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Manchester Manchester Metropolitan Metropolitan
UniversityUniversity
Seminar presented to the Seminar presented to the
Professional Practice and Professional Practice and Research Development Centre Research Development Centre
55thth December 2006 December 2006
Ann FrenchAnn French
[email protected]@mmu.ac.uk
SPEECH SKILLS IN SPEECH SKILLS IN YOUNG YOUNG
ADOLESCENTS: ARE ADOLESCENTS: ARE THEY STILL THEY STILL
DEVELOPING, AND DEVELOPING, AND HOW DO THEY HOW DO THEY
AFFECT ACADEMIC AFFECT ACADEMIC PROGRESS?PROGRESS?
BackgroundBackground Referrals of junior and secondary age Referrals of junior and secondary age
children with language and communication children with language and communication impairments attending mainstream schoolsimpairments attending mainstream schools
Evidence that early language and Evidence that early language and communication problems may not resolve communication problems may not resolve
Lack of secondary school SLT provision in Lack of secondary school SLT provision in UK UK
Lack of knowledge about the nature and Lack of knowledge about the nature and extent of difficulties secondary students extent of difficulties secondary students may encountermay encounter
Lack of suitable assessmentsLack of suitable assessments
Speech skillsSpeech skills
PhonologicalPhonological knowledge/skills: knowledge/skills:
How speech sounds (phones) are used to How speech sounds (phones) are used to create contrasting meanings e.g. ‘create contrasting meanings e.g. ‘ccat’ v. ‘at’ v. ‘hhat’ at’ v ‘v ‘mmat’at’
Used in understanding speech, speaking, Used in understanding speech, speaking, reading and spellingreading and spelling
Reliant on phonological memory: the ability Reliant on phonological memory: the ability to retain the spoken form of a stimulusto retain the spoken form of a stimulus
By 11 yrs most children appear to have well By 11 yrs most children appear to have well developeddeveloped
pronunciation and literacy skills, so is pronunciation and literacy skills, so is phonologicalphonological
development complete?development complete?
Recent research suggests that during adolescence there is Recent research suggests that during adolescence there is ongoingongoing
development of:development of: Phonological perception (Wagner, Torgensen and Rashotte, Phonological perception (Wagner, Torgensen and Rashotte,
1999)1999) Phonological production (Walsh and Smith, 2002)Phonological production (Walsh and Smith, 2002) Phonological awareness (Hazan and Barrett, 2002)Phonological awareness (Hazan and Barrett, 2002)and that and that Auditory cortex maturation continues into adolescence Auditory cortex maturation continues into adolescence
(McArthur and Bishop (2004)(McArthur and Bishop (2004)
Additionally, word learning and phonological memory Additionally, word learning and phonological memory demandsdemands
continue throughout life.continue throughout life.
Phonological skills required Phonological skills required by the secondary by the secondary
curriculumcurriculum Reading and spelling (moving into the orthographic Reading and spelling (moving into the orthographic
stage of literacy e.g. using analogy: lstage of literacy e.g. using analogy: lightight/f/fightight/m/mightight)) Learning new English words (all subjects; social Learning new English words (all subjects; social
communication)communication) Learning spoken/written words in new languagesLearning spoken/written words in new languages Literary concepts e.g. alliteration and rhyme (English)Literary concepts e.g. alliteration and rhyme (English) Puns and other jokes (literacy, social communication)Puns and other jokes (literacy, social communication) Place of regional accents in communication (English, Place of regional accents in communication (English,
social communication)social communication) New writing styles e.g. text messaging: <B4> = New writing styles e.g. text messaging: <B4> =
‘before’ (social communication)‘before’ (social communication) Rote learning (many areas of the curriculum)Rote learning (many areas of the curriculum)
Baddeley’s model of Baddeley’s model of Working Memory (WM) Working Memory (WM)
(2003)(2003)
Central ExecutiveCentral Executive
Visuo-spatial SketchpadVisuo-spatial Sketchpad Episodic BufferEpisodic Buffer PhonologicalPhonological LoopLoop
“Working memory is a temporary storage system that underpins our capacity for thinking…” (p.203)
The Phonological Loop (PL)The Phonological Loop (PL)(Baddeley 2003, based on Vallar & (Baddeley 2003, based on Vallar &
Papagno 2002)Papagno 2002)
Visual InputVisual Input
Visual AnalysisVisual Analysisand ST Storeand ST Store
Orthographical to Orthographical to Phonological Phonological
EncodingEncoding
Auditory InputAuditory Input
PhonologicalPhonological AnalysisAnalysis
Phonological Phonological ST StoreST Store
Phonological Phonological Output BufferOutput Buffer
Spoken OutputSpoken Output
Rehearsal Rehearsal ProcessProcess
Speech Perception:Speech Perception: VentralVentral andand Dorsal (PL)Dorsal (PL) RoutesRoutes
Functional Working Functional Working MemoryMemory
Montgomery (2003) distinguishes Montgomery (2003) distinguishes Phonological Working Memory Phonological Working Memory
(PWM): c.f. Baddeley’s PL(PWM): c.f. Baddeley’s PL Functional Working Memory (FWM): Functional Working Memory (FWM):
c.f. Baddeley’s Episodic Bufferc.f. Baddeley’s Episodic Buffer
FWM/EBFWM/EB Temporarily combines information from Temporarily combines information from
2+ sources 2+ sources Facilitates complex processing/problem Facilitates complex processing/problem
solving e.g. comprehension of solving e.g. comprehension of spoken/written text, reasoning….spoken/written text, reasoning….
A limited capacity system: storage and A limited capacity system: storage and computational demands compete: computational demands compete:
content familiarity ↑ storage demand ↓ content familiarity ↑ storage demand ↓ computational capacity ↑computational capacity ↑
content familiarity ↓ storage demand ↑ content familiarity ↓ storage demand ↑ computational capacity ↓computational capacity ↓
Transfer from WM to Transfer from WM to LTMLTM
PWM PWM ⇨⇨ LTM: rehearsal e.g. times tables LTM: rehearsal e.g. times tables FWM FWM ⇨⇨ LTM: uses a complex of LTM: uses a complex of
phonological, semantic and grammatical phonological, semantic and grammatical skills; heavily dependent on knowledge skills; heavily dependent on knowledge already stored already stored
Both processes controlled by Central Both processes controlled by Central Executive:Executive:
Selects what to attend toSelects what to attend to Sustains attention to chosen stimulusSustains attention to chosen stimulus Switches between stimuli when necessary Switches between stimuli when necessary
Development of WMDevelopment of WM
Gathercole et al, (2004a): All components (PL, VSSP, CE) are
in place by 6 yrs. All increase linearly from 5-14 yrs. With increasing age there is a
closer correlation between PL and CE scores than between VSSP and CE scores
PLPL
Nonword repetition (assessing PL function) Nonword repetition (assessing PL function) correlates with:correlates with:
Digit span (Gathercole et al 1999)Digit span (Gathercole et al 1999) Vocabulary size Vocabulary size (Adams and (Adams and Expressive grammar Expressive grammar Gathercole Gathercole Utterance length Utterance length 1995)1995) Language comprehension (Sahlen et al Language comprehension (Sahlen et al
1999)1999) SAT scores at ages 7 and 14 (Gathercole SAT scores at ages 7 and 14 (Gathercole
et al, 2004et al, 2004bb))
PL capacityPL capacity Often measured as digit spanOften measured as digit span Miller (1956) suggested capacity of 7 Miller (1956) suggested capacity of 7
items +/- 2 for adult humansitems +/- 2 for adult humansBUT PL span is not fixed:BUT PL span is not fixed: Chunking changes the upper limitChunking changes the upper limit Span is affected by:Span is affected by:o Rate of stimulus presentation Rate of stimulus presentation o Stimuli used (e.g. word length, word Stimuli used (e.g. word length, word
familiarity, inter-stimulus similarity)familiarity, inter-stimulus similarity)o Opportunity for rehearsalOpportunity for rehearsal
MethodologyMethodology
A correlational designA correlational design
Hypothesis 1Hypothesis 1Performance on phonological tasks will Performance on phonological tasks will
correlate with: correlate with: (i)(i) Receptive word knowledge (Garlock et Receptive word knowledge (Garlock et
al, 2001)al, 2001)(ii)(ii) Available phonological working memory Available phonological working memory
(PWM) and functional working memory (PWM) and functional working memory (FWM) space (Gathercole et al 2004(FWM) space (Gathercole et al 2004aa))
(iii)(iii) Attention controlAttention control ( (Manly et al, 1999)Manly et al, 1999)
Hypothesis 2Hypothesis 2Performance on phonological tasks will be predicted Performance on phonological tasks will be predicted
by by (i)(i) Early hearing, speech and literacy development Early hearing, speech and literacy development
(Nittrouer and Burton, 2005) (Nittrouer and Burton, 2005) (ii)(ii) Family history of speech/literacy difficulty Family history of speech/literacy difficulty
(Snowling, Bishop and Stothard, 2000)(Snowling, Bishop and Stothard, 2000)(iii)(iii) SES (Locke and Ginsborg, 2003)SES (Locke and Ginsborg, 2003)
Hypothesis 3Hypothesis 3Performance on phonological tasks will correlate withPerformance on phonological tasks will correlate withacademic ability/achievement scores (Gathercole et academic ability/achievement scores (Gathercole et
al,al,20042004bb))
Method: ParticipantsMethod: Participants
Year 7 students, aged 11;6-12;0 (+) Year 7 students, aged 11;6-12;0 (+) randomly selected from a randomly selected from a mainstream comprehensive schoolmainstream comprehensive school
Pilot study: 11 students (2006) Pilot study: 11 students (2006) Main study: 2 cohorts of 45-50 Main study: 2 cohorts of 45-50
students students (Phase I 2005-6(Phase I 2005-6; Phase II ; Phase II 2006-7)2006-7)
Method: ProceduresMethod: Procedures
1. Questionnaires completed by 1. Questionnaires completed by parents/guardiansparents/guardians::
Student’s early hearing, language Student’s early hearing, language and literacy development and literacy development
Family incidence of language and/or Family incidence of language and/or literacy impairmentsliteracy impairments
SES indicators (parent SES indicators (parent employment/education)employment/education)
2. Assessment tasks:2. Assessment tasks:(i) New tests developed during pilot(i) New tests developed during pilot Receptive semantic/phonological word Receptive semantic/phonological word
knowledge*knowledge* Phonological awareness: Phonological awareness:
Rhyme judgement* Rhyme judgement* Spoonerism production*Spoonerism production*
{A = Low FWM load{A = Low FWM load{B = High FWM load{B = High FWM load
Word production: Word production: Real word repetition*Real word repetition*Nonword repetition*Nonword repetition*Tongue twistersTongue twisters
* Controlled for word length and AoA* Controlled for word length and AoA
(ii) Published tests(ii) Published tests WMTB-C (Pickering and Gathercole 2001): WMTB-C (Pickering and Gathercole 2001): o Digit Recall (PWM)Digit Recall (PWM)o Backwards Digits (FWM)Backwards Digits (FWM) TEA-CH (Manly et al, 1999):TEA-CH (Manly et al, 1999):o Skysearch: Skysearch: Selective attention: searching
and focusing on specific information, ignoring distractors
o Score: Sustained attention: focussing on repetitive tasks
o Opposite Worlds: Attentional switching between two or more tasks
3.3. Academic data supplied by school:Academic data supplied by school: End of Year 6 Standard Achievement End of Year 6 Standard Achievement
scores in English, Maths and Sciencescores in English, Maths and Science Early Year 7 Cognitive Abilities scores Early Year 7 Cognitive Abilities scores
in Verbal, Nonverbal and Numerical in Verbal, Nonverbal and Numerical ReasoningReasoning
End of Year 7 subject marks for End of Year 7 subject marks for English, Maths, Science, and Modern English, Maths, Science, and Modern Foreign Languages (MFLs) Foreign Languages (MFLs)
Phase I ResultsPhase I ResultsUsing Spearman’s rho as data may not be normally Using Spearman’s rho as data may not be normally
distributeddistributedReporting only 0.01 level; 2-tailedReporting only 0.01 level; 2-tailed
Hypothesis 1Hypothesis 11. Significant correlations between phonological task 1. Significant correlations between phonological task
performance and performance and Receptive Word KnowledgeReceptive Word Knowledge:: Rhyme BRhyme B Spoonerism A & BSpoonerism A & B 2. Significant correlations between phonological task 2. Significant correlations between phonological task
performance and performance and PWMPWM:: Rhyme BRhyme B Spoonerism A & BSpoonerism A & B
3. Significant correlations between phonological 3. Significant correlations between phonological task performance and task performance and FWMFWM
Rhyme BRhyme B Spoonerism A & BSpoonerism A & B Receptive Word KnowledgeReceptive Word Knowledge
4.4. Significant correlations between phonological Significant correlations between phonological task performance and task performance and attention controlattention control::
Spoonerism A & B (with Selective Attention)Spoonerism A & B (with Selective Attention) Spoonerism B (with Sustained Attention)Spoonerism B (with Sustained Attention) Spoonerism B and Tongue Twisters (with Spoonerism B and Tongue Twisters (with
Switched Attention)Switched Attention)
Hypothesis 2Hypothesis 2
1. Significant correlations between phonological task 1. Significant correlations between phonological task performance and performance and early hearing, speech and literacy early hearing, speech and literacy developmentdevelopment::
Rhyme B, Nonword Repetition, Spoonerism A & B, Rhyme B, Nonword Repetition, Spoonerism A & B, Receptive Word Knowledge (with Reading and Spelling)Receptive Word Knowledge (with Reading and Spelling)
Nonword Repetition, Spoonerism B (with Talking)Nonword Repetition, Spoonerism B (with Talking)
2. Significant correlations between phonological task 2. Significant correlations between phonological task performance and family history of speech/literacy performance and family history of speech/literacy difficulty:difficulty:
NoneNone
3. Significant correlations between phonological task 3. Significant correlations between phonological task performance and performance and SESSES::
Rhyme A (with Parent Education)Rhyme A (with Parent Education) Rhyme B (with Parent Employment)Rhyme B (with Parent Employment)
Hypothesis 3Hypothesis 3
Significant correlations between phonological Significant correlations between phonological task performance and task performance and academic academic ability/achievement scoresability/achievement scores
Spoonerism A & B (with all academic scores)Spoonerism A & B (with all academic scores) Rhyme B (with all scores except Year 7 Maths)Rhyme B (with all scores except Year 7 Maths) Nonword Repetition (with Year 6 & 7 English, Nonword Repetition (with Year 6 & 7 English,
Verbal Reasoning, Year 7 MFLs)Verbal Reasoning, Year 7 MFLs) Tongue Twister (with Year 6 & 7 English, Year Tongue Twister (with Year 6 & 7 English, Year
7 MFLs)7 MFLs) Receptive Word Knowledge (with all scores Receptive Word Knowledge (with all scores
except Nonverbal reasoning, Year 7 English & except Nonverbal reasoning, Year 7 English & Maths)Maths)
Tentative conclusions from Tentative conclusions from Phase IPhase I
Performance on phonological awareness tasks Performance on phonological awareness tasks (Rhyme B, Spoonerism A & B) correlates (Rhyme B, Spoonerism A & B) correlates significantly with receptive word knowledge, significantly with receptive word knowledge, PWM, FWM, attention, a history of reading PWM, FWM, attention, a history of reading and spelling difficulty, and with academic and spelling difficulty, and with academic ability/achievement across the curriculumability/achievement across the curriculum
This may reflect the memory/attention This may reflect the memory/attention demands of these tasks, with improved demands of these tasks, with improved performance supported by greater word performance supported by greater word knowledge and literacyknowledge and literacy
Performance on production tasks Performance on production tasks (Nonword Repetition, Spoonerism B, (Nonword Repetition, Spoonerism B, Tongue Twisters) correlates Tongue Twisters) correlates significantly with a history of talking significantly with a history of talking difficulty and with scores in English difficulty and with scores in English and MFLsand MFLs
This may reflect motor planning This may reflect motor planning demandsdemands
Performance on phonological tasks Performance on phonological tasks does not correlate significantly with does not correlate significantly with a history of ear infections/hearing a history of ear infections/hearing loss, family history of speech or loss, family history of speech or literacy difficulty, or SES literacy difficulty, or SES
By age 11 these factors appear to be By age 11 these factors appear to be less significant for phonological less significant for phonological abilityability
And so…And so… Phonology is a key element of word learningPhonology is a key element of word learning Word learning underpins verbal memory Word learning underpins verbal memory
performanceperformance Verbal memory is crucial to academic Verbal memory is crucial to academic
learninglearning Facilitating phonological learning may Facilitating phonological learning may
increase academic achievement for many increase academic achievement for many studentsstudents
Some students may benefit from additional Some students may benefit from additional practice in acquiring spoken forms for new practice in acquiring spoken forms for new wordswords
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