MANIPULATION & IMPROVEMENT OF MEMORYYear 12 Psychology Unit 3Area of Study 2

(Chapter 8, Page 392)

MEASURES OF RETENTION Ways to test how well you have retained

information (or how much you have retained).

Three main measures used:RecallRecognitionRelearning

 

Activity: 7.4

MEASURES OF RETENTION:RECALL Reproducing info with the fewest possible cues

to assist retrieval: Use a general cue to retrieve info by searching LTM

to find something that best matches cue. General cues often do not provide enough hints to

locate relevant info because the list of possible matches is often quite large. Analogy: Google.

Three types of recall: Free recall (as much info as possible in any order); Serial recall (recall info in order); Cued recall (use more specific cues to aid retrieval).

MEASURES OF RETENTION:RECOGNITION

Identify the correct info from several alternatives. More sensitive/effective measure

of memory than recall; Recognition provides more cues

that assist in the location and retrieval of info from LTM.

Recognition vs Recall: Recognising someone but cannot recall their name.

(Face is a cue that aids retrieval); Multiple choice questions vs. short answer questions

(Possible alternatives are the cues that aid retrieval).

MEASURES OF RETENTION:RELEARNING (‘METHOD OF SAVINGS’)

Learning info again that has beenpreviously learnt and stored in LTM. Most sensitive/effective measure of memory; Info is learned more quickly the second time (there must

have been some info retained from the first learning experience).

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885): pioneering researcher on memory, specifically relearning. Was his own research participant; Memorised a list of nonsense syllables (consist of two

consonants with a vowel between, e.g. ‘qir’); Used so retention is not affected by the words having

meaning or association with other words already in memory (potential extraneous variables);

Relearn a list much more quickly a second time.

MEASURES OF RETENTION:RELATIVE SENSITIVITY  Sensitivity (of a measure of retention): ability to assess the amount of

info that has been stored in memory. Sensitivity = detection of info that has been learned and stored in

memory. Sensitivity = detection of info that has been learned and stored in

memory. 

Relearning Recognition Recall

Nelson (1978): experiment consisted of three stages – initial learning stage, a stage of recall and recognition and a relearning stage.1. Participants had to learn a series of number-word pairs (e.g. 95-horse).2. 4 weeks later, surprise tests: cued recall & recognition.3. Participants had to relearn 10 of the original pairs plus 10 new ones.

Results: 48% recall, 69% recognition, 88% relearning (compared to new ones).

Conclusion: Relearning is more sensitive than recognition as a measure of retention.

Use table on page 369 for

revision

Manipulation & Improvement of Memory Human memory is prone to errors and distortions.

Details of human memory can change over time: Can unconsciously add, subtract, exaggerate or downplay

details.

Confidence does not guarantee accuracy: Some researchers believe that strong confidence in

memory of small details might actually indicate that the memory is inaccurate or false.

New memories are not recorded, they are actively constructed – when we retrieve them, they are actively reconstructed, which can lead to errors.

Manipulation of Memory Bartlett (1932) questioned Ebbinghaus’ use of

nonsense words to test memory.

Used prose (story/essay) instead: Each time, participants ‘remembered’ the original

stimulus slightly differently. Unusual or unexpected events were often described

in more ‘sensible’ ways - revised to match what the participant believed was more likely to be true.

Tend to remember only a few key details of an experience, then we unconsciously draw on personal beliefs and expectations when reconstructing to fill in ‘blanks’ in a logical/plausible way.

Manipulation of Memory:Elizabeth Loftus Leading question: has content or is phrased to

suggest the desired answer or lead you towards it. “How fast was the car going when it ran the stop

sign?” presupposes/assumes that there was a stop sign.

Would be more likely to include stop sign in your recall later on (“Did you see the stop sign?”) even if there wasn’t actually one there.

Leading questions can be used to manipulate memory, specifically memory reconstruction.

Manipulation of Memory:Loftus & Palmer (1974) Influence of question wording on memory +

how information supplied post-event distorts memory.

45 volunteer students shown 7 film clips (5-10sec) of car accidents: Afterwards, asked to describe what they’d seen. Also answered some specific questions, including

estimating speed of cars involved in collisions. Five conditions, 9 students randomly allocated to

each: “About how fast were the cars going when they _____ each

other?” Smashed, collided, bumped, hit, contacted. Clips presented in different order to each group.

Manipulation of Memory:Loftus & Palmer (1974) Wording of question influenced estimated speed:

‘Smashed’ = fastest, ‘Contacted’ = slowest. Results possibly due to distortion of memory by

verbal label. Could also be due to response bias (adjusting speed

to fit with expectations of researcher). Second experiment: ‘smashed’, ‘hit’ or nothing:

“Did you see any broken glass?” - more often reported “yes” if were in the ‘smashed’ group.

‘New’ false information after event had been integrated into memories.

One week later, correctly remember there was no glass.

Manipulation of Memory:Loftus & Palmer (1974) Integration of information from two different

sources: the witnessed crash & the leading question.

Source confusion: true source of memory is forgotten or attributed incorrectly.

Relevant for eyewitnesses in court cases: Prosecutors & barristers are no allowed to use leading

questions.

Loftus: any model of memory should include process of reconstruction (see page 396).

VIDEO

Activity: 8.1

Improvement of Memory Context–Dependent and State-

Dependent Cues: re-create the conditions under which the required info was originally learned.

This is based on the encoding specificity principle: The more closely the retrieval cues match the

original learning conditions, the more likely the info will be recalled.

Activity: 8.4

Enhancing Memory:Context- and State- Dependent Cues Context-dependent cues: environmental cues in the

specific context where a memory was formed, which act as a retrieval cues to help access the memories formed in that context. Sights, sounds, smells, etc. Godden and Baddeley (1975): divers standing on the beach

vs. under five metres of water. – Page 399 EG… witnesses remembering more when they return to crime

scene. State-dependent cues: associated with an individual’s

state at the time the memory was formed, which act as retrieval cues to help access those memories. State-dependent retrieval involves better recall of info when

the physiological and/or psychological states of learning and retrieval match.

Mood is also a state-dependent cue.

Improvement of Memory:Mnemonic Devices From the Greek ‘Mnemosyne’, goddess of memory.

Make use of info that is already stored in LTM. Make info more elaborate as they are based on

elaboration strategies. Additional info makes the material easier to locate

and retrieve as organisation in LTM is enhanced. Organise new info into a cohesive whole, so

retrieval is easier. The ease or difficulty with which we learn new info

depends on how well it fits with what we already know. The better it fits, the easier it is to retrieve.

Activity: 8.5

Mnemonic Devices:Acronyms & Rhymes Acronyms (words created from first letters of

information you are remembering) & Rhymes: Helps organise information.

ANZAC

FBI CIA

SCATATAW

‘i’ before ‘e’, except after ‘c’

Thirty days hath September…

Mnemonic Devices:Acronyms & Rhymes – ACTIVITY! Make up an acronym or rhyme to remember one

of the concepts we have learned.

Some suggestions: Areas of the brain; Branches of the nervous system; Types of brain scans; Stages of sleep; Types of brain waves; Stages/areas of memory; Duration/capacity of different memory types; Measures of retention; Types of amnesia.

Use as your example for Activity 8.8, Question 2.

Mnemonic Devices:Acrostics (‘first-letter technique’) Useful when have to remember info in order.

Red

Teenaged

Turtles

Skating

On

Ice

Reception

Transduction

Transmission

Selection

Organisation

Interpretation

Mnemonic Devices:Acrostics – ACTIVITY! Make up an acrostic to remember one of the

concepts we have learned this year.

Some suggestions: Areas of the brain; Branches of the nervous system; Types of brain scans; Stages of sleep; Types of brain waves; Stages/areas of memory; Duration/capacity of different memory types; Measures of retention; Types of amnesia.

Use as your example for Activity 8.8, Question 2.

Mnemonic Devices:Narrative Chaining Linking otherwise unrelated items to one

another (‘chaining’) to form a meaningful sequence or story (‘narrative’).

Research shows that it adds organisation and meaningfulness.

Useful when you want to remember info in a particular order.

Bower & Clark’s (1969) results – page 406.

Page 405

BOWER AND CLARK (1969)

Page 406

Mnemonic Devices:Narrative Chaining – ACTIVITY! Make up a story that links the following words:

BeeToothTeddyTunaNut

MafiaLimeChatKissCan

Use as your example for Activity 8.8, Question 2.