Blumenbach)) East Afr Wildl J 10165-174
7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production Oecologia 22341-354
8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
age-structures of elephant populations and its use in Kidepo National Park East Afr Wildl J 1091-115
9 Croze H Hillman AKK and Lang EM 1981 Elephants and their habitats how do they tolerate each other Pages 297-316 in Fowler CW
and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
Wiley amp Sons
10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
migration paths in the Nilgiri Hills and inquiry into impediments to the free
movements of elephants there and recommendations for the provision of
corridors for their movement Bombay Bombay Nat Hist Society (Mimeogr)
20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
report Washington DC US Fish and Wildl Serv (Mimeogr) IO5pp
12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
- 30 shy
14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
food and other commodities that are
of importance to low-income can
sumers small farmers and resource-Door areasSector Paper
5ctor PolicyPaperJune 1981 IO pages (including annexes) EngiLsh
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odel forhDevericltthe Agricultural Se-ctor of Fortugal Alvin C Egbert and Iyung f Kim Spatial mathematical programming is used to develop comprehensive and quantitative methods to suggest development strategies in Portugals agriculture sector
The Johns Hopkins University Press
197 1o pages (including
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Economic Aspects andolicy issues in Groundshy
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World Bank Staff Working Paper
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Economic Return to Invest
meat In Irrigation in India Leslie A Abbie James Q Harrison
andJon als
and John W WallReports on an investigation into the
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Agricultural Project AnalysLs Maxwell L Brown
Clarifies the relation between simple
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EDI Series in Economic Development
The Johns Hopkitns University Press
1980 154 pages
LC 79-3704 ISBN 0-8018-2386-2 $1500 (S1oo hardcour ISBN 8-8015-2367-0 $650 (450) paperbackSpnLsh Prupuestos Va fincas
EditorialTecnas 1982
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Fishery Highllts the imoortance of fisheries
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ank provide assistance to those
countries that have the fishery are willing to developresources and
reoure re them further
Setor Policy Paper December 1982
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Food Security in Food Deicit Countries Shlomo Reutlinger and Keith Knapp
World Bank Staff Working Paper No
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Forestry Graham Donaldson coordi-
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1982 307 pages (incluaing index)
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India Demand and Supply Prospects for Agriculture James Q Harrison Jon A Hitchings and John W Wall
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Agricultural Research and Productivity Robert E Evenson and Yoav Kislev Examines the role of scientific reswarh and technological change in increasing agnicularai prcxuctivity
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Provides and Illustrates a framework for analyzing and designing ar
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The Book of CHAC Programming Studies for Iexican Agricultural Policy Edited Dy RogeL-r D Noriton and Leooldo 51i M
n a n po tproject The principal tooi ot analysis is the se-wtr modei Cft named after the
Mayan rain gcd This model can be hrougno the sector to cover
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Thi--volum r)ort5 tne exenence of uainq tne ClA - mogje and also pre-_rtq itnmdOoyc3i materalpurlim-
TnWJ~n iwxn Lnrit
Q2 Dage Ua 080125857
2c (24 arc
indust~tl po icLSStockIndust roi ts gr
EDI Senes in Economic DevelopmenL
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1981224 pages incudwg appen-dixes bibliograhy and inae) LC 80-550 15BI0-8016-2412-5 $1650 (S1000) hardcovr ISBNM 0-8018-2413-3 S7_50 U425) paperback
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Argentina Country Case Study of Agricultural Prices
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Building NiationaJ Capacity to Develop Water Uiiers Asoocia6inw Lperizence from the PhilIppines
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Over a fiv-year pDeno_ Lht National
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the agency as a result of the develop-ment of tnesc associatnv prior to the contruction of the pnysical wystem and the involvement of
association mmDirs in the olanning
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and ciiuasse the implications or
donor uppcno outer small-scale programs and more
generally for orog-ams Involving village-levei work
World Bank Staff Working Paper NIo 528 July1982 u -69 pages (including references)
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C-12o y EJerccios Sobre Proyectos Agricolas Edited by Orlando T Espadas Three case studies prepared in conshyjunction with the EDIs Agricultural Projects Courses in Spanish and intended primarly for teachers of
at _Iysis
World Bank (EDI) March 1974 revised January 1975 480 pages (Available
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The Design of Organiza
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rancis J Lethem and
Ben A Thoolen World Bank Staff Working Paper No
375 March 1980 48 pages English
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The Design of Rural Development Lessons from Africa Uma Lee Analyzes new ways of designing rural
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A World Bank Paper May 1975 73 pages (including 2 annexes) fngllsh French and Spanish
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Land Tenure Systems and Social Implications of Forestry Development Po a Michael M Cemea World Bank Staff Working Paper No 452 April 1981 35 pages (including references bibllography)
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Managing Information for Rural Development Leson~from Eastern Aurrica s
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3 70pags5Sock79 Mach 180oil+
and they involve a variety of Invest-ments The need for monitoring and evaluaUng Wein during implementa-tion has been accepted in principlebut effective systems have notheretofore bten fonrnulated The con-
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World Sank Staff Working Paper No
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Nutritional Consequences of Agricultural Projects Conceptual Relationships and AssessmentApproaches Per Pinstrup-Andersen
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what constitutes a project what must be conshysidered to identify possible agricultural projects the life cycle of a proqecL the strengths and pitfalls of pojectanalysis anc the calculations required to obtain financial and economic project accounts
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pnces used to calculate the effects of an Investment on national income a glossary of technical terms expandedappendixes on preparing an agricultural project report and using discounting tables and an expanded completely annotated bibliographyLI Series in Economic Development
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- 3 shy
elephants are much less restricted except when young with calves This
difference alone suggests that project design features which could
discourage Asian elephants may not succeed with African elephants
Therefore measures taken to manage elephants need to consider species as
well as site characteristics
Elephants are never the numerically dominant ungulate in their
habitat but they are frequently ecological dominants in terms of biomass
and the cycling of plant material The habitats occupied vary but usually
are ecotones between forest and grasslands and areas with moderate tree
cover grading into savanna The sites are always in association with
permanent water which is well dispersed in the vegetational mosaic ASian
elephants do not extend into desertic areas They do occur in dense rain
forest only if there is sufficient interspersion of water and grass
Secondary or disturbed forests contain more suitable food plants In
suitable South Asian habitats crude density of elephants can range from
01 to 1km2(1416) Habitats described as suitable for Asian elephants
also support the densest African elephant populations with the exception
noted that African elephants appear to have a greater tolerance for drier
conditions(7131416)
Asian and African elephant literature contain both useful and
confusing information on elephant husbandry and management(182746)
Resolving elephant-development conflicts requires data from which reliable
predictions can be made about the response of elephants to changes in the
patterns and processes in their habitat brought about by a particular
project This is customarily termed a facultative or behavioral response
to environmentl change as opposed to a numerical response or change in
population numbers
- 4 -
An important distinction should be made here between crude and
ecological density because density estirates(7151633) are frequently
employed by wildlife managers Crude density estimates take the average
density of a species over the entire sample space Ecological density is
the crude density estimate corrected for habitat differences within a
non-homogenous habitat(16) Through some habitat modifications the
ecological density of elephanLs in a specific area might shift (a
behavioral response) but the overall or crude density of elephants in the
region might not (a numerical response)
The long-term problem of stabilizing elephant numbers in relation
to available resources requires knowledge of the genetic and quantitative
dynamics of populations and of the long-term coactions of these herbivores
with their food plants(282932374349) These issues which have
generated extensive elephant management literature(9) are important in the
management of elephant refuges but contribute little to solving the
problem of separating elephants and development projects
Long-term studies of elephant behavioral ecology have been carried
out or are in progress in Manayara Tanzania in Amboseli Kenya in Addo
South Africa and in the dry zone national parks of Sri Lanka
(615223355) These are monsoon areas with strong wet and dry seasons
There are few detailed behavioral and ecological data for elephants living
in wet high tropical forest areas of Africa or Asia This lack of
information is significant because of the large number of projects located
in this vegetation type (Annex) and because of the differences in movement
patterns and densities of elephants already noted(40)
Elephants are the largest grazing-browsing herbivores(14) that
improve the predictability of their food supply by maximizing the area over
- 5 shy
which they forage(Q) They push over trees or break them off to expand
their foraging space Iheir large size and efficient locomotion provide
for energetically cheap long-di3tance cruising with herd movement
The trunk enables them to feedconstrained only by the youngest members
on coarse forage ranging from short grasses to branches four meters and
more above the ground
Asian elephants may spend 70 to 90 of their time foraging with
An adult consumes 150kg of vegetationtwo major bouts per 24-hour day
African(wet weight) per day with an average intake rate of about 7kghr
While elephantselephants consume up to 220kgday(13141523273338)
may at one time or another eat or at least sample a wide variety of the
plant species in their foraging areas they have food preferences and
Grass for example is always a major dietary component During aneeds
cycle the rate of feeding varies with the food patch and increases
an optimum feeding site once theremarkedly as the animal approaches
feeding is at a maximum rate Drinking sites appear to be
Bouts of drinking and bathing by elephants arEtraditional(1533)
clustered in the morning and evening(13153355) and both species drink
often if water is availableonce a day or more
Studies of elephant sociality show that females live in small
cohesive groups of close relatives (mother-daughter and siblings) and their
offspring At puberty young females remain with the group while males
The age of puberty varies with nutrition duringleave or are expelled
These cow herds terl-d clans by Eisenberg(1214) divide
development
into smaller units during the daily cycle and reassemble when drinking and
moving from one area to another The subgroups frequently differ in sex
Females with their immediate offspring constitute the and age composition
- 6 shy
family units and tend to move in company with their small calves There
can be cohesive movement between females and half-grown young and between
males 6 or7 years old It is within the cow herd that the calf matures
and learns the template of its environment The cow herd serves as the
repository of traditional knowledge which includes routes to water-holes
to mineral sources and to seasonal foraging areas(1213141533)
Adult males live alone or occasionally in company with 1 to 3
satellite males with weak social bonds Adults are capable of breeding at
any time of year but when they reach an adequate nutritional plane they
enter a condition known as musth which is analogous to rut in bovids and
cervids When in musth maies are extremely aggressive and dangerous and
this condition probably allows them to dominate in contests with cows and
other males(14) In the dry zone of Sri Lanka males use restricted areas
that may be frequented by a number of cow groups More than one male at a
time may be in attendance with an estrous female in a cow herd(152233)
Under the strong wet-dry seasonal regime of East Africa bulls switch to a
strategy where they travel long distances in search of estroue females from
one that is associated with intensive feeding in restricted areas During
the dry and early wet season bulls maximize food intake a fat bull has a
better chance of rutting longer and still retaining sufficient energy
stores to survive the long dry season(3)
To visualize the impact a project may have on elephant movements
it is useful to examine how land-tenure and movement patterns reflect
elephant adaptations to different environments The environmental patterns
can be characterized by first seasonal flux in resources second predictshy
ability in the timing and amount that will become available during the
flux and third resource distribution These parameters are depicted in
- 7 -
Figure 1 There can be strong Lntermediate or little seaconal flux and
the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable A useful rating of
the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by
plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously
available patches(14)
In the dry zone monsoon forests of Sri Lanka elephants forage in
areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches
These are usually of rather poor quality(233755) in a moderate or low
fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable Cow herds
display movements based on three time scales(34) 1) daily movements
associated with feeding and moving to and from water 2) seasonal
movements between dry season and wet season home ranges and 3) medium-term
For a cowmovements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1)
herd home ranges of 25 km2 and 60 kmrhave been determined for wet and dry
seasons respectively Ranges for adult males vary from 10 kmgto 17 km2 (24)
This contrasts with elephant movements in Kenyas huge Tsavo
National Park which is semi-arid savanna with notoriously irregulcr
rainfall Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small
localized dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources Food
in these areas however becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry
season Sensing rain from considerable distances the first and subsequent
rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements up to 50 km to eat
new grass growing where rain has fallen This is schematically depicted in
from dry season ranges are unpredictableFigure 1 Outward movements
return movements can be more accurately predicted Aggregations of 1000
elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season
which come predictably to restricted areas(31)
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Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
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Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
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5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
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TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
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Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
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TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
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FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
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successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
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proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
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Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
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activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
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involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
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adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
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when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
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planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
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ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
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8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
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1 Asian Elephant Specialist Group Survival Service Commission 1980 The status of the Asian elephant in the Indian Sub-continent Gland Switzerland IUCN 74pp
2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
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4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
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5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
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7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
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8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
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9 Croze H Hillman AKK and Lang EM 1981 Elephants and their habitats how do they tolerate each other Pages 297-316 in Fowler CW
and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
Wiley amp Sons
10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
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movements of elephants there and recommendations for the provision of
corridors for their movement Bombay Bombay Nat Hist Society (Mimeogr)
20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
report Washington DC US Fish and Wildl Serv (Mimeogr) IO5pp
12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
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14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
food and other commodities that are
of importance to low-income can
sumers small farmers and resource-Door areasSector Paper
5ctor PolicyPaperJune 1981 IO pages (including annexes) EngiLsh
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odel forhDevericltthe Agricultural Se-ctor of Fortugal Alvin C Egbert and Iyung f Kim Spatial mathematical programming is used to develop comprehensive and quantitative methods to suggest development strategies in Portugals agriculture sector
The Johns Hopkins University Press
197 1o pages (including
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Economic Aspects andolicy issues in Groundshy
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World Bank Staff Working Paper
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Economic Return to Invest
meat In Irrigation in India Leslie A Abbie James Q Harrison
andJon als
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Agricultural Project AnalysLs Maxwell L Brown
Clarifies the relation between simple
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EDI Series in Economic Development
The Johns Hopkitns University Press
1980 154 pages
LC 79-3704 ISBN 0-8018-2386-2 $1500 (S1oo hardcour ISBN 8-8015-2367-0 $650 (450) paperbackSpnLsh Prupuestos Va fincas
EditorialTecnas 1982
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Fishery Highllts the imoortance of fisheries
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ank provide assistance to those
countries that have the fishery are willing to developresources and
reoure re them further
Setor Policy Paper December 1982
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Food Security in Food Deicit Countries Shlomo Reutlinger and Keith Knapp
World Bank Staff Working Paper No
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Forestry Graham Donaldson coordi-
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efficiency of investment In surfaceNo50Otbr1813pae and groundwater Irrigation In India
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1982 307 pages (incluaing index)
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India Demand and Supply Prospects for Agriculture James Q Harrison Jon A Hitchings and John W Wall
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me World Banks economic work In
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Agricultural Research and Productivity Robert E Evenson and Yoav Kislev Examines the role of scientific reswarh and technological change in increasing agnicularai prcxuctivity
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Provides and Illustrates a framework for analyzing and designing ar
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The Book of CHAC Programming Studies for Iexican Agricultural Policy Edited Dy RogeL-r D Noriton and Leooldo 51i M
n a n po tproject The principal tooi ot analysis is the se-wtr modei Cft named after the
Mayan rain gcd This model can be hrougno the sector to cover
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Dcalitres it morc Cetaiien analysis is recuired Tnc moce hcD- pianners Swc ne cos3 arcn policy goals wnicu_ can vary from regon to region
Thi--volum r)ort5 tne exenence of uainq tne ClA - mogje and also pre-_rtq itnmdOoyc3i materalpurlim-
TnWJ~n iwxn Lnrit
Q2 Dage Ua 080125857
2c (24 arc
indust~tl po icLSStockIndust roi ts gr
EDI Senes in Economic DevelopmenL
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1981224 pages incudwg appen-dixes bibliograhy and inae) LC 80-550 15BI0-8016-2412-5 $1650 (S1000) hardcovr ISBNM 0-8018-2413-3 S7_50 U425) paperback
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Argentina Country Case Study of Agricultural Prices
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World Bank Staff Working Paper No
386 April 1980 72 pages (including 3 airrigation
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Building NiationaJ Capacity to Develop Water Uiiers Asoocia6inw Lperizence from the PhilIppines
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Over a fiv-year pDeno_ Lht National
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the agency as a result of the develop-ment of tnesc associatnv prior to the contruction of the pnysical wystem and the involvement of
association mmDirs in the olanning
and construction stages It also examnes the rture of the leanming oro- tzi = et t3 these cnanges
and ciiuasse the implications or
donor uppcno outer small-scale programs and more
generally for orog-ams Involving village-levei work
World Bank Staff Working Paper NIo 528 July1982 u -69 pages (including references)
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C-12o y EJerccios Sobre Proyectos Agricolas Edited by Orlando T Espadas Three case studies prepared in conshyjunction with the EDIs Agricultural Projects Courses in Spanish and intended primarly for teachers of
at _Iysis
World Bank (EDI) March 1974 revised January 1975 480 pages (Available
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The Design of Organiza
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rancis J Lethem and
Ben A Thoolen World Bank Staff Working Paper No
375 March 1980 48 pages English
and French WP-O5 73-PNo WP-O5 75-C Stoco
The Design of Rural Development Lessons from Africa Uma Lee Analyzes new ways of designing rural
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Land Tenure Systems and Social Implications of Forestry Development Po a Michael M Cemea World Bank Staff Working Paper No 452 April 1981 35 pages (including references bibllography)
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Managing Information for Rural Development Leson~from Eastern Aurrica s
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and they involve a variety of Invest-ments The need for monitoring and evaluaUng Wein during implementa-tion has been accepted in principlebut effective systems have notheretofore bten fonrnulated The con-
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World Sank Staff Working Paper No
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Nutritional Consequences of Agricultural Projects Conceptual Relationships and AssessmentApproaches Per Pinstrup-Andersen
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World Bank Staff Working Paper Plo 532 1982 100 pages ISBN 0-8213-0028-8 $300
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Thailand-Case Study of Agricultural Input and Output Pricing Trent Bertrand
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what constitutes a project what must be conshysidered to identify possible agricultural projects the life cycle of a proqecL the strengths and pitfalls of pojectanalysis anc the calculations required to obtain financial and economic project accounts
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n i e r a n n l s sengineers and analysts This revision adds a wealth of recent project dataexpanded treatment of farm budgets and the efficiency
pnces used to calculate the effects of an Investment on national income a glossary of technical terms expandedappendixes on preparing an agricultural project report and using discounting tables and an expanded completely annotated bibliographyLI Series in Economic Development
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- 4 -
An important distinction should be made here between crude and
ecological density because density estirates(7151633) are frequently
employed by wildlife managers Crude density estimates take the average
density of a species over the entire sample space Ecological density is
the crude density estimate corrected for habitat differences within a
non-homogenous habitat(16) Through some habitat modifications the
ecological density of elephanLs in a specific area might shift (a
behavioral response) but the overall or crude density of elephants in the
region might not (a numerical response)
The long-term problem of stabilizing elephant numbers in relation
to available resources requires knowledge of the genetic and quantitative
dynamics of populations and of the long-term coactions of these herbivores
with their food plants(282932374349) These issues which have
generated extensive elephant management literature(9) are important in the
management of elephant refuges but contribute little to solving the
problem of separating elephants and development projects
Long-term studies of elephant behavioral ecology have been carried
out or are in progress in Manayara Tanzania in Amboseli Kenya in Addo
South Africa and in the dry zone national parks of Sri Lanka
(615223355) These are monsoon areas with strong wet and dry seasons
There are few detailed behavioral and ecological data for elephants living
in wet high tropical forest areas of Africa or Asia This lack of
information is significant because of the large number of projects located
in this vegetation type (Annex) and because of the differences in movement
patterns and densities of elephants already noted(40)
Elephants are the largest grazing-browsing herbivores(14) that
improve the predictability of their food supply by maximizing the area over
- 5 shy
which they forage(Q) They push over trees or break them off to expand
their foraging space Iheir large size and efficient locomotion provide
for energetically cheap long-di3tance cruising with herd movement
The trunk enables them to feedconstrained only by the youngest members
on coarse forage ranging from short grasses to branches four meters and
more above the ground
Asian elephants may spend 70 to 90 of their time foraging with
An adult consumes 150kg of vegetationtwo major bouts per 24-hour day
African(wet weight) per day with an average intake rate of about 7kghr
While elephantselephants consume up to 220kgday(13141523273338)
may at one time or another eat or at least sample a wide variety of the
plant species in their foraging areas they have food preferences and
Grass for example is always a major dietary component During aneeds
cycle the rate of feeding varies with the food patch and increases
an optimum feeding site once theremarkedly as the animal approaches
feeding is at a maximum rate Drinking sites appear to be
Bouts of drinking and bathing by elephants arEtraditional(1533)
clustered in the morning and evening(13153355) and both species drink
often if water is availableonce a day or more
Studies of elephant sociality show that females live in small
cohesive groups of close relatives (mother-daughter and siblings) and their
offspring At puberty young females remain with the group while males
The age of puberty varies with nutrition duringleave or are expelled
These cow herds terl-d clans by Eisenberg(1214) divide
development
into smaller units during the daily cycle and reassemble when drinking and
moving from one area to another The subgroups frequently differ in sex
Females with their immediate offspring constitute the and age composition
- 6 shy
family units and tend to move in company with their small calves There
can be cohesive movement between females and half-grown young and between
males 6 or7 years old It is within the cow herd that the calf matures
and learns the template of its environment The cow herd serves as the
repository of traditional knowledge which includes routes to water-holes
to mineral sources and to seasonal foraging areas(1213141533)
Adult males live alone or occasionally in company with 1 to 3
satellite males with weak social bonds Adults are capable of breeding at
any time of year but when they reach an adequate nutritional plane they
enter a condition known as musth which is analogous to rut in bovids and
cervids When in musth maies are extremely aggressive and dangerous and
this condition probably allows them to dominate in contests with cows and
other males(14) In the dry zone of Sri Lanka males use restricted areas
that may be frequented by a number of cow groups More than one male at a
time may be in attendance with an estrous female in a cow herd(152233)
Under the strong wet-dry seasonal regime of East Africa bulls switch to a
strategy where they travel long distances in search of estroue females from
one that is associated with intensive feeding in restricted areas During
the dry and early wet season bulls maximize food intake a fat bull has a
better chance of rutting longer and still retaining sufficient energy
stores to survive the long dry season(3)
To visualize the impact a project may have on elephant movements
it is useful to examine how land-tenure and movement patterns reflect
elephant adaptations to different environments The environmental patterns
can be characterized by first seasonal flux in resources second predictshy
ability in the timing and amount that will become available during the
flux and third resource distribution These parameters are depicted in
- 7 -
Figure 1 There can be strong Lntermediate or little seaconal flux and
the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable A useful rating of
the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by
plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously
available patches(14)
In the dry zone monsoon forests of Sri Lanka elephants forage in
areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches
These are usually of rather poor quality(233755) in a moderate or low
fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable Cow herds
display movements based on three time scales(34) 1) daily movements
associated with feeding and moving to and from water 2) seasonal
movements between dry season and wet season home ranges and 3) medium-term
For a cowmovements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1)
herd home ranges of 25 km2 and 60 kmrhave been determined for wet and dry
seasons respectively Ranges for adult males vary from 10 kmgto 17 km2 (24)
This contrasts with elephant movements in Kenyas huge Tsavo
National Park which is semi-arid savanna with notoriously irregulcr
rainfall Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small
localized dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources Food
in these areas however becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry
season Sensing rain from considerable distances the first and subsequent
rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements up to 50 km to eat
new grass growing where rain has fallen This is schematically depicted in
from dry season ranges are unpredictableFigure 1 Outward movements
return movements can be more accurately predicted Aggregations of 1000
elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season
which come predictably to restricted areas(31)
-8-
Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
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Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
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5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
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TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
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Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
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TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
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FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
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successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
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proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
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Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
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activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
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involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
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adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
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when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
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planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
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ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
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8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
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kadeic Press
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Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
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Economic Aspects andolicy issues in Groundshy
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World Bank Staff Working Paper
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EDI Series in Economic Development
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Building NiationaJ Capacity to Develop Water Uiiers Asoocia6inw Lperizence from the PhilIppines
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World Bank Staff Working Paper NIo 528 July1982 u -69 pages (including references)
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C-12o y EJerccios Sobre Proyectos Agricolas Edited by Orlando T Espadas Three case studies prepared in conshyjunction with the EDIs Agricultural Projects Courses in Spanish and intended primarly for teachers of
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The Design of Organiza
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The Design of Rural Development Lessons from Africa Uma Lee Analyzes new ways of designing rural
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NEW Economic Analysis of Agricultural Projects Second edition compleeLy rev sed and erpanded J Price Gittinger
Thisbook entirelyoutnew editioncareful of thepracticalWorld Banksmethodlologjybest-sellingsets a and fora a y n u t ~ uanalyzing agricultural development projects and for using these analyses to compare proposed Investments It
what constitutes a project what must be conshysidered to identify possible agricultural projects the life cycle of a proqecL the strengths and pitfalls of pojectanalysis anc the calculations required to obtain financial and economic project accounts
In the ten years since Its publication the first edition has been accepted widely as a standard reference and texL Themethodology reflects the best of contemporary practice In government agencies and International developmentinstitutions concerned with Investing in agriculture and Isaccessible to a broad readership of agricultural planners
n i e r a n n l s sengineers and analysts This revision adds a wealth of recent project dataexpanded treatment of farm budgets and the efficiency
pnces used to calculate the effects of an Investment on national income a glossary of technical terms expandedappendixes on preparing an agricultural project report and using discounting tables and an expanded completely annotated bibliographyLI Series in Economic Development
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- 5 shy
which they forage(Q) They push over trees or break them off to expand
their foraging space Iheir large size and efficient locomotion provide
for energetically cheap long-di3tance cruising with herd movement
The trunk enables them to feedconstrained only by the youngest members
on coarse forage ranging from short grasses to branches four meters and
more above the ground
Asian elephants may spend 70 to 90 of their time foraging with
An adult consumes 150kg of vegetationtwo major bouts per 24-hour day
African(wet weight) per day with an average intake rate of about 7kghr
While elephantselephants consume up to 220kgday(13141523273338)
may at one time or another eat or at least sample a wide variety of the
plant species in their foraging areas they have food preferences and
Grass for example is always a major dietary component During aneeds
cycle the rate of feeding varies with the food patch and increases
an optimum feeding site once theremarkedly as the animal approaches
feeding is at a maximum rate Drinking sites appear to be
Bouts of drinking and bathing by elephants arEtraditional(1533)
clustered in the morning and evening(13153355) and both species drink
often if water is availableonce a day or more
Studies of elephant sociality show that females live in small
cohesive groups of close relatives (mother-daughter and siblings) and their
offspring At puberty young females remain with the group while males
The age of puberty varies with nutrition duringleave or are expelled
These cow herds terl-d clans by Eisenberg(1214) divide
development
into smaller units during the daily cycle and reassemble when drinking and
moving from one area to another The subgroups frequently differ in sex
Females with their immediate offspring constitute the and age composition
- 6 shy
family units and tend to move in company with their small calves There
can be cohesive movement between females and half-grown young and between
males 6 or7 years old It is within the cow herd that the calf matures
and learns the template of its environment The cow herd serves as the
repository of traditional knowledge which includes routes to water-holes
to mineral sources and to seasonal foraging areas(1213141533)
Adult males live alone or occasionally in company with 1 to 3
satellite males with weak social bonds Adults are capable of breeding at
any time of year but when they reach an adequate nutritional plane they
enter a condition known as musth which is analogous to rut in bovids and
cervids When in musth maies are extremely aggressive and dangerous and
this condition probably allows them to dominate in contests with cows and
other males(14) In the dry zone of Sri Lanka males use restricted areas
that may be frequented by a number of cow groups More than one male at a
time may be in attendance with an estrous female in a cow herd(152233)
Under the strong wet-dry seasonal regime of East Africa bulls switch to a
strategy where they travel long distances in search of estroue females from
one that is associated with intensive feeding in restricted areas During
the dry and early wet season bulls maximize food intake a fat bull has a
better chance of rutting longer and still retaining sufficient energy
stores to survive the long dry season(3)
To visualize the impact a project may have on elephant movements
it is useful to examine how land-tenure and movement patterns reflect
elephant adaptations to different environments The environmental patterns
can be characterized by first seasonal flux in resources second predictshy
ability in the timing and amount that will become available during the
flux and third resource distribution These parameters are depicted in
- 7 -
Figure 1 There can be strong Lntermediate or little seaconal flux and
the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable A useful rating of
the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by
plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously
available patches(14)
In the dry zone monsoon forests of Sri Lanka elephants forage in
areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches
These are usually of rather poor quality(233755) in a moderate or low
fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable Cow herds
display movements based on three time scales(34) 1) daily movements
associated with feeding and moving to and from water 2) seasonal
movements between dry season and wet season home ranges and 3) medium-term
For a cowmovements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1)
herd home ranges of 25 km2 and 60 kmrhave been determined for wet and dry
seasons respectively Ranges for adult males vary from 10 kmgto 17 km2 (24)
This contrasts with elephant movements in Kenyas huge Tsavo
National Park which is semi-arid savanna with notoriously irregulcr
rainfall Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small
localized dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources Food
in these areas however becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry
season Sensing rain from considerable distances the first and subsequent
rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements up to 50 km to eat
new grass growing where rain has fallen This is schematically depicted in
from dry season ranges are unpredictableFigure 1 Outward movements
return movements can be more accurately predicted Aggregations of 1000
elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season
which come predictably to restricted areas(31)
-8-
Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
-9-
Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
- 10 shy
5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
------------- ------------------------------------------------
TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
- 12 -
Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
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TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
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FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
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successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
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proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
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Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
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activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
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involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
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adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
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when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
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planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
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ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
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8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
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191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
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- 6 shy
family units and tend to move in company with their small calves There
can be cohesive movement between females and half-grown young and between
males 6 or7 years old It is within the cow herd that the calf matures
and learns the template of its environment The cow herd serves as the
repository of traditional knowledge which includes routes to water-holes
to mineral sources and to seasonal foraging areas(1213141533)
Adult males live alone or occasionally in company with 1 to 3
satellite males with weak social bonds Adults are capable of breeding at
any time of year but when they reach an adequate nutritional plane they
enter a condition known as musth which is analogous to rut in bovids and
cervids When in musth maies are extremely aggressive and dangerous and
this condition probably allows them to dominate in contests with cows and
other males(14) In the dry zone of Sri Lanka males use restricted areas
that may be frequented by a number of cow groups More than one male at a
time may be in attendance with an estrous female in a cow herd(152233)
Under the strong wet-dry seasonal regime of East Africa bulls switch to a
strategy where they travel long distances in search of estroue females from
one that is associated with intensive feeding in restricted areas During
the dry and early wet season bulls maximize food intake a fat bull has a
better chance of rutting longer and still retaining sufficient energy
stores to survive the long dry season(3)
To visualize the impact a project may have on elephant movements
it is useful to examine how land-tenure and movement patterns reflect
elephant adaptations to different environments The environmental patterns
can be characterized by first seasonal flux in resources second predictshy
ability in the timing and amount that will become available during the
flux and third resource distribution These parameters are depicted in
- 7 -
Figure 1 There can be strong Lntermediate or little seaconal flux and
the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable A useful rating of
the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by
plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously
available patches(14)
In the dry zone monsoon forests of Sri Lanka elephants forage in
areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches
These are usually of rather poor quality(233755) in a moderate or low
fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable Cow herds
display movements based on three time scales(34) 1) daily movements
associated with feeding and moving to and from water 2) seasonal
movements between dry season and wet season home ranges and 3) medium-term
For a cowmovements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1)
herd home ranges of 25 km2 and 60 kmrhave been determined for wet and dry
seasons respectively Ranges for adult males vary from 10 kmgto 17 km2 (24)
This contrasts with elephant movements in Kenyas huge Tsavo
National Park which is semi-arid savanna with notoriously irregulcr
rainfall Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small
localized dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources Food
in these areas however becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry
season Sensing rain from considerable distances the first and subsequent
rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements up to 50 km to eat
new grass growing where rain has fallen This is schematically depicted in
from dry season ranges are unpredictableFigure 1 Outward movements
return movements can be more accurately predicted Aggregations of 1000
elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season
which come predictably to restricted areas(31)
-8-
Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
-9-
Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
- 10 shy
5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
------------- ------------------------------------------------
TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
- 12 -
Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
------------------------------------------------------------------
- 13 -
TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
- 14 shy
limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
- 15 -
FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
- 16 shy
an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
- 17 shy
successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
- 18 -
FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
- 19 shy
proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
- 21 shy
activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
- 22 shy
involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
- 23 shy
adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
- 24 shy
when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
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2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
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4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
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5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
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7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production Oecologia 22341-354
8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
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and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
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10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
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20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
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12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
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Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
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14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
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29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
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44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
food and other commodities that are
of importance to low-income can
sumers small farmers and resource-Door areasSector Paper
5ctor PolicyPaperJune 1981 IO pages (including annexes) EngiLsh
Frenchand Spanish
Stock No PP8101-E PP8101-f PP8101-S $euro00 paperback
odel forhDevericltthe Agricultural Se-ctor of Fortugal Alvin C Egbert and Iyung f Kim Spatial mathematical programming is used to develop comprehensive and quantitative methods to suggest development strategies in Portugals agriculture sector
The Johns Hopkins University Press
197 1o pages (including
hibliography)
LC 75-26662 ISBN 0-8018-1793-5$650 4i400) Daperback
Economic Aspects andolicy issues in Groundshy
water Development Ian Carruthers and Roy Stoner
Examlnes a wide range of economic
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World Bank Staff Working Paper
No 496 October 1981 110 pages
(including annex bibliography)
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Economic Return to Invest
meat In Irrigation in India Leslie A Abbie James Q Harrison
andJon als
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Clarifies the relation between simple
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field of agricultural proiect anaivsis and emphasizes the more practical aspets of project preparation and gives guidance Eo mose responsiblefor planning in agriculture
EDI Series in Economic Development
The Johns Hopkitns University Press
1980 154 pages
LC 79-3704 ISBN 0-8018-2386-2 $1500 (S1oo hardcour ISBN 8-8015-2367-0 $650 (450) paperbackSpnLsh Prupuestos Va fincas
EditorialTecnas 1982
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Fishery Highllts the imoortance of fisheries
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Setor Policy Paper December 1982
ISBN 0-8213-0138-1 $500 paperback
Food Security in Food Deicit Countries Shlomo Reutlinger and Keith Knapp
World Bank Staff Working Paper No
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Forestry Graham Donaldson coordi-
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efficiency of investment In surfaceNo50Otbr1813pae and groundwater Irrigation In India
World Bank Staff Working Paper
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Improving Irrigated Agrlculshyture Institutional Reform and the Small Farmer Dan el W Br-omley
A mclei of farmer InterdeDendence is devcopeci to provioe suggestions for improving existing irrigation systems as well as for designing new ones
Wort 51ank taf Working Paper
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Increasing Aoricalturalrod ucUVit cu
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Ted J Davis editor
These proceedings are tne third In a series of recoras of Agricultural 5ecshy
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speakers cnapersonsstatements and summaries of the discussions prepared by the rapporteurs
1982 307 pages (incluaing index)
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India Demand and Supply Prospects for Agriculture James Q Harrison Jon A Hitchings and John W Wall
Contains four papers that report on
me World Banks economic work In
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both for foodgrains and for other agncultural commodities
rocuses on the demand for agncultural commodities through the
year 2000 the foodgrain economy the vegetable oil economy and the sugar economy
World b nk Staff Working Paper No500 October 1981 153 pag
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Agricultural Research and Productivity Robert E Evenson and Yoav Kislev Examines the role of scientific reswarh and technological change in increasing agnicularai prcxuctivity
Yale Unierslty Pnss 302 Temple 5treeL New laven Connecticut 06520 U-SA
1975 xi --204 pages inciuding 10 appenxes rerences
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Agroindustrial Project
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Provides and Illustrates a framework for analyzing and designing ar
NW
The Book of CHAC Programming Studies for Iexican Agricultural Policy Edited Dy RogeL-r D Noriton and Leooldo 51i M
n a n po tproject The principal tooi ot analysis is the se-wtr modei Cft named after the
Mayan rain gcd This model can be hrougno the sector to cover
-snort-cycle crop their inputs and their marKetL It can alviobe broken down into suDmodeis for particular
Dcalitres it morc Cetaiien analysis is recuired Tnc moce hcD- pianners Swc ne cos3 arcn policy goals wnicu_ can vary from regon to region
Thi--volum r)ort5 tne exenence of uainq tne ClA - mogje and also pre-_rtq itnmdOoyc3i materalpurlim-
TnWJ~n iwxn Lnrit
Q2 Dage Ua 080125857
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- 7 -
Figure 1 There can be strong Lntermediate or little seaconal flux and
the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable A useful rating of
the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by
plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously
available patches(14)
In the dry zone monsoon forests of Sri Lanka elephants forage in
areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches
These are usually of rather poor quality(233755) in a moderate or low
fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable Cow herds
display movements based on three time scales(34) 1) daily movements
associated with feeding and moving to and from water 2) seasonal
movements between dry season and wet season home ranges and 3) medium-term
For a cowmovements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1)
herd home ranges of 25 km2 and 60 kmrhave been determined for wet and dry
seasons respectively Ranges for adult males vary from 10 kmgto 17 km2 (24)
This contrasts with elephant movements in Kenyas huge Tsavo
National Park which is semi-arid savanna with notoriously irregulcr
rainfall Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small
localized dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources Food
in these areas however becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry
season Sensing rain from considerable distances the first and subsequent
rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements up to 50 km to eat
new grass growing where rain has fallen This is schematically depicted in
from dry season ranges are unpredictableFigure 1 Outward movements
return movements can be more accurately predicted Aggregations of 1000
elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season
which come predictably to restricted areas(31)
-8-
Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
-9-
Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
- 10 shy
5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
------------- ------------------------------------------------
TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
- 12 -
Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
------------------------------------------------------------------
- 13 -
TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
- 14 shy
limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
- 15 -
FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
- 16 shy
an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
- 17 shy
successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
- 18 -
FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
- 19 shy
proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
- 21 shy
activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
- 22 shy
involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
- 23 shy
adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
- 24 shy
when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
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2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
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4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
cultivation the confrontation between the Asian elephant and land
development in Peninsular Malaysia Land Dev Digest 227-59
5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
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7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production Oecologia 22341-354
8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
age-structures of elephant populations and its use in Kidepo National Park East Afr Wildl J 1091-115
9 Croze H Hillman AKK and Lang EM 1981 Elephants and their habitats how do they tolerate each other Pages 297-316 in Fowler CW
and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
Wiley amp Sons
10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
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corridors for their movement Bombay Bombay Nat Hist Society (Mimeogr)
20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
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12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
- 30 shy
14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
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Rural ProJects ThroughUrban Eyes An Interpreta tion of the World Banks New-Style Rural Develop ment Projects Judith Tendler This paper describes the Banks new style rural development projectsincluding some of the things that hap pen in the political environment of aproject when governments assisted by the Bank redirect their public-sec tor services and subsidies to the rural poor
World Bank Staff Working Paper Plo 532 1982 100 pages ISBN 0-8213-0028-8 $300
Sociocultural Aspects of Developing Small-Scale Fisheries Delivering Servces to the Poor Richard B Pollnac World Bank Staff Working Pper No 490 October1981 1ll +61 pages490 eferen8s (including references)Stock (1o WP-0490 $300
Some Aspects of Wheat and Rice Price Policy In India Raj Mrishna and G 5 Raychaudhuri
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A System of Monlitoring and Evaluating Agricultu-al Extension Projects Michael M Cemea and Benjamin J Tepping
World Bank 5taff Working PaDer No 272 Decemoer 1977 of + U15 pages (Including 9 annexes bibliograDh) Stock No W077 S00
Thailand-Case Study of Agricultural Input and Output Pricing Trent Bertrand
World Bank Staff Working Paper No 385 April 1980 ix - 134 pages (including 2 appendixes)
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NEW Economic Analysis of Agricultural Projects Second edition compleeLy rev sed and erpanded J Price Gittinger
Thisbook entirelyoutnew editioncareful of thepracticalWorld Banksmethodlologjybest-sellingsets a and fora a y n u t ~ uanalyzing agricultural development projects and for using these analyses to compare proposed Investments It
what constitutes a project what must be conshysidered to identify possible agricultural projects the life cycle of a proqecL the strengths and pitfalls of pojectanalysis anc the calculations required to obtain financial and economic project accounts
In the ten years since Its publication the first edition has been accepted widely as a standard reference and texL Themethodology reflects the best of contemporary practice In government agencies and International developmentinstitutions concerned with Investing in agriculture and Isaccessible to a broad readership of agricultural planners
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pnces used to calculate the effects of an Investment on national income a glossary of technical terms expandedappendixes on preparing an agricultural project report and using discounting tables and an expanded completely annotated bibliographyLI Series in Economic Development
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Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements
Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux predictability patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources The elephants large body size allos energy efficient long-distance movements Consequently elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in patrern and size from one region to the next(14)
In Tsavo National Park Kenya eleshyphant clans spend the dry season near HIGHLY SEASONAL permanent water sources the rivers During the wet season showers are irregular in time and space and eleshyphant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31)
In Sri Lankas Gal Oya National Park some cow clans display movement pat- MODERATE
terns based on three time scales D) daily movements associated with feedshying and to and from water ii) seashysonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges and iii) mediumshyterm movements between sections of a seasonal home range Total home ranshyges are less than 100 km2 in size(34)
In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia) LOW FLUCTUATION
big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food Eleshyphants home ranges are probably 100s of km 2 in size in this vegetation type but they have never been adequately measured (Seidensticker and IDSuyone unpublished observations) o
Patch richnesssimultaneous availshyability of food patches D-dry Z 3 season Wowet season numbers indi- 00 cate locations 1-3 above Relation- Z
ships indicated are hypothetical (14)
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIULTANEO LY AVAILABLE FATCHESshy
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Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
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5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
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TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
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Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
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TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
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FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
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successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
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proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
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Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
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activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
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involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
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adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
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when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
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ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
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8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
REFERENCES
1 Asian Elephant Specialist Group Survival Service Commission 1980 The status of the Asian elephant in the Indian Sub-continent Gland Switzerland IUCN 74pp
2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
semiarid environment Anim Behav 301217-1223
4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
cultivation the confrontation between the Asian elephant and land
development in Peninsular Malaysia Land Dev Digest 227-59
5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
africana (Blumenbach)) East Afr Wildl J 10165-174
7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production Oecologia 22341-354
8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
age-structures of elephant populations and its use in Kidepo National Park East Afr Wildl J 1091-115
9 Croze H Hillman AKK and Lang EM 1981 Elephants and their habitats how do they tolerate each other Pages 297-316 in Fowler CW
and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
Wiley amp Sons
10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
migration paths in the Nilgiri Hills and inquiry into impediments to the free
movements of elephants there and recommendations for the provision of
corridors for their movement Bombay Bombay Nat Hist Society (Mimeogr)
20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
report Washington DC US Fish and Wildl Serv (Mimeogr) IO5pp
12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
- 30 shy
14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
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odel forhDevericltthe Agricultural Se-ctor of Fortugal Alvin C Egbert and Iyung f Kim Spatial mathematical programming is used to develop comprehensive and quantitative methods to suggest development strategies in Portugals agriculture sector
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EDI Series in Economic Development
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C-12o y EJerccios Sobre Proyectos Agricolas Edited by Orlando T Espadas Three case studies prepared in conshyjunction with the EDIs Agricultural Projects Courses in Spanish and intended primarly for teachers of
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-9-
Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements
during the dry season in Sri Lanka with the exception that they move over
areas five times as large However elephants have no seasonally distinct
ranges Instead they move widely to find food patches that are
sufficiently rich to support them but which become available
asynchronously(40)
The dispersion in time and space of food and water(15313358)
and in some areas mineral licko(455657) clearly determines the ways
elephants use particular areas Home ranges vary widely in size with
patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat By
altering these resource dispersion patterns a project obliges elephants to
modify their behavior accordingly
20 PROJECT DESIGN
A review of elephant-development project conflicts shows that
project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in
predictable ways The following questions should be addressed during
project preparation
1 Are elephants present in the project area If so is their
presence seasonal or continuous
2 How large an area necessary to elephants will be influenced by
the project including their access to essential habitats
3 Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant
habitat in a region If so how much
How many elephants are involved in total and more specifically4
which clans and subgroups will be affected
- 10 shy
5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
------------- ------------------------------------------------
TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
- 12 -
Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
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TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
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FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
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successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
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proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
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Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
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activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
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involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
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adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
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when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
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planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
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ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
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8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
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of importance to low-income can
sumers small farmers and resource-Door areasSector Paper
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- 10 shy
5 Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous habitat areas during construction Following project completion will there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat The opocketed herd problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project
production areas
6 Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits 7 Will the project alter the distribution abundance and
predictibility of food and other critical resources
Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the workable elephant management plan needed for each project Much can be anticipated during project design but some details such as the response of individual clans and sub-groups will only become clear with monitoring
during project construction and operation
In the last decade conservation and wildlife agencies in many of the countries where elephants are found have obtained detailed information on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations This information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern
If elephants are present an initial overview of their response patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features outlined Maps aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall regional landfoims the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of temporary and permanent water sources This process can be accomplished in consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the
------------- ------------------------------------------------
TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
- 12 -
Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
------------------------------------------------------------------
- 13 -
TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
- 14 shy
limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
- 15 -
FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
- 16 shy
an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
- 17 shy
successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
- 18 -
FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
- 19 shy
proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
- 21 shy
activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
- 22 shy
involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
- 23 shy
adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
- 24 shy
when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
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2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
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4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
cultivation the confrontation between the Asian elephant and land
development in Peninsular Malaysia Land Dev Digest 227-59
5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
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7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production Oecologia 22341-354
8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
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9 Croze H Hillman AKK and Lang EM 1981 Elephants and their habitats how do they tolerate each other Pages 297-316 in Fowler CW
and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
Wiley amp Sons
10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
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corridors for their movement Bombay Bombay Nat Hist Society (Mimeogr)
20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
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12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
- 30 shy
14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
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TABLE 1
Recent Reperts on the Local Distribution of Elephants
Area Date Reference
Africa most countries 1979 Douglas-Hamilton (11)
Asia general 1978 Olivier (41)
Indian Subcontinent 1980 Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)
India Karnataka 1980 Nair and Gadgil (38)
India Uttar Pradesh 1980 Singh (48)
India Nilgiri Hills 1983 Davidar and Davidar (10)
Sri Lanka 1980 TAMS (51) McKay (33)
Bangladesh Coxs Bazar 1983 Khan Xhan amp Rashid (26)
Thailand 1982 Bain and Humphrey (2)
Indonesia North Sumatra 1978 Van Strien (54)
Some reports are available from the Office of Environmental Affairs
Note
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Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
------------------------------------------------------------------
- 13 -
TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
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FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
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successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
- 19 shy
proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
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activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
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involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
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adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
- 24 shy
when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
REFERENCES
1 Asian Elephant Specialist Group Survival Service Commission 1980 The status of the Asian elephant in the Indian Sub-continent Gland Switzerland IUCN 74pp
2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
semiarid environment Anim Behav 301217-1223
4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
cultivation the confrontation between the Asian elephant and land
development in Peninsular Malaysia Land Dev Digest 227-59
5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
africana (Blumenbach)) East Afr Wildl J 10165-174
7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production Oecologia 22341-354
8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
age-structures of elephant populations and its use in Kidepo National Park East Afr Wildl J 1091-115
9 Croze H Hillman AKK and Lang EM 1981 Elephants and their habitats how do they tolerate each other Pages 297-316 in Fowler CW
and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
Wiley amp Sons
10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
migration paths in the Nilgiri Hills and inquiry into impediments to the free
movements of elephants there and recommendations for the provision of
corridors for their movement Bombay Bombay Nat Hist Society (Mimeogr)
20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
report Washington DC US Fish and Wildl Serv (Mimeogr) IO5pp
12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
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14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
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C-12o y EJerccios Sobre Proyectos Agricolas Edited by Orlando T Espadas Three case studies prepared in conshyjunction with the EDIs Agricultural Projects Courses in Spanish and intended primarly for teachers of
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- 12 -
Using there overlays an initial assessment can be made of howsite
various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that
influence elephants This approach should provide approximate answers to
the questions posed above
Site specific measures cf elephant numbers and their response
patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the
accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis This requires
specialized knowlege Elephant field resedrch has not stabilized into a
single accepted method or procedure In most studies methods have been an
art-of-the-possible To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns
light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas but in
the more closed forest habitats of Asia aerial counting is of little use
Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers
and roads are widely used in foresta Movements habitat uEe and numbers
have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles Radio tracking
procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable
insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the
distribution of environmental resources These methods tbe parameters
measured and selected references are listed in Table 2
As tAis more detailed information is developed the first level
overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and
adequately predictive With this information measures can be designed
into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be
anticipated avoided or mitigated
21 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management
Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in
Africa and Asia In Africa the taming of elephants has been very
------------------------------------------------------------------
- 13 -
TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
- 15 -
FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
- 17 shy
successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
- 18 -
FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
- 19 shy
proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
- 21 shy
activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
- 22 shy
involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
- 23 shy
adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
- 24 shy
when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
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3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
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11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
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13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
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14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
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29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
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mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
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of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
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1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
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44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
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5ctor PolicyPaperJune 1981 IO pages (including annexes) EngiLsh
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odel forhDevericltthe Agricultural Se-ctor of Fortugal Alvin C Egbert and Iyung f Kim Spatial mathematical programming is used to develop comprehensive and quantitative methods to suggest development strategies in Portugals agriculture sector
The Johns Hopkins University Press
197 1o pages (including
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LC 75-26662 ISBN 0-8018-1793-5$650 4i400) Daperback
Economic Aspects andolicy issues in Groundshy
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TABLE 2
Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Bchavior and Ecology
Parameter
a) African habitats
Aerial counts
Measuring the distribution of
animals in relation to their
environment
Ground counts
Establishing density and habitat
use by dropping counts (dung piles)
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns with
radio telemetry
b) Asian habitats
Establishing population and habitat
status and trend using interview
methods
Establishing densities in closed
habitats
Assessing age-structure
Establishing movement patterns
with radio telemetry
Investigating migration path
Source
Norton-Griffiths (39)
Western and Grimsdell (59)
Eltringham (17)
Wing and Buss (60) Jackmann
and Bell (24) Coe (6)
Croze (8)
Leutholt (31)
Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)
Singh (47)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15) Ishwaran (22)
Olivier (40)
Davidar and Davidar (10)
McKay (33) Eisenberg and
Lockhart (15)
Mueller-Dombois (37)Investigating elephant-plant
Ishwaran (23)relations
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
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FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
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an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
- 17 shy
successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
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FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
- 19 shy
proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
- 21 shy
activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
- 22 shy
involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
- 23 shy
adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
- 24 shy
when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
REFERENCES
1 Asian Elephant Specialist Group Survival Service Commission 1980 The status of the Asian elephant in the Indian Sub-continent Gland Switzerland IUCN 74pp
2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
semiarid environment Anim Behav 301217-1223
4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
cultivation the confrontation between the Asian elephant and land
development in Peninsular Malaysia Land Dev Digest 227-59
5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
africana (Blumenbach)) East Afr Wildl J 10165-174
7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production Oecologia 22341-354
8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
age-structures of elephant populations and its use in Kidepo National Park East Afr Wildl J 1091-115
9 Croze H Hillman AKK and Lang EM 1981 Elephants and their habitats how do they tolerate each other Pages 297-316 in Fowler CW
and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
Wiley amp Sons
10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
migration paths in the Nilgiri Hills and inquiry into impediments to the free
movements of elephants there and recommendations for the provision of
corridors for their movement Bombay Bombay Nat Hist Society (Mimeogr)
20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
report Washington DC US Fish and Wildl Serv (Mimeogr) IO5pp
12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
- 30 shy
14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
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odel forhDevericltthe Agricultural Se-ctor of Fortugal Alvin C Egbert and Iyung f Kim Spatial mathematical programming is used to develop comprehensive and quantitative methods to suggest development strategies in Portugals agriculture sector
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Economic Aspects andolicy issues in Groundshy
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EDI Series in Economic Development
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C-12o y EJerccios Sobre Proyectos Agricolas Edited by Orlando T Espadas Three case studies prepared in conshyjunction with the EDIs Agricultural Projects Courses in Spanish and intended primarly for teachers of
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limited Insteab the ivory has been viewed as a source of wealth
resulting in the culling of elephant populations Although culling even
in protected natural areas has been judged by some to be excessive and
therefore controversial it has been a frequent management tool(20)
The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import and among
domestic animals it is unique Traditionaily for 3000 years Asian
elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and trained
(133035) for use in work ceremony and war Captive breeding has always
been limited and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild
populations Throughout Asia elephants enjoy strict legal protection
Only the rare problem animal is ever killed and then only if other means
fail
With this history of elephant management local authorities often
have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in
their area A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods
Is called for in elephant conservation management
22 Elephants in Project Design
Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production
areas using passive features wherever possible Portions of a project area
including catchments and banks of reservoirs as shown in Figure 2 can
sometimes be used to acconmmodate displaced elephants Some features in a
project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in
the region However some active management measures are usually needed as
well and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management
authorities The features and requirements of specific projects will
dictate the training technical and financial needs of the local
authorities in order to carry out the task
- 15 -
FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
- 16 shy
an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
- 17 shy
successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
- 18 -
FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
- 19 shy
proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
- 21 shy
activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
- 22 shy
involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
- 23 shy
adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
- 24 shy
when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
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3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
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4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
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8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
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and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
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11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
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13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
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14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
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29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
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44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
food and other commodities that are
of importance to low-income can
sumers small farmers and resource-Door areasSector Paper
5ctor PolicyPaperJune 1981 IO pages (including annexes) EngiLsh
Frenchand Spanish
Stock No PP8101-E PP8101-f PP8101-S $euro00 paperback
odel forhDevericltthe Agricultural Se-ctor of Fortugal Alvin C Egbert and Iyung f Kim Spatial mathematical programming is used to develop comprehensive and quantitative methods to suggest development strategies in Portugals agriculture sector
The Johns Hopkins University Press
197 1o pages (including
hibliography)
LC 75-26662 ISBN 0-8018-1793-5$650 4i400) Daperback
Economic Aspects andolicy issues in Groundshy
water Development Ian Carruthers and Roy Stoner
Examlnes a wide range of economic
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World Bank Staff Working Paper
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Economic Return to Invest
meat In Irrigation in India Leslie A Abbie James Q Harrison
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Clarifies the relation between simple
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EDI Series in Economic Development
The Johns Hopkitns University Press
1980 154 pages
LC 79-3704 ISBN 0-8018-2386-2 $1500 (S1oo hardcour ISBN 8-8015-2367-0 $650 (450) paperbackSpnLsh Prupuestos Va fincas
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Fishery Highllts the imoortance of fisheries
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Setor Policy Paper December 1982
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Food Security in Food Deicit Countries Shlomo Reutlinger and Keith Knapp
World Bank Staff Working Paper No
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Forestry Graham Donaldson coordi-
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efficiency of investment In surfaceNo50Otbr1813pae and groundwater Irrigation In India
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1982 307 pages (incluaing index)
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India Demand and Supply Prospects for Agriculture James Q Harrison Jon A Hitchings and John W Wall
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Agricultural Research and Productivity Robert E Evenson and Yoav Kislev Examines the role of scientific reswarh and technological change in increasing agnicularai prcxuctivity
Yale Unierslty Pnss 302 Temple 5treeL New laven Connecticut 06520 U-SA
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The Book of CHAC Programming Studies for Iexican Agricultural Policy Edited Dy RogeL-r D Noriton and Leooldo 51i M
n a n po tproject The principal tooi ot analysis is the se-wtr modei Cft named after the
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1981224 pages incudwg appen-dixes bibliograhy and inae) LC 80-550 15BI0-8016-2412-5 $1650 (S1000) hardcovr ISBNM 0-8018-2413-3 S7_50 U425) paperback
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Building NiationaJ Capacity to Develop Water Uiiers Asoocia6inw Lperizence from the PhilIppines
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Over a fiv-year pDeno_ Lht National
lmation Aomniszratiun fNLA) of the Phitipptne has tbeen building its
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the agency as a result of the develop-ment of tnesc associatnv prior to the contruction of the pnysical wystem and the involvement of
association mmDirs in the olanning
and construction stages It also examnes the rture of the leanming oro- tzi = et t3 these cnanges
and ciiuasse the implications or
donor uppcno outer small-scale programs and more
generally for orog-ams Involving village-levei work
World Bank Staff Working Paper NIo 528 July1982 u -69 pages (including references)
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C-12o y EJerccios Sobre Proyectos Agricolas Edited by Orlando T Espadas Three case studies prepared in conshyjunction with the EDIs Agricultural Projects Courses in Spanish and intended primarly for teachers of
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- 15 -
FIGURE 2
Wster Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs
FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN PLAIN
WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE
WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT
The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas
Source (13)
- 16 shy
an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
- 17 shy
successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
- 18 -
FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
- 19 shy
proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
- 21 shy
activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
- 22 shy
involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
- 23 shy
adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
- 24 shy
when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
REFERENCES
1 Asian Elephant Specialist Group Survival Service Commission 1980 The status of the Asian elephant in the Indian Sub-continent Gland Switzerland IUCN 74pp
2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
semiarid environment Anim Behav 301217-1223
4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
cultivation the confrontation between the Asian elephant and land
development in Peninsular Malaysia Land Dev Digest 227-59
5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
africana (Blumenbach)) East Afr Wildl J 10165-174
7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production Oecologia 22341-354
8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
age-structures of elephant populations and its use in Kidepo National Park East Afr Wildl J 1091-115
9 Croze H Hillman AKK and Lang EM 1981 Elephants and their habitats how do they tolerate each other Pages 297-316 in Fowler CW
and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
Wiley amp Sons
10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
migration paths in the Nilgiri Hills and inquiry into impediments to the free
movements of elephants there and recommendations for the provision of
corridors for their movement Bombay Bombay Nat Hist Society (Mimeogr)
20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
report Washington DC US Fish and Wildl Serv (Mimeogr) IO5pp
12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
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14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
food and other commodities that are
of importance to low-income can
sumers small farmers and resource-Door areasSector Paper
5ctor PolicyPaperJune 1981 IO pages (including annexes) EngiLsh
Frenchand Spanish
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odel forhDevericltthe Agricultural Se-ctor of Fortugal Alvin C Egbert and Iyung f Kim Spatial mathematical programming is used to develop comprehensive and quantitative methods to suggest development strategies in Portugals agriculture sector
The Johns Hopkins University Press
197 1o pages (including
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Economic Aspects andolicy issues in Groundshy
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World Bank Staff Working Paper
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Economic Return to Invest
meat In Irrigation in India Leslie A Abbie James Q Harrison
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Clarifies the relation between simple
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EDI Series in Economic Development
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1980 154 pages
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Fishery Highllts the imoortance of fisheries
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Setor Policy Paper December 1982
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Food Security in Food Deicit Countries Shlomo Reutlinger and Keith Knapp
World Bank Staff Working Paper No
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Forestry Graham Donaldson coordi-
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India Demand and Supply Prospects for Agriculture James Q Harrison Jon A Hitchings and John W Wall
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Agricultural Research and Productivity Robert E Evenson and Yoav Kislev Examines the role of scientific reswarh and technological change in increasing agnicularai prcxuctivity
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The Book of CHAC Programming Studies for Iexican Agricultural Policy Edited Dy RogeL-r D Noriton and Leooldo 51i M
n a n po tproject The principal tooi ot analysis is the se-wtr modei Cft named after the
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Thi--volum r)ort5 tne exenence of uainq tne ClA - mogje and also pre-_rtq itnmdOoyc3i materalpurlim-
TnWJ~n iwxn Lnrit
Q2 Dage Ua 080125857
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indust~tl po icLSStockIndust roi ts gr
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Argentina Country Case Study of Agricultural Prices
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Building NiationaJ Capacity to Develop Water Uiiers Asoocia6inw Lperizence from the PhilIppines
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Over a fiv-year pDeno_ Lht National
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association mmDirs in the olanning
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donor uppcno outer small-scale programs and more
generally for orog-ams Involving village-levei work
World Bank Staff Working Paper NIo 528 July1982 u -69 pages (including references)
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C-12o y EJerccios Sobre Proyectos Agricolas Edited by Orlando T Espadas Three case studies prepared in conshyjunction with the EDIs Agricultural Projects Courses in Spanish and intended primarly for teachers of
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World Bank (EDI) March 1974 revised January 1975 480 pages (Available
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The Design of Organiza
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Ben A Thoolen World Bank Staff Working Paper No
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The Design of Rural Development Lessons from Africa Uma Lee Analyzes new ways of designing rural
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- 16 shy
an elephant problem confronting project plannersIf there is
engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve
the following issues
to be moved if they occur in production areas ) How are Elephants
or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat
What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted or
2)
what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas
How where and under what conditions should project3)
infrastructure be modified to acconmodate elephant movements
4) What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met
or critical resources are eliminated by the if substantial habitat areas
project Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such
catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig 2)
5) Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities and how
as
will new findings be addressed during project implementation Who will
carry out elephant management activities
Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points
rather than areas Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of
African water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable
velocity
elephants swim but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different
water bodies needs to be established(27)
Where infrastructure modifications should be made and what
modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained
Accommodations in the infrastructures during the pre-project assessment
Specifications for canal crossingsneed not be extensive just adequate
can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access
to elephant bathing areas or from projects which have constructed
- 17 shy
successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
- 18 -
FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
- 19 shy
proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
- 21 shy
activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
- 22 shy
involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
- 23 shy
adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
- 24 shy
when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
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2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
semiarid environment Anim Behav 301217-1223
4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
cultivation the confrontation between the Asian elephant and land
development in Peninsular Malaysia Land Dev Digest 227-59
5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
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7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production Oecologia 22341-354
8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
age-structures of elephant populations and its use in Kidepo National Park East Afr Wildl J 1091-115
9 Croze H Hillman AKK and Lang EM 1981 Elephants and their habitats how do they tolerate each other Pages 297-316 in Fowler CW
and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
Wiley amp Sons
10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
migration paths in the Nilgiri Hills and inquiry into impediments to the free
movements of elephants there and recommendations for the provision of
corridors for their movement Bombay Bombay Nat Hist Society (Mimeogr)
20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
report Washington DC US Fish and Wildl Serv (Mimeogr) IO5pp
12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
- 30 shy
14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
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- 17 shy
successful intersections In the construction of a new crossing the
problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it
even though it may be physically traversable Therefore the task is to
turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are
comfortable This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in
the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites Elephants
are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions
ie before canals are activated and water levels rise Domestic
elephants may be used to season an intersection by establishing clearly
that oth-r elephants have gone before
With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for
elephants it should be clear that canals and other project structures can
be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas It should
also be recognized that depending on canal type elephants are capable of
making their own crossings If these are undesirable barriers can be made
by sharply sloping the banks and hardening them with concrete or other
substances where necessary
Elephants respond to edges the transition zone between forests
and grasslands in a positive way (See Figure 3) The degree of
interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches
are important determinants of habitat suitability and thus density
(7151633) Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest
and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants This newly created
edge together with year round provisioning of water through canals can
turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive
one much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers Elephants
respond to the area by entering and eating and they tend to spend time in
- 18 -
FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
- 19 shy
proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
- 21 shy
activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
- 22 shy
involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
- 23 shy
adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
- 24 shy
when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
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2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
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4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
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5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
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7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
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8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
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and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
Wiley amp Sons
10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
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corridors for their movement Bombay Bombay Nat Hist Society (Mimeogr)
20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
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12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
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13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
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14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
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17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
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29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
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1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
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31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
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Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
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The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
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for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
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36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
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Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
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41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
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Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
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44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
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Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
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47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
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13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
food and other commodities that are
of importance to low-income can
sumers small farmers and resource-Door areasSector Paper
5ctor PolicyPaperJune 1981 IO pages (including annexes) EngiLsh
Frenchand Spanish
Stock No PP8101-E PP8101-f PP8101-S $euro00 paperback
odel forhDevericltthe Agricultural Se-ctor of Fortugal Alvin C Egbert and Iyung f Kim Spatial mathematical programming is used to develop comprehensive and quantitative methods to suggest development strategies in Portugals agriculture sector
The Johns Hopkins University Press
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what constitutes a project what must be conshysidered to identify possible agricultural projects the life cycle of a proqecL the strengths and pitfalls of pojectanalysis anc the calculations required to obtain financial and economic project accounts
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- 18 -
FIGURE 3
Edges A Major Objective in Elephant Management
A
A major objective in elephant management is to turn edges that engender a
positive response where it is not wanted into edges which do not attract
elephants
a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest
invites trouble Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern
spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the
adjacent agricultural areas to feed Pocketed herds occur when groups of
elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only
from surrounding crops
b) Trenches and fences even electrified fences require major
maintenance to keep them functional This maintenance usually cannot be Elephantsmet in the long-term or even after the first rains erode banks
respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through where an
elephant is determined it usually succeeds Therefore a more useful
approach is to make these edges unsuitable as habitat
Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover canc) The refuge areaseffectively separate production areas and forest refuges
must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the
number of elephants living there It is frequently possible to take
advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide
these resources stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging
ranges
- 19 shy
proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
- 21 shy
activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
- 22 shy
involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
- 23 shy
adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
- 24 shy
when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
REFERENCES
1 Asian Elephant Specialist Group Survival Service Commission 1980 The status of the Asian elephant in the Indian Sub-continent Gland Switzerland IUCN 74pp
2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
semiarid environment Anim Behav 301217-1223
4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
cultivation the confrontation between the Asian elephant and land
development in Peninsular Malaysia Land Dev Digest 227-59
5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
africana (Blumenbach)) East Afr Wildl J 10165-174
7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production Oecologia 22341-354
8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
age-structures of elephant populations and its use in Kidepo National Park East Afr Wildl J 1091-115
9 Croze H Hillman AKK and Lang EM 1981 Elephants and their habitats how do they tolerate each other Pages 297-316 in Fowler CW
and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
Wiley amp Sons
10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
migration paths in the Nilgiri Hills and inquiry into impediments to the free
movements of elephants there and recommendations for the provision of
corridors for their movement Bombay Bombay Nat Hist Society (Mimeogr)
20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
report Washington DC US Fish and Wildl Serv (Mimeogr) IO5pp
12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
- 30 shy
14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
food and other commodities that are
of importance to low-income can
sumers small farmers and resource-Door areasSector Paper
5ctor PolicyPaperJune 1981 IO pages (including annexes) EngiLsh
Frenchand Spanish
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odel forhDevericltthe Agricultural Se-ctor of Fortugal Alvin C Egbert and Iyung f Kim Spatial mathematical programming is used to develop comprehensive and quantitative methods to suggest development strategies in Portugals agriculture sector
The Johns Hopkins University Press
197 1o pages (including
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Economic Aspects andolicy issues in Groundshy
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World Bank Staff Working Paper
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Economic Return to Invest
meat In Irrigation in India Leslie A Abbie James Q Harrison
andJon als
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Agricultural Project AnalysLs Maxwell L Brown
Clarifies the relation between simple
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EDI Series in Economic Development
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1980 154 pages
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EditorialTecnas 1982
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Fishery Highllts the imoortance of fisheries
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Setor Policy Paper December 1982
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Food Security in Food Deicit Countries Shlomo Reutlinger and Keith Knapp
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Forestry Graham Donaldson coordi-
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1982 307 pages (incluaing index)
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India Demand and Supply Prospects for Agriculture James Q Harrison Jon A Hitchings and John W Wall
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Agricultural Research and Productivity Robert E Evenson and Yoav Kislev Examines the role of scientific reswarh and technological change in increasing agnicularai prcxuctivity
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Provides and Illustrates a framework for analyzing and designing ar
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The Book of CHAC Programming Studies for Iexican Agricultural Policy Edited Dy RogeL-r D Noriton and Leooldo 51i M
n a n po tproject The principal tooi ot analysis is the se-wtr modei Cft named after the
Mayan rain gcd This model can be hrougno the sector to cover
-snort-cycle crop their inputs and their marKetL It can alviobe broken down into suDmodeis for particular
Dcalitres it morc Cetaiien analysis is recuired Tnc moce hcD- pianners Swc ne cos3 arcn policy goals wnicu_ can vary from regon to region
Thi--volum r)ort5 tne exenence of uainq tne ClA - mogje and also pre-_rtq itnmdOoyc3i materalpurlim-
TnWJ~n iwxn Lnrit
Q2 Dage Ua 080125857
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indust~tl po icLSStockIndust roi ts gr
EDI Senes in Economic DevelopmenL
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1981224 pages incudwg appen-dixes bibliograhy and inae) LC 80-550 15BI0-8016-2412-5 $1650 (S1000) hardcovr ISBNM 0-8018-2413-3 S7_50 U425) paperback
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Argentina Country Case Study of Agricultural Prices
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Building NiationaJ Capacity to Develop Water Uiiers Asoocia6inw Lperizence from the PhilIppines
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Over a fiv-year pDeno_ Lht National
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generally for orog-ams Involving village-levei work
World Bank Staff Working Paper NIo 528 July1982 u -69 pages (including references)
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C-12o y EJerccios Sobre Proyectos Agricolas Edited by Orlando T Espadas Three case studies prepared in conshyjunction with the EDIs Agricultural Projects Courses in Spanish and intended primarly for teachers of
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World Bank (EDI) March 1974 revised January 1975 480 pages (Available
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The Design of Organiza
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Ben A Thoolen World Bank Staff Working Paper No
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The Design of Rural Development Lessons from Africa Uma Lee Analyzes new ways of designing rural
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and they involve a variety of Invest-ments The need for monitoring and evaluaUng Wein during implementa-tion has been accepted in principlebut effective systems have notheretofore bten fonrnulated The con-
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Nutritional Consequences of Agricultural Projects Conceptual Relationships and AssessmentApproaches Per Pinstrup-Andersen
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NEW Economic Analysis of Agricultural Projects Second edition compleeLy rev sed and erpanded J Price Gittinger
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- 19 shy
proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops
Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations
at the margin of fields even with fires usually fail and some men have
been killed Steepsided ditc hes or fences with electrification usually
are ineffective in repelling elephants(45366) Ivory tusks do not
conduct electricity Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply
shove the fence They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and
head Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the
wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4) Alternatively elephants
may simply walk arounel the cbstruction (eg fence or ditch) The point
is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive
food crops generally do not succeed Of course effective barriers can be
made The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed sited and
constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa
However many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures
already proposed and require constant maintenance at a level not often
available in a project
In these bituations project designers can shift emphasib away
from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants
to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig 3) This means switching from
negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at
boundaries (eg electric fences) to establishing buffer zones that have
little utility o attraction as elephant habitat that will effectively
separate elephants from production areas This approach can be further
enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat
enrichment features such as establishing foraging areas away from project
production units
- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
- 21 shy
activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
- 22 shy
involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
- 23 shy
adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
- 24 shy
when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
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1 Asian Elephant Specialist Group Survival Service Commission 1980 The status of the Asian elephant in the Indian Sub-continent Gland Switzerland IUCN 74pp
2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
semiarid environment Anim Behav 301217-1223
4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
cultivation the confrontation between the Asian elephant and land
development in Peninsular Malaysia Land Dev Digest 227-59
5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
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7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production Oecologia 22341-354
8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
age-structures of elephant populations and its use in Kidepo National Park East Afr Wildl J 1091-115
9 Croze H Hillman AKK and Lang EM 1981 Elephants and their habitats how do they tolerate each other Pages 297-316 in Fowler CW
and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
Wiley amp Sons
10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
migration paths in the Nilgiri Hills and inquiry into impediments to the free
movements of elephants there and recommendations for the provision of
corridors for their movement Bombay Bombay Nat Hist Society (Mimeogr)
20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
report Washington DC US Fish and Wildl Serv (Mimeogr) IO5pp
12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
- 30 shy
14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
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A System of Monlitoring and Evaluating Agricultu-al Extension Projects Michael M Cemea and Benjamin J Tepping
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Thailand-Case Study of Agricultural Input and Output Pricing Trent Bertrand
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NEW Economic Analysis of Agricultural Projects Second edition compleeLy rev sed and erpanded J Price Gittinger
Thisbook entirelyoutnew editioncareful of thepracticalWorld Banksmethodlologjybest-sellingsets a and fora a y n u t ~ uanalyzing agricultural development projects and for using these analyses to compare proposed Investments It
what constitutes a project what must be conshysidered to identify possible agricultural projects the life cycle of a proqecL the strengths and pitfalls of pojectanalysis anc the calculations required to obtain financial and economic project accounts
In the ten years since Its publication the first edition has been accepted widely as a standard reference and texL Themethodology reflects the best of contemporary practice In government agencies and International developmentinstitutions concerned with Investing in agriculture and Isaccessible to a broad readership of agricultural planners
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pnces used to calculate the effects of an Investment on national income a glossary of technical terms expandedappendixes on preparing an agricultural project report and using discounting tables and an expanded completely annotated bibliographyLI Series in Economic Development
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- 20 -
Buffer zones can be rreated also by establishing broad expanses of
grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by
Such zones havedomestic livestock and lack any kind of suitable cover
been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from
agricultural areas Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the
same function in the wet tropics Care should be taken to ensure that
burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new
growth will encourage elephants to visit them Buffer width must also be
calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open
areas
The problem of pocketed herds is created when elephants living
in development areas are cut off from adjacent forest tracts or when a
clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for
foraging In either case they establish permanent residence in isolated
natches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night Uninitiated
observers are surprised at the number of pocketed elephants that live in
close proximity to people These elephants can be extremely dangerous and
should be treated accordingly
Early in the project steps should be taken to provide suitable
habitat corridors through which these pocketed herds can be moved to
larger adjacent habitat blocks Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka India
and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such
conditioner and these authorities can be consulted for details The
process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full
time for months The important planning considerations are that these
elephants have a prearranged place to go a way to get there and no easy
route by which to return This calls for careful scheduling of project
- 21 shy
activities There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after
considerable efforts have been made to move them If habitat corridors
cannot be accomplished Asian elephants from pocketed herds can be
captured anc6 brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or
work Also they can be tamed for export or for zoos This requires
marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist or
engaging specialists where they do not As it costs a great deal to feed
and support an elephant local authorities will have to use their judgement
as to what their economy can support Accepting additional elephants might
be encouraged through tax incentives thereby giving an advantage to those
who use work elephants instead of motorized equipment
It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced
elephants But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low perhaps 50 for all
of North America partly because elephants live so long There is an
increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with
wide cooperation between zoos However the numbers of elephants that can
be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that
are displaced by development
Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where
elephants are darted (ie immobilized through chemical restraint) and
transferred to more suitable sites(19) Because this method involves
danger it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been
judged to be impracticable
In short passive features in project designs to manage elephants
are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is
possible A successful elephant management program requires a strong local
institutional support base How this can be achieved and the issues
- 22 shy
involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered
below
30 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
31 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants
This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development
activities and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas
Clearly if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be
some place to put them Depending on the environment and the number of
elephants involved adjacent natural habitats may require active management
Wildlife habitat in national parks andto accommodate displaced herds
equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition
(21) but habitat management options may be limited by national
regulations In these cases elephant management areas can be designated
as wildlife refuges
It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas
to enhance elephant habitat Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have
been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka the Western Ghats of south
India and in other areas The water level and slope of the shore (Fig 2)
and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for
the production of grass as food The establishment of small water holes
or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of
irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance
elephant carrying capacity
The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide
richer food patches for elephants Under most conditions there will be
- 23 shy
adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase
their utility as prime elephant foraging areas What manipulations are of
most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the
elephants show a preference and applying appropriate silvicultural
techniques to encourage those species
Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks It
was noted in the first sectiou that elephant distribution can be controlled
by the distribution of licks(455657) The provision of appropriate
minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants
away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop
cycle The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants
need to cover in a year
All of this comes under the general rubric of habitat
enrichment a subject for which there is no general theory or generally
accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although habitat
management is widely encouraged The long-term concerns for the dynamics
of elephants and their vegetation genetic management of populations and a
decision to cull or not are under most circumstances the responsibility
of the local wildlife management authority The dynamics of elephant
populations are not well understood(920282932) But a clearer
theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can
be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant
environmental perturbations such as those created during and after the
establishment of a project
32 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities
Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not
have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required
- 24 shy
when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of
wildlife habitat Many development projects create major shifts in the
A strong and well-equipped wildlifeecological fabric of the region
management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts avoiding harm
to workers and reducing damage to project investments while managing the
countrys wildlife resources
The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three
ways by
I) providing technical and financial assistance during project
preparation so that a wildlife management plan and plans for wildlife
refuges can be included in overall project design
2) providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short
courses and seminars at local universities for department staff (The
long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture
between the wildlife authority and the local university)
3) providing equipment for habitat improvement buffer zone
maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife
refuges
An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the
USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli
Development Program in Sri Lanka(5152)
SUMMARY
If there were a single easy way to keep elephants and development
projects separate it would be applied on a routine basis There is no one
way but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type
and site Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project
- 25 shy
planning and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production
areas is not systematically included as part of project ost analyses As
more experience is gained and ex-post audit data become available the
expanding body of evidence suggests that iL A more cost-effective to
manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the
project This requires careful pre-project planning project designs which
will prevent elephants from entering production areas and provisions to
ensure local elephants access to critical resource areas or to provide
these through habitat enrichment and other measures Experience has shown
that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many
projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife
management authorities
- 27 -
ANNEX BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPHANT IMPLICATIONS
1 IVORY COAST Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost $198M LN-1633 effective October 1979 Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10 of the estate) the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation
2 IVORY COAST Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost $848M LN-2323 effective November 15 1983 Electric fences are proposed to protect project without resorting to killing elephants and buffalo
3 KENYA Burs Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost $178OM LN-1449 and CR-722 effective June 27 1978 Adjacent area estimated to contain 6000-11000 elephants (4-7km2) Access is main-ned to riverine forest which is declared a reserve Irrigat-n canal crossings also are provided for Animal watering
points are provided every 5-6kms Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive but off-season maize and young trees in forest plantations of which Prosopis is main Epecies (4000 ha fuel wood) are attractive Total project is undergoing review and will be redesigned
4 KENYA Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost $741M LN-2098 and CR-1213 effective May 31 1983 Elephant moat rehabilitation component
5 RWANDA Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost $253M CR-668 effective November 23 1977 Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted)
6 TANZANIA Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost $50M and $109M LN-715 and LN-1306 effective March 31 1971 and
March 1 1977 respectively (Stages I and II) This project included an ecological study of large herbivores including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site It was found that the
Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants access to As a result the Bank recommendedtraditional watering areas
that the Ruaha National Parks boundaries be extended so that
elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to
these watering sites This recommendation was adopted
7 ZAMBIA Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations) Total
Project Cost $111M LN-562 effective November 5 1968
Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations but
they did not damage Pinna oocarpa plantations
PrevousPLg~k
- 28 shy
8 BURHA Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost $425M CR-493 effective February 27 1975 Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector of about 2634 trained working elephants (down from 10000 in 1942) Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality This averages 12 in the Keddah system and 14 in the Mela-shikar system Project needs an elephant domestication component
9 BURMA Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost $864M CR-949 effective December 20 1979 No elephant management component
10 SRI LANKA Mahaweli Ganga III (1962) Total Project Cost $2018M CR-1166 effective date February 8 1982 Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice Sanctuaries buffer zones corridors and elephant relocation was discussed Credit Covenant No 310 The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority
11 INDONESIA Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost $1873M Board Presentation March 1983 not yet signed South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project 100 elephants (of Indonesias 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were drivenrelocated (Dec82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca W150000) in non-project funds They damaged a settlement andshyother infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat
i2 MALAYSIA Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost 4927M LN-967 effective May 16 1974 Of the total 94 cost overrun in the project about 36 was attributed to physical changes (eg elephant damage) on 33000 ha of young oil palms plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report December 13 1982)
13 THAILAND Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is 4170OM not yet signed The proposed reservoir (ca 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2 Seasonal woodland occurs on top evergreen forests fill the valleys A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir the dam may reduce herd Field surveys have still to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns
- 29 -
REFERENCES
1 Asian Elephant Specialist Group Survival Service Commission 1980 The status of the Asian elephant in the Indian Sub-continent Gland Switzerland IUCN 74pp
2 Bain JA and Humphrey SR 1982 A profile of the endangered species of Thailand Gainesville Florida Florida State Mus Univ of Florida 604pp
3 Barnes RFW 1982 Mate searching behavior of elephant bulls in a
semiarid environment Anim Behav 301217-1223
4 Blair JAS Boon GC and Noor NM 1979 Conservation or
cultivation the confrontation between the Asian elephant and land
development in Peninsular Malaysia Land Dev Digest 227-59
5 Blair JAS and Noor NM 1981 Elephant barriers for crop defence in Peninsular Malaysia the FELDA experience The Planter 57289-312
6 Coe M 1972 Defecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana
africana (Blumenbach)) East Afr Wildl J 10165-174
7 Coe M Cummings DH and Phillipson J 1975 Biomass and production
of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production Oecologia 22341-354
8 Croze H 1972 A modified photogrammetric technique for assessing
age-structures of elephant populations and its use in Kidepo National Park East Afr Wildl J 1091-115
9 Croze H Hillman AKK and Lang EM 1981 Elephants and their habitats how do they tolerate each other Pages 297-316 in Fowler CW
and Smith TD (eds) Dynamics of large mammal populations New York John
Wiley amp Sons
10 Davidar ERC and Davidar P 1983 Investigation of elephant
migration paths in the Nilgiri Hills and inquiry into impediments to the free
movements of elephants there and recommendations for the provision of
corridors for their movement Bombay Bombay Nat Hist Society (Mimeogr)
20pp
11 Douglas-Hamilton I 1979 African elephant ivory trade study final
report Washington DC US Fish and Wildl Serv (Mimeogr) IO5pp
12 Eisenberg JF 1980a Recent research on the biology of the Asiatic
elephant (Elephas m maximus) on Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica (National
Museum Sri Lanka) 35213-218
13 Eisenberg JF 1980b Ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant
Elephant I (suppl) 36-56
- 30 shy
14 Eisenberg JF 1981 The mammalian radiations an analysis of trends in evolution adaptation and behavior Chicago Ill Univ of Chicago Press 61Opp
15 Eisenberg JF and Lockhart M 1972 An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1011-118
16 Eisenberg JF and Seidensticker J 1976 Ungulates in southern Asia a consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats Biol Conserv 10293-308
17 Eltringham SK 1980 A quantitative assessment of range usage by large African mammals with particular reference to the effects of elephants on trees Afr J Ecol 1853-71
18 Eltringham SK 1982 Elephants Poole UK Blandford Press 262pp
19 Gray CW and Nettasinghe APW 1970 A preliminary study of the immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99) Zoologica 5551-54
20 Hanks J 1979 The struggle for survival the elephant problem New York Mayflower Books 176pp
21 IUCN 1980 United Nations list of national park and equivalent reserves Gland Switzerland IUCN 121pp
22 Ishwaran N 1981 Comparative study of Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus populationp in Gal Ova Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 21303-313
23 Ishwarnn N 1983 Elephants and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya Sri Lanka Biol Conserv 26255-270
24 Jachmann H and Bell RHV 1979 The assessment of elephant numbers and occupance by means of dropping counts in the Kasungu National Park Malawi Afr J Ecol 17-234-239
25 Johnson DL 1980 Problems in the land vertebrate zoogeography of certain islands and the swimming powers of elephants J Biogeogr 7383-398
26 Khan MAR Khan MA and Rashid SMA 1983 Development of an elephant management plan for the Coxs Bazar Forest of Bangladesh Gland Switzerland IUCN (Mimeogr) l6pp
27 Laursen L and Bekoff M 1982 Loxodonta africana Mamm Species (Am Society Mamnal) 921-8
28 Laws RM 1981 Large manal feeding strategies and related overabundance problems Pages 217-232 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (ede) Problems in management of locally abundant wild mammals New York
kadeic Press
- 31 shy
29 Lsws RM Parker ISC and Johnstone RCB 1975 Elephants and
their habitats and the ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro Uganda
Oxford Clarendon Press 376p
1977 Elephants in Thailand importance30 Lekagul B and McNeely JA
status and conservation Tigerpaper 4(3)22-25
31 Leuthold W 1977 Spatial organization and strategy of habitat Z Saugetierkundeutilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park Kenya
42358-379
Notes on some topics in theoretical32 May RM and Beddington JR 1981
ecology in relation to the management of locally abundant populations of
mammals Pages 205-216 in Jewell PA Holt S and Hart D (eds) New York AcademicProblems in management of locally abundant wild mammals
Press
Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in33 McKay GM 1973 1251-113southeastern Ceylon Smithsonian Contrib Zool
34 McKay GM and Eisenberg JF 1974 Movement patterno and habitat
Pages 708-721 in Giest V and Waltherutilization of ungulates in Ceylon
The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management IUCNF (eds)
Publ (ns) 24
for AsianProtected areas35 McNeely JA and Sinha MK 1981
elephants Parks 64-7
36 Milton JP and Binney GA 1980 Ecological planning in the Nepalese
Washington DC Threshold International Center for Environmentalterai Renewal 35pp
Crown distortion and elephant distribution in37 Muller-Dombois D 1972 Ecology 32208-226
the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park Ceylon
The status and distribution of elephant38 Nair PV and Gadgil M 1978 751000-1015populations of Karnataka J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
1978 Counting animals Nairobi Kenya Afr39 Norton-Griffiths M
13 9Wildl Leadership Foundation pp
On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas40 Olivier RCD 1978a University
maximus Linn) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka
of Cambridge UK Unpublished PhD thesis454pp
41 Olivier RCD 1978b Distribution and status of the Asian elephant
Oryx 14379-424
Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of 42 Pennycuick CJ 1979 Pages 154-184 in Sinclair ARE and Norton-Griffiths M foraging radius
Univ of ChicagoSerengeti dynamics of an ec-osystem Chicago Ill
(eds) Press
1979 Inbreeding and juvenile43 Ralls K Brugger K and Ballou J
mortality in small populations of ungulates Science 2061101-1103
- 32 shy
44 Seidensticker J 1974 A questionnaire technique for a preliminary and trend of large mammals in survey of the distribution and population status
Smithsonian Institution Smithsonianrhe Nepalterai Washington DC
Nepal Tiger Ecol Pro j Rep No 5 (Mimeogr) 12pp
J 1975 Observations on the use of45 Seidensticker J and McNeel Kha Khaiuz wildlife sanctuary Thailand Natnatural licks in the Iluai
dist Bull Siam Soc 2625-34
E1nhas Mamm Species46 Shoshani J and Eisenberg JF 1982 maximus
(Am Soc ety Mammal) 1821-8
47 Singh VB 1969 The elephiant (Eiephas ma-imus Linn) in Uttar Pradesh
India J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 68239-250
1976 The lenhant ittar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of48 Singh VB its status after 10 years J Bomba lat Hist Soc 7571-82
49 Soule ME and Wilcox BA (eds 1980 Conservation biology an
evoliitionary-eccloica perspective Sunderland Mass Sinauer Assoc 395pp
and Smith AD 1955 Range management New York50 Stoddart LA McGraw-Hill 547pp
1980 Environmental51 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton [TAS) Accelerated Mahaweli Develonment Program Washington DC USAssessment
Agency for International Dev 4 volumes
1981 Environmental plan of52 Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Strattonl (TS)
action Accelerated Manaweli veiont Program Minist of Mahaweli Dev
Sri Lanka Columbo Sri Lanka llpp
53 US Dept Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 1980 Republication of
lists of endangered and threacened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules Washington DC Fed Register 45(99)22848-22862
54 Van Strien N 1978 Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung
Leuser National Park Bogor Indonesia World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia
Programme (Mimeogr) 123pp
55 Vancuylenberg BWB 1977 Feedinz behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in
southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation Biol Conserv 1233-54
56 Weir JS 1972 Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium Oikos 231-13
57 Weir JS 1973 Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephancs East Afr Wildl J 111-7n Murchison Falls National Park Uganda
58 Western D 1975 Water availability and its influence on the structure
and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community East Afr Wildl J
13265-286
- 33 shy
59 Western D and Grimsdell JJJ 1979 Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment Nairobi Kenya African Wildlife Leadership Foundation 64pp
60 Wing LD and Buss 10 1970 Elephaitts and forests Wildl Monogr
191-92
61 Woodley FW 1965 Game defence barriers East Afr Wildl J 389-94
wheat that were developed in the mid-1960s Discusses the World Banks plans to expand its lending for ag icultural research and extension particularly for the production of
food and other commodities that are
of importance to low-income can
sumers small farmers and resource-Door areasSector Paper
5ctor PolicyPaperJune 1981 IO pages (including annexes) EngiLsh
Frenchand Spanish
Stock No PP8101-E PP8101-f PP8101-S $euro00 paperback
odel forhDevericltthe Agricultural Se-ctor of Fortugal Alvin C Egbert and Iyung f Kim Spatial mathematical programming is used to develop comprehensive and quantitative methods to suggest development strategies in Portugals agriculture sector
The Johns Hopkins University Press
197 1o pages (including
hibliography)
LC 75-26662 ISBN 0-8018-1793-5$650 4i400) Daperback
Economic Aspects andolicy issues in Groundshy
water Development Ian Carruthers and Roy Stoner
Examlnes a wide range of economic
and policy L3ues related to develop-ment of groundwater for irrigation
World Bank Staff Working Paper
No 496 October 1981 110 pages
(including annex bibliography)
Stock No WP-0496 $500
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Economic Return to Invest
meat In Irrigation in India Leslie A Abbie James Q Harrison
andJon als
and John W WallReports on an investigation into the
Farm Budgets From Farm Income Analysis to
Agricultural Project AnalysLs Maxwell L Brown
Clarifies the relation between simple
farm Income analysis and the broader
field of agricultural proiect anaivsis and emphasizes the more practical aspets of project preparation and gives guidance Eo mose responsiblefor planning in agriculture
EDI Series in Economic Development
The Johns Hopkitns University Press
1980 154 pages
LC 79-3704 ISBN 0-8018-2386-2 $1500 (S1oo hardcour ISBN 8-8015-2367-0 $650 (450) paperbackSpnLsh Prupuestos Va fincas
EditorialTecnas 1982
ISBN 84-309-0886-2 725 oesetas
Fishery Highllts the imoortance of fisheries
to the economies of developing coun-
tries and recommends that the World
ank provide assistance to those
countries that have the fishery are willing to developresources and
reoure re them further
Setor Policy Paper December 1982
ISBN 0-8213-0138-1 $500 paperback
Food Security in Food Deicit Countries Shlomo Reutlinger and Keith Knapp
World Bank Staff Working Paper No
393June 1980 39 pages (including
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Forestry Graham Donaldson coordi-
rmaornating author Lxamlnes the significance of forests Ineconomic development and con-cludes that the World Bank should
se Its r )le in forestrygreatly incre both as a lender anddevelopmentadviser to governments
efficiency of investment In surfaceNo50Otbr1813pae and groundwater Irrigation In India
World Bank Staff Working Paper
No 5361982 52 pages
ISBI 0-82130083-0 $300
Sector Policy Paper february 1978 63 pages (including 7 annexes) English French and SpanishStock NosPP-7804-C PP-7804-f
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Improving Irrigated Agrlculshyture Institutional Reform and the Small Farmer Dan el W Br-omley
A mclei of farmer InterdeDendence is devcopeci to provioe suggestions for improving existing irrigation systems as well as for designing new ones
Wort 51ank taf Working Paper
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Increasing Aoricalturalrod ucUVit cu
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Ted J Davis editor
These proceedings are tne third In a series of recoras of Agricultural 5ecshy
tor Symposia presented at the World
Bank each January since 1980 Conshy
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speakers cnapersonsstatements and summaries of the discussions prepared by the rapporteurs
1982 307 pages (incluaing index)
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India Demand and Supply Prospects for Agriculture James Q Harrison Jon A Hitchings and John W Wall
Contains four papers that report on
me World Banks economic work In
the agricultural sector in India and
the implications of this development
both for foodgrains and for other agncultural commodities
rocuses on the demand for agncultural commodities through the
year 2000 the foodgrain economy the vegetable oil economy and the sugar economy
World b nk Staff Working Paper No500 October 1981 153 pag
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Agricultural Research and Productivity Robert E Evenson and Yoav Kislev Examines the role of scientific reswarh and technological change in increasing agnicularai prcxuctivity
Yale Unierslty Pnss 302 Temple 5treeL New laven Connecticut 06520 U-SA
1975 xi --204 pages inciuding 10 appenxes rerences
LC 74-15210 ISBN 0-300-0185-0 $1500 hardcover ISBN 0-300-01877-0
5395 paperback Spanish nvestigacn agricoia Ypr
ductividad Editorial Tecnos 1976
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Agroindustrial Project
amysE i19
Provides and Illustrates a framework for analyzing and designing ar
NW
The Book of CHAC Programming Studies for Iexican Agricultural Policy Edited Dy RogeL-r D Noriton and Leooldo 51i M
n a n po tproject The principal tooi ot analysis is the se-wtr modei Cft named after the
Mayan rain gcd This model can be hrougno the sector to cover
-snort-cycle crop their inputs and their marKetL It can alviobe broken down into suDmodeis for particular
Dcalitres it morc Cetaiien analysis is recuired Tnc moce hcD- pianners Swc ne cos3 arcn policy goals wnicu_ can vary from regon to region
Thi--volum r)ort5 tne exenence of uainq tne ClA - mogje and also pre-_rtq itnmdOoyc3i materalpurlim-
TnWJ~n iwxn Lnrit
Q2 Dage Ua 080125857
2c (24 arc
indust~tl po icLSStockIndust roi ts gr
EDI Senes in Economic DevelopmenL
The Johns Hopkins University Pess
1981224 pages incudwg appen-dixes bibliograhy and inae) LC 80-550 15BI0-8016-2412-5 $1650 (S1000) hardcovr ISBNM 0-8018-2413-3 S7_50 U425) paperback
French- LAnalyse des projet agro-
industrieLs Economica 1982
ISBN 2-7178-0480-3 49 francs
Spanish Anilisis de proyectos agro-industriales Editorial Tecnos 1981
ISBN 84-309-0882-X 600 peset
Argentina Country Case Study of Agricultural Prices
Taxes and Subsidies LuCdo Q Reca
World Bank Staff Working Paper No
386 April 1980 72 pages (including 3 airrigation
annexes) Stock No WP-0386 $300
NEW
Building NiationaJ Capacity to Develop Water Uiiers Asoocia6inw Lperizence from the PhilIppines
rance rn
Over a fiv-year pDeno_ Lht National
lmation Aomniszratiun fNLA) of the Phitipptne has tbeen building its
capacity to oeveiop water users associations on smali-scale imgation systems This par-r details the crnangt that have been made within
the agency as a result of the develop-ment of tnesc associatnv prior to the contruction of the pnysical wystem and the involvement of
association mmDirs in the olanning
and construction stages It also examnes the rture of the leanming oro- tzi = et t3 these cnanges
and ciiuasse the implications or
donor uppcno outer small-scale programs and more
generally for orog-ams Involving village-levei work
World Bank Staff Working Paper NIo 528 July1982 u -69 pages (including references)
15BN 0-8213-0051-2 $300
C-12o y EJerccios Sobre Proyectos Agricolas Edited by Orlando T Espadas Three case studies prepared in conshyjunction with the EDIs Agricultural Projects Courses in Spanish and intended primarly for teachers of
at _Iysis
World Bank (EDI) March 1974 revised January 1975 480 pages (Available
from ILS 1715 Connecticut Avenue NW Washington DC 20009 USA) $500 paperback
The Design of Organiza
tions for Rural Development Projects-a Progress ReportWilliam E Smith
rancis J Lethem and
Ben A Thoolen World Bank Staff Working Paper No
375 March 1980 48 pages English
and French WP-O5 73-PNo WP-O5 75-C Stoco
The Design of Rural Development Lessons from Africa Uma Lee Analyzes new ways of designing rural
development projects to reach large numbers of low-income subsistence populations The paperback reprintshying In 1979 contains a new chapter by the author updating her findings
The Johns Hopkins Unluerslty Press
1975 3rd printing 1979 260 pages(inuding apn9 aps (including glossaryappendix maps
bibliography index)
ISBN 0-8018-176F2 $995 paperback French Le dL vioppenrent rural 1exprience Africaine Economica 1977 15BN 2-7178-0006-939 pancs
Land Reform rxamines the characteristics of land reform its implications for the economies of developing countriesand the major policy options open to the World Bank in this field
A World Bank Paper May 1975 73 pages (including 2 annexes) fngllsh French and Spanish
Stock fios PP-7503E PP- 7503- PP-7503-S $500 paperback
Land Tenure Systems and Social Implications of Forestry Development Po a Michael M Cemea World Bank Staff Working Paper No 452 April 1981 35 pages (including references bibllography)
Stock No WP-0452 $300
Managing Information for Rural Development Leson~from Eastern Aurrica s
Guido Deboeck and Bill Kinse World Bank Staff Working Paper Po79 March 1980 i - 70 pages
3 70pags5Sock79 Mach 180oil+
and they involve a variety of Invest-ments The need for monitoring and evaluaUng Wein during implementa-tion has been accepted in principlebut effective systems have notheretofore bten fonrnulated The con-
cepts of monatoring and evaluation are differenti ted and issues that need to be cc nsidered in designing systems to rnonitor and evaluatespecific projects are outlined empnaszng te timeliness of the monitoring functions for effective management Elaborates on sucn technical Issues as selection of indica-tors selection of survey methodology data analysis and presentation It is directed prirrfunly to those working
with specific projects and will be use-ful to project appraisal teams todesigners of monitoring and evaua-tion systems and to project 3tatf who work with these systems The Johns hokins University Pe 1982 145 pages french and Spanish
forthcoming
LC 82-7126 ISBN 0-8018-2910-0 $850
(S650) paperback
Monitoring Rural Develop-ment in East AsiaGuido Deboeck and Ronald Ng
(Including 5 annexes indeA)
Stock o WP-03 79 $300
Measuring Project Impact Monitoring and Evaluation in the PIDER Rural Develop-ment Project--Mexico Michael M Cernea
World Bnk Staff Wrking Ppe o (Including 3 annexes appendix map)
Stock No WP-0332 $500
lEW
of Agriculture and Rual
Development Projects Dennis J Casley and Denis A Lury This book provides a how-to tool for the design and Implementation of monitoring and evaluation systems In rural development projects Because ruin developient projects are com-plex they seek to benefit large num-be=r of people n remote rural areas
World Sank Staff Working Paper No
annexes)439 October 1980 91 pages (including
Stock ft WP-0439 $000
Nutritional Consequences of Agricultural Projects Conceptual Relationships and AssessmentApproaches Per Pinstrup-Andersen
World Bank Staff Working Paper No 456 April 1981 93 pages (including bibliography appendix) Stock No WP-0456 $300
Prices Taxes and Subsidies
In Pakistan Agriculture 1960-1976 Carl Gotsch and Gilbert Brown World Bank Staf Working PaperNo 387 April 1980108 pagesStock No WP-0387 $500
Rethinking ArtLsanaJl Fishshycries Development WesternConcpts Asian Experiences
Donald K mmersonWolBakSfforigPpr1 World Bank 5taff Working Paper No 423 October 1980 x - 97 pages
Iincluding references) Stock No WP-0423 $500
RuralDevelopment
Discusses strategy designed to extend the benefits of development to the rural poor and outlines the World Banks plans for increasing its assisshylance in this sector
Sector Policy Paper february 1975 89
paeshincludng 14 annexes) Englishfrench Spansh and Arabic Stock 1o PP7501E PP-7501-1 PP-7501-5 PP7501-A $500 paperback
Rural Poverty Unperceived
Robe and RemediesWorBntaf WombrkigPpeso World ank Staff Working Paper (o 400 July 1980 51 pages (including references)
No WP-0400 0300
Rural ProJects ThroughUrban Eyes An Interpreta tion of the World Banks New-Style Rural Develop ment Projects Judith Tendler This paper describes the Banks new style rural development projectsincluding some of the things that hap pen in the political environment of aproject when governments assisted by the Bank redirect their public-sec tor services and subsidies to the rural poor
World Bank Staff Working Paper Plo 532 1982 100 pages ISBN 0-8213-0028-8 $300
Sociocultural Aspects of Developing Small-Scale Fisheries Delivering Servces to the Poor Richard B Pollnac World Bank Staff Working Pper No 490 October1981 1ll +61 pages490 eferen8s (including references)Stock (1o WP-0490 $300
Some Aspects of Wheat and Rice Price Policy In India Raj Mrishna and G 5 Raychaudhuri
World Bank Staf Working Pa er No 381 April 1980 62 pages (i luding 2 appendixes 6 fables biblicgraphy) Stock No WP0381 $300
A System of Monlitoring and Evaluating Agricultu-al Extension Projects Michael M Cemea and Benjamin J Tepping
World Bank 5taff Working PaDer No 272 Decemoer 1977 of + U15 pages (Including 9 annexes bibliograDh) Stock No W077 S00
Thailand-Case Study of Agricultural Input and Output Pricing Trent Bertrand
World Bank Staff Working Paper No 385 April 1980 ix - 134 pages (including 2 appendixes)
REPRINTS
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of Techique in S i Rice Prledctot CPe Fkumphreys and Scott R Person World ank ampprint Series f umber 199 Pepriitdfom food Resarch Studies uol 17
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credit ad Sb in Agraa Societies AvIshay Bravernan and TM Srhnivan World Bank Reprint 5r Nlumber 216Reprlnted horm Journal of Development economics Wl P (December 1981) 289312 Stock NIo RP-0216 trr cf charge
Pam Size and the Diffusion of Gre 1Rev o ution Technoo On Information and innovmtion Difftusion A Bayesian
Gershon redcr and Gerald TOMara World Ban Reprint Srtie Pumber 207
Reprinted fmm EErnomic Devtlopment and
Cultural Change voi 3j no I Octobet 19819-76 and American oumal of AgriculturalBconomio LPl 64 no i feruary 1982 145-47 Stock ft P-C207 tre ofcnarge
Sociolloicad Dimeninlao of Extension Orpanizatson Tne Introduction of the TSV oystem in India Michael M Cemea
World Bnk eprnt Seres 196rNumber Repnned from Utenston Education and RuralDevfopmrr vol 2 j981221-35 281 Stock No RP-0196 free of charge
NEW Economic Analysis of Agricultural Projects Second edition compleeLy rev sed and erpanded J Price Gittinger
Thisbook entirelyoutnew editioncareful of thepracticalWorld Banksmethodlologjybest-sellingsets a and fora a y n u t ~ uanalyzing agricultural development projects and for using these analyses to compare proposed Investments It
what constitutes a project what must be conshysidered to identify possible agricultural projects the life cycle of a proqecL the strengths and pitfalls of pojectanalysis anc the calculations required to obtain financial and economic project accounts
In the ten years since Its publication the first edition has been accepted widely as a standard reference and texL Themethodology reflects the best of contemporary practice In government agencies and International developmentinstitutions concerned with Investing in agriculture and Isaccessible to a broad readership of agricultural planners
n i e r a n n l s sengineers and analysts This revision adds a wealth of recent project dataexpanded treatment of farm budgets and the efficiency
pnces used to calculate the effects of an Investment on national income a glossary of technical terms expandedappendixes on preparing an agricultural project report and using discounting tables and an expanded completely annotated bibliographyLI Series in Economic Development
The Johns Hopkins Univeity PrnS July 1982 528 pages
(including appendixes and glossaryindex)
LC 82-15262 SZN 0-8018-2912-7 $3750 (12250) hardcost ISBN 08018-29135 $1350 (E875) papertaclk