manual de la norma awwa m03

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1881

American Water Works Association

Safety Practices

for Water Utilities

AWWA MANUAL M3

Fifth Edition

FOUNDED

Copyright (C) 1999 American Water Works Association All Rights Reserved



Copyright © 1956, 1963, 1977, 1983, 1990 American Water Works Association

6666 West Quincy Ave.Denver, CO 80235

Printed in USA

ISBN 0-89867-534-0 Printed on recycled paper

The information in this manual is drawn from sources believed to be reliable. The safetysuggestions are based on the injury-prevention experience of the AWWA safety committeemembers, as well as the experience of professional safety engineers, water utility superinten-dents, and others. AWWA makes no guarantee of results and assumes no liability in connec-tion with the information presented. Moreover, it should not be assumed that everyacceptable safety procedure is discussed or that abnormal or unusual circumstances may notwarrant or require other procedures. These suggestions should be cross-referenced withapproved local, state, provincial, or national regulations. For more detailed information on thesubjects covered in each chapter, contact AWWA’s information services department to obtaincurrent bibliographies on the specific subject.

ii




Contents

Introduction, vii

Chapter 1 Implementing and Maintaining a Safety Program . . . . . 1

Organizing a Safety Program, 1Policy Statement, 3Committees for Safety, 3

Chapter 2 Safety Records, Statistics, and Reports . . . . . . . . . . 6

Records and Reports, 6Use of Statistics and Reports, 13Measuring Safety, 14Costs of Accidents, 16

Chapter 3 Safety Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Education and Training, 17Inspections, 20Employee Recognition, 21Miscellaneous Programs, 24

Chapter 4 Safety and the Employee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Developing a Safe Work Attitude in the New Employee, 25When Accidents Happen, 26Insurance and Compensation, 28

Chapter 5 General Safety Practices and Equipment . . . . . . . . . 30

Before Beginning a Job, 30Personal Protective Equipment, 31Respiratory Equipment, 34First Aid, 36General Safety Procedures, 37

Chapter 6 Small Tools and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Hand Tools, 39Portable Power Tools, 43Gas and Arc Welders, 45General Equipment, 48

Chapter 7 Large Tools and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Power Shovels and Draglines, 51Concrete Mixers, 52Hoist Operations, 52

iii




Chapter 8 Operating and Maintaining Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Motor Vehicle Operation, 57

Servicing Diesel and Gasoline Engines, 59

Automotive Equipment, 61

Chapter 9 Procedures for Construction and Related Activities . . . . 65

Working in Confined Spaces, 65

Working in Excavations, 69

Chapter 10 Using Pipe and Leaded Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Pipe, 77

Leaded Joints, 80

Chapter 11 Water Storage Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Pumping Stations, 83

Transformer Stations, 85

Wells, 87

Elevated Tanks, 88Reservoirs and Lakes, 91

Chapter 12 Operating and Maintaining Buildings . . . . . . . . . . 93

Cleaning Windows, 93

Cleaning, Scrubbing, and Waxing Floors, 93

Painting with Brush, 94

Spray Painting, 94

Operating Elevators, 95

Chapter 13 Operating Storerooms and Stockrooms . . . . . . . . . . 96

Good Housekeeping, 96

Proper Storage, 96Safe Handling Practices, 98

Handling Drums, 98

Operating Power Trucks and Forklifts, 98

Chapter 14 Identifying Hazardous Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . 100

The Employees’ Right to Know, 100

Chapter 15 Handling and Storing Chemicals and Administering

First Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Activated Carbon, 102

Alum and Ferrous Sulfate, 104 Anhydrous Ammonia, 107

Ammonium Sulfate, 110

Carbon Dioxide, 110

Chlorine, 111

Fluorides, 120

Lime, 121

Ozone, 122

iv




Potassium Permanganate, 123Soda Ash (Sodium Carbonate), 123Sodium Chlorite, 124

Chapter 16 Procedures for Bacteriological and Chemical

Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

General Laboratory Precautions, 126General Apparatus Precautions, 129Specific Apparatus Precautions, 132Handling Chemical Reagents, 136

Chapter 17 Fire Protection and Handling Emergencies . . . . . . . 139

General Safety Rules, 139Emergency Procedures, 142

Chapter 18 Office Worker Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Appendix A AWWA Award Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Index, 147

v




Introduction

Safety—a condition of being safe; freedom from danger or hazard, or the quality

of being devoid of whatever exposes one to danger or harm.

This manual describes programs, concepts, and ideas to promote safe work

practices or to create the condition of being safe for water utility personnel. It also

provides guidelines for safe work practices and techniques for a variety of water

utility work situations.

Safety is the concern and responsibility of every employee, including managers,

supervisors, and operators. Therefore, this manual is written for all levels of

employees and all sizes of utilities.

Types of SafetyThe three general areas of safety that are of concern to every utility operation

include

• organizational safety—prevention of injury to employees both on and off the job;

• fleet safety—prevention of automobile or equipment accidents; and

• public safety—prevention of injury to the general public.

There is a close relationship and considerable overlap among these three areas

of safety. It is not possible to emphasize occupational safety without concern for

public safety, and the same is true for public and fleet safety. Each of these areas is

equally important in the efficient operation of a water utility and in the projection of

a good image to the public.

Safety in the Industry AWWA has had a national-level safety committee since 1950. Initially, the purpose

of the committee was to “develop an outline of safety measures for water works as

they relate to construction and operation . . . to public and employee safety . . . and

to the activities of men engaged in water distribution, station operation, water

treatment plant control, laboratory operation, and waterhouse and repair shop

operations.”

In 1986, the name of the Accident Prevention Committee was changed to the

Loss Control Committee. In addition, its responsibilities were broadened to include

development of a comprehensive loss-control program for the water utility industry.

The committee is subdivided into three subcommittees: Accident Prevention, Risk

Management, and Health Maintenance. The committees overall program includes

• collecting, analyzing, and reporting statistical data on accidents and theircauses;

• preparing and disseminating safety materials and audiovisual aids;

• developing and conducting training courses for section safety committees,water utilities, and others; and

vii




• organizing other programs and activities to assist water utilities in acci-dent prevention/loss control.

The AWWA safety programs manager serves as secretary to the committee,which includes members from all regions of the United States and Canada.

The original safety committee prepared the first copy of a Water Works Safety

Manual----Safety Practice for Water Utilities in 1956. This revision was prepared by

members of the Accident Prevention Subcommittee.

viii




Chapter 1

AWWA MANUAL

Implementing and

Maintaining a

Safety Program

Every water utility needs a safety program. Naturally, it is easier to secure supportfor and recognize the importance of a formal safety program for larger utilities.Regardless of utility size, safety programs should be organized so that every employee

realizes and accepts personal responsibility for his/her own safety and the safety of fellow workers. In this way, employees are made aware of safety; their thoughts aredirected toward safety; and once this is accomplished, they will work in a safermanner.

The remainder of this chapter outlines and explains the essential parts of a goodsafety program. These parts can be adopted or modified and included or excluded

from an existing safety program, depending on the size and the needs of theorganization.

ORGANIZING A SAFETY PROGRAMWhile safety is everyone’s responsibility, each utility should designate an individual tobe responsible for the safety program. Utilities employing 500 or more people shouldhave a full-time safety officer. Utilities with fewer than 500 employees shoulddesignate someone from middle management, such as the industrial relationsmanager, personnel manager, superintendent, or other responsible person who hassome knowledge of safety procedures and standards, as the staff safety manager. Inthe small utility (under 100 employees), the manager or superintendent may assumethe responsibilities of the safety officer.

Managing a safety program should be a primary part of this individual’s

responsibilities. The safety officer will, in most cases, report to the utility general

1




2 SAFETY PRACTICES FOR WATER UTILITIES

manager or superintendent. The officer’s safety responsibility should be a staff function (that is, the primary mission is to help other supervisors) and not a linefunction (that is, with direct authority over others). In this way, the officer is better

able to investigate accidents and recommend effective safety programs on animpartial basis without reporting to an operating supervisor.

Responsibilities of the Safety ProfessionalFollowing are the general functions and responsibilities that should be assigned to

the safety officer:1. Determining the safety needs of the organization.2. Planning, developing, and recommending safety programs of specific

activities for groups of employees.3. Evaluating the effectiveness of the safety plans and programs.4. Generating safety information and conducting safety meetings with

employees or supervisory groups.5. Assisting the immediate supervisor in investigating accidents to determine

causes and recommend remedial actions.6. Preparing and maintaining records and reports covering all aspects of the

safety program.These duties encompass a magnitude of tasks, especially within a large utility.

The safety officer should also assume responsibility for maintaining management’sinterest in safety, working with and through committees as required, and promoting

the concept that each and every employee has a personal responsibility for safety.

Management’s ResponsibilityManagement must exert the leadership in safety, as in all phases of work. It ismanagement’s responsibility to define a policy conducive to sound safety performance.Management also has the responsibility of taking an active interest in safety bydemonstrating leadership and providing commendation to those who follow throughwith sound safety practices.

Management should realize that a safety program must be managed just likeany other program within the utility. The program should be based on realistic andmeasurable goals and objectives, and timetables should be established to achievethese objectives. It is necessary for management to periodically determine whether ornot the established goals and objectives are being reached. This is done by a review of

the utility’s safety performance measured against specific criteria. This review is nodifferent than looking to determine whether a budget is over or under.

Safety Department’s ResponsibilityWhen an organization is large enough, a separate safety department should becreated in order to conduct a more formal program. Notices circulated by thedepartment should be directed to department managers and not to any specific

employee(s). The safety department’s functions should be to perform an independentreview of employee work practices and then to advise, assist, and counsel; its function

should not be one of control. The functions of a safety program will be discussed indetail in a subsequent part of this chapter.

Supervisor’s Responsibility An employee’s supervisor has a key responsibility in safety. The supervisor sets the

patterns and has direct control over the work of all employees. The supervisor is in a




IMPLEMENTING/MAINTAINING A PROGRAM 3

position to instruct and counsel the employees on safe working habits, to review theirwork for compliance with safety regulations, and to effectively control all aspects of the work. In the small utility, the supervisor must also plan and implement a safetyprogram.

Employee’s ResponsibilityThe employee also shares in the responsibility of safety. His or her responsibility is to

work in conformance with established safety regulations. A careful review of accidentstatistics would indicate a failure on the part of the employee to fulfill his or herresponsibilities. An employee must use the equipment provided and be cognizant of the responsibility to work safely, thereby, protecting himself or herself and fellowemployees.

POLICY STATEMENT One of the first steps in establishing a safety program is to issue a policy statement.This policy statement should be issued by the highest level of management within the

utility. Every organization, regardless of its size, should issue a policy statement. Inthe small utility, it maybe an informal but written statement by the person in charge.This policy defines the manager’s interest in employee welfare as well as in the

efficient operation of the utility. The policy should briefly state the following:1. The organization’s recognition of the need for safety in order to stimulate

efficiency, improve service, build employee morale, and promote better publicrelations.

2. The organization’s interest in the employee—to provide proper equipmentand working conditions, and to promote safety and the expectation that the individualemployee will maintain safe work practices.

3. The fact that the human factor (the unsafe act) rather than the mechanical isthe most significant cause of accidents, thus emphasizing the employee’s respon-

sibility to perform the job safely.4. That an essential part of the supervisor’s job is responsibility for develop-ment of safe work practices and their enforcement.

The safety policy should not be allowed to stagnate. It is important thatmanagement periodically review the policy to ensure that it remains up to date.

Annual review is recommended.

COMMITTEES FOR SAFETY Among the most effective tools for establishing and maintaining an effective safety

program are committees. The committee members are aware of the importance of safety and are constantly reminded of safety matters during the meetings they

attend. Naturally, the committees should operate with the assistance and guidance of the safety professional, but it is important that committee members are able toexpress independent judgments and allowed to make effective recommendations on

various aspects of the program. In the following paragraphs, three different

safety-related committees are described along with their functions andresponsibilities.

Management Committee A management committee appointed by the utility’s chief executive should have fiveor six members, all from the department-director level. There should be




representation from the operating activities area as well as the financial area andcustomer services.

The purpose of this committee is to advise and assist management inimplementing a well-organized safety program and to recommend, as appropriate,

changes in the overall program to improve efficiency and encourage employees toincrease their safety efforts.

In forming a safety committee, the objectives and policies should be put inwriting so that they can be understood by everyone. Functions of this committeeinclude

1. Regularly scheduled meetings—planned and instructive—for passing oninformation to other employees.

2. Action of the committee as a clearinghouse for ideas, activities, andfollow-ups.

3. Investigation of major accidents and causes, and recommendations to preventtheir recurrence.

4. Supervision of safety awards and contests.5. Assistance in establishing safety standards and operating methods.6. Suggestions for a safety education program.7. Inspections and suggestions for specific job practices.

Working Committee A working committee should be appointed by management with a membership of

approximately five individuals from the supervisor level. This committee bringstogether personnel who are exposed daily to work situations and activities whereaccidents happen. The purpose of the working committee is to create interest in safetywithin the work force and to emphasize employee responsibility for the prevention of accidents. In addition, committee members are given the opportunity to discussaccident prevention and safe practices as related to operating policies and methods,resulting in improved cooperation among operating employees. This committee meetsmore frequently than the management committee.

Suggested working committee activities include1. Reporting to the safety committee on unsafe conditions and practices.2. Instructing and warning fellow workers of dangerous practices.

3. Assisting in the investigations of accidents and making recommendations foraccident prevention.

4. Improving a cooperative spirit between employees and management.5. Furnishing an opportunity for workers to take an active interest in the safety

program.

6. Maintaining interest of all employees in the safety program.

Accident Review BoardThe third committee is an accident review board with specialized responsibilities toinvestigate and determine the causes of accidents. In the appointment of an accident

review board, it is essential that individuals with an objective, unbiased approach beselected who will create an atmosphere of equality and fairness between the employeeand the utility.

This board determines the extent of an employee’s responsibility in an accidentand makes effective recommendations to prevent similar accidents. The accidentreview board works primarily in the field of fleet safety—investigating vehicularaccidents. However, in cases of serious occupational injuries, the board can be used todetermine causes and recommend remedial action.




IMPLEMENTING/MAINTAINING A PROGRAM 5

Membership on the accident review board should include individuals from thesupervisory level appointed by management. Representation at the board hearingsshould include the immediate supervisor and his or her superior representing the

employee for whom the accident hearing is being held. Generally the board acts onaccidents in the following categories:

1. Where the employee has had three vehicular or three occupational-injuryaccidents in any 12 consecutive months.

2. Where the employee has had five or more vehicular or five or moreoccupational-injury accidents in any three-year period.

3. Where the employee has been involved in an occupational injury requiring

hospitalization.

4. Where the employee has been charged with negligent collision by the local

police department.

5. Where the employee has been involved in a vehicular accident in which the

monetary damage exceeded $500.The review board uses information from many sources, including police reports,

employee statements, witnesses, and supervisors, and prepares reports of its findingsand recommendations.

It is important that these committees be established, at the direction of

management, with specific functions and a genuine interest in promoting a safe workprogram. A large utility might have several committees, each with specific duties;

smaller utilities could have one committee responsible for the entire safety program.Even in organizations as small as 25 employees, a committee would provide a usefulfunction by drawing attention to and acquiring management’s interests in safety. In

these cases, the superintendent of the water utility may well be the committee chair.



Safety Records,

Statistics, and Reports

The foundation of any safety program consists of records, statistics, and reports. To be

effective, preventive measures must be based on complete and unbiased knowledge of

the accident causes. Regardless of the size of the utility, it is essential that a method

of reporting and recording accidents and injuries be established and maintained.

RECORDS AND REPORTS ___________________________________

Safety records serve two purposes:1. To form the basis for the accident-prevention program itself.

2. To furnish the information needed for preparing and recording compensation

costs.

It is only through these recorded facts that proper investigations can be made,

the types and sources of accidents and injuries recorded, and the causes determined.

From these records, corrective measures should be taken to prevent similar accidents

or injuries in the future.

Employee Record An individual employee’s safety record should be maintained. This can be a simple

card incorporating the employee’s name and date of hire and a chronological listing

showing the date, type of accident, and whether it was the result of an unsafe actand/or condition. An individual record will be used frequently to review an employee’s

accident history. The card can be maintained by the safety officer, and the information

can be extracted from the accident reports.

Occupational-Injury Report All occupational injuries, regardless of their severity, should be reported by an

employee to his or her foreman or supervisor immediately after the incident.

AWWA MANUAL M3

Chapter 2

6




An occupational injury is defined as any personal injury sustained by an employee

during the course of work.

Report forms. The form used for reporting accidents and injuries should be

simple but informative. Enough information should be secured from both the injured

employee and the supervisor to permit proper analysis of the accident, even at a much

later date.

Two types of forms can be used to report personal injuries, depending on theirseriousness. The first form is used for accidents in which the injury does not require

a doctor’s attention but can be handled by first aid at the job site. This form provides

the necessary information in case the injury becomes more serious at a later date

(Figure 2-1). This first-aid form, therefore, provides a record at the time of the

incident so that information is available to prepare a more detailed report. The second

form is more detailed in nature and is used when a doctor’s attention is required

(Figure 2-2).

Reporting the injury. The employee is responsible for reporting an injury,

while the supervisor is responsible for correctly preparing the proper forms. Serious

accidents should be investigated by the safety professional, since the officer will look

for causes frequently overlooked by the supervisor. The safety officer can, during the

course of the investigation, determine corrective actions to be taken.Follow-up investigation. The follow-up investigation provides an excellent

opportunity for the safety professional to speak with the individual employee and

point out causes of the accident and the importance of exercising care and caution.

REPORT OF FIRST-AID INJURY(Occupational Injury)

Employee __________________________________ Employee # ________ Division--Section ________________

Date & Time of Injury ___________________________________ 19 ______ __________________ a.m./p.m.

Nature of Injury _________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

Cause of Injury _________________________________________________________________________________

Action taken to prevent repeat of accident (when applicable) _____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

Remarks (Reviewer) _____________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

Reported by _____________________________________ Reviewed by __________________________________

(Foreman or Supervisor) (Supervisor or Dept. Head)

Figure 2-1 Report form for a not-too-serious injury.

RECORDS, STATISTICS, AND REPORTS 7




SUPERVISOR’S REPORT OF ACCIDENT(Occupational Injury)

Injured Employee __________________________________ Employee # ________ Area ___________________

Date of Accident ___________________ Time ____________ a.m./p.m. Employee’s Occupation _____________

Place of Accident _______________________________________________________________________________

Nature of Injury _________________________________________________________________________________

Name of Doctor _________________________________________________________________________________

Name of Hospital _______________________________________________________________________________

Witnesses (Name and Address) ____________________________________________________________________

(See Reverse Side) ____________________________________________________________________

DESCRIPTION OF ACCIDENT

(See Instructions on Reverse Side)

Information is to be used for preventing similar accidents. Answer questions specifically, not in generalities. Thesafety officer, as required, will conduct independent investigations of accidents.

1. What job was employee doing? _______________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What tools, materials, and/or equipment were being used? _________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

3. What specific action caused the accident? ______________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

4. How did the employee contribute to the accident? ________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Were the proper safety protection devices being used? ____________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

6. What materials, tools, etc. were defective or in unsafe condition? How? _______________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

7. What work methods or acts caused the accident? ________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

8. What safeguards should have been used? ______________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

9. What steps will you take to prevent similar injuries? _______________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

10. What other steps should be taken to prevent a recurrence? ________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

11. Did you see the accident? [ ] Yes [ ] No

Date of report __________________________ ______________________________________________________ Foreman or Immediate Supervisor

REVIEWING AUTHORITY

COMMENTS: (Did you investigate the accident? [ ] Yes [ ] No) COMMENTS:

Division Supervisor Date Department Director Date

(form continues on next page)

Figure 2-2 Report form used when a doctor will be involved.





INSTRUCTIONS

This report is to be completed on all injuries occurring on the job that required treatment by a doctor. The immediatesupervisor or foreman of the injured employee should investigate the accident thoroughly, then complete this report

in detail. The completed report (original and one copy) should be forwarded to the safety officer not later than theday following the accident. Reports with incomplete information will be returned.

The names of ALL witnesses to the accident should be listed. Should a lawsuit result from the injuries, thesepersons’ statements would be important.

In completing the report, the “Description of Accident” portion should be specific and not generalized statements. Forexample:

QUESTION 1: Describe exactly what job the injured employee was doing, such as “Employee was loading waterpump onto truck.”

QUESTION 2: Describe what tools, materials, or equipment were being used to accomplish work assignment.

QUESTION 3: Describe what specific action caused the accident, such as “Employee slipped and water pump hithis side.”

QUESTION 4: Describe what act the employee did or did not do that caused the injury, such as “Employee wasnot using hand crane to load pump.”

QUESTION 5: State what safety protection devices were provided and if they were being used.

QUESTION 6: Describe any defects in equipment, materials, or tools and other unsafe conditions that existedat job site.

QUESTION 7: Describe what was wrong with work methods being used or other acts that caused the accident,such as “The hand crane is provided to load and unload heavy items from the truck. Employee wasin a hurry and did not use the crane.”

QUESTION 8: State what safeguards were being used and what safeguards should have been used.

QUESTION 9: State what steps you will take to prevent similar injuries, such as “Accident was discussed withcrew at weekly safety tailgate meeting.”

QUESTION 10: State what else should be done to prevent recurrence, such as “Foreman or helper should checkloading and unloading of equipment to ensure that safe procedures are followed.”

QUESTION 11: Check if you did or did not actually see the accident.

FOR SAFETY DEPARTMENT USE

Date Investigated ____________________________ By _______________________________________________ Signature

Remarks Concerning Investigation __________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

Age of Injured ______________ Length of Service _____________________

Figure 2-2 Report form used when a doctor will be involved (continued).





In addition, the safety officer can speak with the supervisors, making them aware of

the need to provide training and advice to their employees on safe working habits.

In addition, the fact that an independent investigation will be made of the

accident will cause the supervisor to prepare more accurate accident reports. It is

natural for supervisors to prepare their reports so as to de-emphasize the causes of

the accidents, particularly when the supervisors themselves may be at fault. It should

be emphasized that the purpose of the reports and the supplemental investigations isnot to embarrass the supervisor or employee for errors or failure to do things right; it

is to determine ways of preventing similar accidents.

Vehicle Accident Report Vehicle accident reports should be simple. They should provide an accurate

description of the accident so that causes can be determined. The report form should

be prepared by the employee involved in the accident and should include diagrams of

the street situation, including accurate description of how the accident occurred. The

accident report should be reviewed and signed by the employee’s supervisors,

ensuring that the preparation is complete and accurate (Figure 2-3).

Once again, the safety officer can conduct a separate investigation, where

practical, at the scene of the accident. Reports from the local police department canalso be used to provide information. It is advisable to have employees operating utility

vehicles call the police after all accidents.

Analysis. The causes of vehicular accidents should be carefully analyzed. The

primary determination to be made on individual vehicular accidents is the

preventability of the accident. In other words, could the operator have prevented the

accident by taking proper precautionary measures?

It is here that defensive driving comes into play. Defensive driving is becoming

a recognized technique for operating fleets of vehicles and has received nationwide

attention during the past several years. Defensive driving places emphasis on the

development and use of correct observational habits, in addition to correct mechanical

operation of the vehicle and observation of traffic laws. The driver should take

necessary precautionary steps while driving, anticipate actions of other drivers, andreact to prevent accidents. In summary, the vehicle should be operated in a defensive

manner.

Public Injury ReportIt is very important that detailed reports be prepared whenever a person not

employed by the utility is injured during utility activities. An immediate and detailed

investigation at the time of the incident will provide valuable information should the

injured individual subsequently claim damages against the utility. The employees

should make notes of the accident on their work orders or other reporting forms,

including names of those involved and description of the accident. Water utilities are

frequently subjected to claims for personal injury or property damage on the part of

the general public. The more accurate the information and the sooner it is recorded,the better able the utility will be to determine the fairness of the claim.

Analysis. Proper analyses must be made of all accidents that involve the

general public. In these instances, accident statistics are not significant; however,

proper feedback from employees involved to the supervisor is important. Corrective

actions can be taken to protect the public properly.





CITY WATER BOARDVEHICLE OR EQUIPMENT ACCIDENT OR DAMAGE REPORT

Date of This Report ___________________ Time of Accident or Damage: Date ____________________ Day of Week ___________________ Time __________ a.m./p.m.

Reported to Equipment Supervisor: Date _________________________________ Time ____________ a.m./p.m.

Reported to Insurance Company: Date __________________________________ Time ____________ a.m./p.m.

Equipment # __________________ Lics. # _____________________ Make & Model _______________________

VEHICLE #1 Driver _____________________________________ Department __________________________

Division __________________________ Immediate Supervisor ____________________________

Approx. Speed Before Accident __________________________ Speed Limit ________________

Damage to Vehicle _______________________________ Approx. Cost $ __________________

Disposition of Vehicle ______________________________________________________________ Passengers in Vehicle ______________________________________________________________

VEHICLE #2 Make & Model _____________________________________ Lics. # _______________________

Driver ____________________________________________________ Approx. Age ___________

Address _________________________________________ Phone No. _____________________

Occupation _____________________________ Employer ________________________________

Approx. Speed Before Accident ___________________________ Speed Limit _______________

Damage to Vehicle ________________________________ Approx. Cost $ _________________

Disposition of Vehicle ______________________________________________________________

Passengers in Vehicle ______________________________________________________________

Insurance Company ________________________________________________________________

OTHER VEHICLEINVOLVED? ________________________________________________________________________________

DAMAGE TO C.W.B. PROPERTY __________________________________________________________________ (other than vehicle)

_________________________________________________________________

DAMAGE TO OTHER PROPERTY _________________________________________________________________ (other than vehicle)

_________________________________________________________________

INJURED: Name & Address _____________________________________________________________________

[ ] Driver [ ] Passenger [ ] Pedestrian

Type of Injury ________________________________________________________________________________

Disposition of Injured Person ______________________________________________________________________

WITNESSES: Name & Address _______________________________________ Phone No. _________________

WITNESSES: Name & Address _______________________________________ Phone No. _________________

Police Investigation: [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Police Report Attached

(form continues on next page)

Figure 2-3 Typical vehicle accident report form.





Road: Light Conditions: Traffic Control: Road Character:

[ ] Gravel [ ] Daylight [ ] Signal Lights [ ] Straight

[ ] Paved [ ] Dawn [ ] Stop Signs [ ] Curve

[ ] Wet [ ] Darkness [ ] Yield Signs [ ] Level

[ ] Dry [ ] Dusk [ ] Unmarked [ ] Hillcrest

Describe fully what happened (refer to vehicles by number). _____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

Driver __________________________________________________________________

Supervisor ______________________________________________________________

Department Director _______________________________________________________

Figure 2-3 Typical vehicle accident report form (continued).





USE OF STATISTICS AND REPORTS __________________________The importance of creating adequate reports after every accident or injury has

previously been emphasized. Equally important is the use of these reports to prepare

statistics, which are used to advise management, supervision, and the work force

about the type and cause of occupational injuries and vehicular accidents. These

statistics and reports should be used to identify the types of accidents that arehappening and the corrective actions to be taken to prevent their recurrence. There is

little value in having a drawer full of reports and statistics that are never seen by the

work force.

Report AnalysesThe safety officer should analyze each accident report and classify it using a

systematic method. When working with occupational injuries, they should be broken

down as to type, source, and cause.

Type refers to the kind of injury involved and usually falls into one of the

following classes:

• cuts, bruises, contusions, and lacerations;

• sprains----strains;

• fractures----bones (broken);

• burns;

• bites;

• infections;

• eye injuries; and

• miscellaneous.

Source refers to those actions or objects usually leading to the accident,

including the following:

•

handling objects;• falling objects;

• falls;

• stepping on or striking objects;

• machinery;

• heat (fire, steam, etc.); and

• other.

Cause refers to the action, the lack of action, or the defect that led to the

accident (these do not necessarily involve human injury). Usually causes can be

divided into the following three groups:

• Unsafe acts----not using accepted safe procedures (operating or working at unsafespeeds, working in incorrect or unsafe positions, using unsafe equipment, failing

to wear proper protective equipment, horseplay, distraction);

• Unsafe personal factors----mental or physical characteristics (improper attitude,

indifference, overconfidence, anger, disregard of instructions, lack of knowledge





or skill, inexperience, disregard for danger, fatigue, nervousness, intoxication);

and

• Unsafe mechanical or physical conditions (improperly guarded equipment;

defects in tools and equipment; unsafe work areas or conditions; bad housekeep-

ing; hazardous arrangements of tools and equipment; improper dress; unsafe

mechanical or physical conditions; unsafe use of machines, materials, or tools).

In analyzing a specific accident, determine the type of injury, source of injury,

and cause of injury. Frequently, substantial overlap among the three categories

outlined will occur. Generally, accidents are caused by human error.

Frequency of ReportsReports should be published frequently and systematically. A quarterly report

covering both occupational and fleet safety statistics is beneficial. These reports

should be cumulative during the year and should be distributed as soon as possible

after the completion of each quarter. Data for the calendar year to date as well as the

year preceding each report will provide comparative information on the status of the

safety program. The reports can include the following data:

1. Direct medical costs.2. Indirect costs (computed at one to five times the direct costs to include

services, supervisory costs, claim settlements, lost time, and reduced efficiency).

3. Total costs, which include direct and indirect costs.

4. Number of lost-time injuries.

5. Number of injuries requiring medical attention.

6. Number of injuries or incidents requiring first aid.

7. Number of lost-time days.

The statistics can be divided according to the organizational structure of the

utility, including the names of the supervisors. The departments can then be arranged

in descending order from those having the highest cost of injuries to those with the

lowest.

Additional data that can be included in the report are the name of the injured

employee, medical costs, type of injury, and the name of the foreman involved.

Quarterly reports on vehicle accidents should include a comparison between the

current and the previous year. The statistics should include the number of

preventable, nonpreventable, and total accidents by department. Reports should be

circulated to management and the entire supervisory force, including general

foremen. In addition, the reports can be used at monthly safety meetings.

Smaller utilities may not have sufficient data to publish reports as frequently as

every three months; other techniques can be used to bring the information to the

attention of the employee group. Even oral communication will serve a valuable

purpose.

MEASURING SAFETY _______________________________________ A guide to properly and uniformly established methods of interpreting injuries has

been used throughout the safety industry for many years. This guide, developed by

the American National Standards Institute (ANSI),* is titled ‘‘Method of Recording

and Measuring Work Injury Experience.’’ The first edition of the guide (ANSI

Standard Z16.1) was approved and published in 1937; the last revision was approved


*American National Standards Institute, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018.




Dec. 27, 1969. In 1973, it was reaffirmed without revision. It was withdrawn in 1989,

but is still widely used.

With the advent of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

and the development of recordkeeping requirements for those organizations under the

jurisdiction of federal or state OSHA regulations, the ANSI Z16 committee began

work to develop an American National Standard that would be compatible with the

Z16.1 standard and the OSHA system. In 1977, ANSI Z16.4, titled “UniformRecordkeeping for Occupational Injuries and Illnesses,” was approved. This standard

was also withdrawn in 1989 but is still widely used.

A majority of US water utilities are not required to abide by the OSHA

recordkeeping requirements, because they are municipally owned and located in a

state not operating under an OSHA plan. However, AWWA has decided to use the

OSHA recordkeeping format for utility statistics. This is done to maintain uniformity

with those utilities and other organizations, such as the National Safety Council, that

must keep records.

Every water utility should have the Z16.1 or Z16.4 standard available and make

use of it, since it provides validity to our industry’s safety statistics. It also makes

possible comparison of the water utility’s safety record with that of any other

organization in the United States. Use of this guide will assist the safety officer or theutility manager in determining the effectiveness of the safety program, the need for

increased emphasis on safety, and the progress made toward reducing accidents.

Measuring Program EffectivenessThe effectiveness of a safety program can be easily measured using three uniformly

applied statistics: the OSHA incidence rate, the disabling-injury frequency rate, and

the disabling-injury severity rate. OSHA’s incidence rate is based on the number of

injuries that require more than first aid per 200,000 hours worked. Simply defined,

the frequency rate is the number of lost-time accidents per million employee-hours

worked; the severity rate is the number of days lost or charged per million

employee-hours worked.

Incidence rate. The OSHA incidence rate uses the following formula todetermine the lost-time workday cases incidence rate:

number of recordable injuries (or lost-time workday cases) × 200,000————————————————————————————————————

total hours worked

= OSHA incidence rate

Disabling-injury frequency rate. A disabling injury includes death and

permanent-total, permanent-partial, and temporary-total disability. The rate can be

calculated for any period of time, but most frequently it is computed on an annual

basis. It is calculated by multiplying the number of disabling injuries by 1 million and

dividing by the total number of employee-hours worked for the period. For example, a

water utility employs 65 people who worked 2080 hours a year for a total of 135,200hours. The organization had two lost-time injuries. Therefore, the injury frequency

rate is calculated as follows: (2 × 1,000,000) ÷ 135,200 = 14.79 lost-time accidents

per million hours.

Disabling-injury severity rate. The disabling-injury severity rate is calcu-

lated by multiplying the number of lost-time days by 1 million and dividing by the

total number of employee-hours worked. For example, let’s assume the number of

lost-time days for the two injuries used in the previous example was 30. Therefore,





the disabling-injury severity rate is calculated as follows: (30 × 1,000,000) ÷

135,200 = 222 days lost per million hours.

ANSI Z16.1 clearly defines what constitutes disabling injuries. The standard

also establishes arbitrary numbers of days to be charged for certain serious injuries,

including loss of fingers, thumbs, hands, toes, arms, legs, eyes, and other body parts.

COSTS OF ACCIDENTS _____________________________________Proper analysis of the costs of all accidents will make supervision and management

aware of the value of an effective safety program. The direct costs of occupational

injuries include the medical expenses paid and compensation for time not worked.

These direct costs, however, are a small part of the expenses involved. The indirect

costs will generally exceed the direct costs by a very substantial amount. The items

that can be easily overlooked but are involved in indirect costs include

1. Lost time of fellow employees who stop work to aid injured, to express

sympathy for injured or deceased, or for other reasons.

2. Time of foreman, supervisor, or others in assisting injured, investigating the

accident, arranging for continued work, arranging for new employees, and making

reports.3. Lost production.

4. Damage to machinery, equipment, and materials.

5. Unfinished or spoiled product or materials.

6. Lessened effectiveness of employee after returning to work.

7. Loss of business, goodwill, or favorable public relations.

8. Legal fees, court costs, and settlements.

9. Reduced employee morale.

As previously indicated, the indirect costs are those that are not fully apparent

or appreciated by supervision or management, but they do substantially increase

operating costs.





Safety Programs

The backbone of any safety program is safety education and training. In fact,

practically all phases of a safety program involve safety education or training.

Regardless of utility size, some form of safety education and training is needed.

EDUCATION AND TRAINING________________________________Safety education and training brings the importance of safety to the employee’s

attention and constantly reminds the employee of that importance. An education and

training program should provide something of interest and value for all levels of

employees, and it should be continually planned and promoted. It is through constant

education and training, both formal and informal, that safety becomes meaningful

and real within the organization.

Job Safety Analysis A job safety analysis (JSA) breaks down a task into basic steps. This is done in order

to review what hazards may be associated with the task and to determine the proper

method of safely accomplishing the task (Figure 3-1).

This procedure should be used for tasks that have high injury potential,

historically have high injuries, or for tasks that are critical to an operation. An

established JSA can be used as a training tool to ensure tasks are done properly and

safely.

Safety Manual A safety manual is an effective educational tool that includes policies, practices, and

rules regarding safety that have been established within a utility. Sufficient

information should be included in the manual to guide and assist the working

supervisor. The supervisor should explain the manual and see that employees read it,

understand it, and use it. Employees can be required to sign a document stating that

they have, in fact, read the rules stated within the manual and understand them.

Written or oral exams to determine the employee’s knowledge could be made part of

the program. A letter from the general manager or water superintendent may be

AWWA MANUAL M3

Chapter 3

17




JOB ANALYSIS

Department __________________________________ Effective Date _________________________________

Section ______________________________________

Job Analyzed _________________________________ Code No. ____________________________________

WHAT TO DO HOW TO DO IT PROBLEMS AVOIDED

Prepared by ___________________________________ Reviewed by ________________________________

Figure 3-1 Sample job safety analysis.





included in the manual as an introduction. This letter should express the manager’s

interest in the program and the benefits to be derived from safe work practices.

It is the safety officer’s responsibility to publish and maintain a manual that is

widely circulated among supervisors and employees. The safety manual should be

periodically reviewed and updated. New processes, facilities, and changing rules and

regulations will require the safety officer or a designated individual(s) to ensure the

manual is up to date and accurate.Topics in a safety manual can include

• safety policy;

• enforcement of safety regulations and corrective discipline;

• worker’s compensation;

• general safety regulations;

• occupational-accident and injury reporting procedures;

• safety committees;

• monthly safety meetings;

• weekly safety meetings;

• general----safe working practices;

• specific----safe working practices;

• fire prevention; and

• first aid.

There are many excellent publications available from the National Safety

Council, AWWA, and other groups that smaller utilities can use for their safety

manual. The publications incorporate valuable general information and, in many

cases, specific data that can be used to solve day-to-day problems.

Meetings

Safety meetings are an excellent method of systematically providing employees withinformation and data about the utility’s safety program. Meetings improve

communications between the safety division and supervisory personnel responsible

for safe operating conditions. They create an interest in safety and provide the

opportunity to discuss safe work practices, discuss accident prevention, clarify safety

responsibilities, report safety statistics, and consider related matters. Outside

speakers, such as the utility doctor or manufacturer’s representatives, are informa-

tive providing their topics have specific application to the work. Participation at

safety meetings by top management is an excellent way to show the commitment that

they have for the safety program. Top management should attend safety meetings

once or twice a year----more frequent attendance is recommended.

Meetings should be conducted regularly by the safety officer or supervisor and

should include supervisors and employees from departments subject to hazardous

working conditions. Small utilities can conduct safety meetings even if the meeting is

simply an informal gathering at the close of the workday.

Safety TalksThe ‘‘safety talk,’’ a short, informal meeting (five minutes or so) conducted by the

first-line supervisor--foreman at the work site, is an excellent way to maintain

employee interest in the safety program. Such talks provide an orderly method of

communication between the workers and the foreman. It provides an opportunity to

SAFETY PROGRAMS 19




instruct the workers in safe work attitudes and methods and trains employees to be

safe workers.

Topics for safety meetings are published annually by AWWA. The book of topics

contains 52 safety talks, so that a different talk can be used each week. The person

giving the safety talk should do the following:

1. Schedule the meeting far enough in advance so that there is sufficient time to

become familiar with the subject. Present the subject in his or her own words withoutreading the entire text.

2. Hold the meeting in a suitable spot in the shop or field, whichever is most

convenient.

3. Keep the meeting short, normally five minutes, so seating is not absolutely

necessary.

4. Be sure that employees can see and hear the speaker.

5. Try to hold the meeting immediately before or after the noon hour when work

will not be interrupted and the area is relatively quiet.

6. Avoid distractions so employees will derive full benefit from the presentation.

7. Prior to the meeting, gather posters and hand out literature and other

material intended for use at the meetings.

8. Whenever possible, use actual equipment to illustrate points. For example,use mushroomed tool heads or broken hammer handles to illustrate how they can

cause accidents. Proper use of equipment may be illustrated with fire extinguishers,

protective clothing, and goggles.

9. Document the meeting. The subject discussed should be noted and keep a file

of those in attendance.

Safety PostersSafety posters are used to remind employees of the importance of safe work habits.

Each year, the AWWA Accident Prevention Subcommittee selects twelve 81 ⁄ 2-

× 11-in. posters that are most applicable to the water utility industry. The posters are

selected from entries to the annual AWWA Safety Poster Contest. Posters should be

placed on bulletin boards or at other specified spots where employees will observethem during work hours. They should be changed frequently to create attention

among employees. The number of locations where poster displays are desired should

be counted. The required number of sets can be ordered from AWWA so that each

month the same poster can be displayed at all locations.

INSPECTIONS______________________________________________ Any successful safety program includes planned inspections. These are conducted to

help management identify unsafe conditions, unsafe work practices, and to ensure the

workplace is being properly maintained. Inspections are also conducted for reasons

other than those mentioned above. Laws may require inspection of certain equipment

or activities, and manufacturers’ standards may require inspections of specific

equipment.

Establishing a ProgramTo establish an inspection program, it is necessary to first determine what needs to be

inspected. This requires a review of laws regulating water utilities, as well as

management’s desire to maintain equipment and facilities. The items discussed

throughout this manual should be considered when determining what should be

inspected, including fire-fighting equipment, motor vehicles, heavy equipment,





personal protective equipment, housekeeping procedures, and work site conditions.

Checklists, like the one shown in Figure 3-2, should then be developed to assist the

inspector in assuring that the inspection is conducted efficiently and effectively.

Determining who will perform the inspection and when the inspection will be

made will depend on the laws currently in place. Management’s control of and

commitment to the safety program will also affect this determination.

The first-line supervisor plays a key role in the inspection program because heor she generally has the authority to take corrective actions when problems are

uncovered. Of course, other individuals may be involved in safety inspections,

including management who can show its commitment to safety by conducting periodic

inspections. Additionally, the safety officer should conduct periodic inspections to

ensure the safety program is being implemented. The safety committee can also

inspect as part of its responsibility.

Inspection GuidelinesRegardless of who inspects, the following guidelines will make the inspection program

effective:

1. Use a checklist; it provides for more efficient and effective inspections.

2. Take immediate action on unsafe conditions or practices if possible.3. Put findings in writing.

4. Ensure there is a follow-up system for those items that cannot be corrected

immediately.

EMPLOYEE RECOGNITION __________________________________ A safety program should provide ways of recognizing employees or groups of

employees who establish good safety records. Employee recognition is as important as

employee education, because it draws attention to and provides incentives for the

safety program.

Individual RecognitionThere are many ways of providing individual recognition, including annual awards

and publicity in employee newspapers. An annual award program for employees in

the more hazardous occupations is very effective.

Annual Awards. An annual award program creates increased employee

interest in personal safety records. Awards can be given to employees with five years

or more of service without an occupational injury requiring medical attention

(services of the utility doctor) or without a chargeable/preventable vehicular accident.

The award used can be a variety of items, from coffee mugs to cash. The point is

the fact that the employee is being recognized for safety performance.

The costs of such a program are small when the results are measured. It

encourages employee interest, arouses competitive spirit among employees, and

reduces medical costs.

Organizational RecognitionOrganization recognition is awarded to an entire utility or a section of a utility that

has established an excellent safety record. Organizational awards are given by

AWWA, the National Safety Council, and state or provincial safety organizations.

Management should ensure that receipt of such an award receives publicity

through the local newspapers and the utility’s governing body (for example, city

council, board of trustees). Such publicity should make all employees feel that they

SAFETY PROGRAMS 21




District __________________________________________

JOB SITE INSPECTION REPORT

Location _____________________________ Foreman ___________________________ Date _______________

Description of Work: Main Installation, Leak, Service Repair Installation, Paving, Other ________________________

Condition and protection satisfactory? Yes No NA* Remarks

Equipment

Truck [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Dump truck [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Backhoe [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

End loader [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Compressor [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Tamper [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Other [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Excavation

Shoring (over five) necessary [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________ Spoil dirt (two feet) back from edge, excavations under five feet [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Ladder, excavations over four feet [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Traffic Control

Barricades [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Cones [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Lights (flasher) [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Flagperson or swamper [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Other [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Public Safety

Walkways, clear [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Material stockpile [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________ Signs [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Other [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Housekeeping

Job site [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Personal Protection

Hard hats [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Eye protection [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Foot protection [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Ear protection [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Rainwear [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Gloves [ ] [ ] [ ] ________________________

Comments: ____________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

*NA = Not applicable. Inspector _________________________________________

NOTE: Copy of completed report shall be sent to district manager, district risk manager, and division riskmanagement director.

Figure 3-2 Job-site inspection checklist.





Figure 3-3 Employee safety suggestion card.

SAFETY PROGRAMS 23




had a part in earning the award. Emphasis should be placed on the fact that each and

every employee had an important part in establishing the record that earned the

award.

MISCELLANEOUS PROGRAMS ______________________________

Two popular safety programs that can be instituted in any utility are a safetynewsletter and a safety suggestion program. These programs are discussed briefly in

the following paragraphs.

Safety Newsletter A safety newsletter prepared and published by the safety officer is an effective

method of communication. The format should be simple and incorporate items of

interest to the employees. It should be published regularly (monthly or bimonthly)

and distributed to all employees. The current safety record indicating the period of

time since the last lost-time injury can be highlighted as well as recognition of

individuals who receive awards or make contributions to the field of safety. Home

safety tips can also be included as a way to encourage interest in the publication by

the employees’ families.

Safety Suggestions Another program to encourage employee participation in safety is a suggestion

program, which generates employee suggestions on ways to prevent accidents, reduce

injuries to employees, and avoid damage to equipment. To be effective, a suggestion

program must be objectively administered by a group of employees with diversified

knowledge of the day-to-day operations. The program can be defined in a simple

booklet distributed to all employees. The booklet should include the following:

• objective of the program,

• persons eligible to participate,

• limitations of suggestion guidelines, and• operation of the suggestion system.

Suggestion boxes can be located at strategic points throughout the utility, with

forms available for the employees to submit their suggestions (Figure 3-3 A and B).

Suggestions should be judged monthly, with a monthly award given for the best

suggestion. The individual receiving the monthly award should also receive a letter of

commendation from the utility manager. The employee’s name and details of the

suggestion can be published in the safety newsletter. The best annual safety

suggestion can also be determined, with an appropriate award to the employee.

To ensure continued participation in the suggestion program, it is essential that

all suggestions submitted in good faith be acknowledged regardless of whether or not

they were selected for an award. If a suggestion cannot be implemented, the employee

should be provided with an explanation. This feedback lets the employee know thathis or her suggestion was given consideration and that management is not just giving

lip service to the program.





Safety and

the Employee

Employees are a water utility’s number one asset. The following discussion is geared

toward ensuring the employee is able to perform his or her job safely.

DEVELOPING A SAFE WORK ATTITUDE

IN THE NEW EMPLOYEE ___________________________________

Much of what has been discussed up to this point has centered around the methods of

implementing a safe work attitude into the existing work force. It is equally

important that new employees be properly selected and that safe work attitudes be

emphasized during orientation and on-the-job training. Frequently, serious accidents

occur during the first few weeks of employment because new employees are anxious

to demonstrate their interest and desire to work hard. This very desire can lead to

unfortunate accidents unless the employees are properly counseled on the dangers

inherent in their work and the proper methods of working safely.

Steps Prior to EmploymentTwo important preplacement checks are an examination of the individual’s prior work

history and a preplacement physical exam by a qualified physician. These steps

should be taken prior to hiring, while determining the qualifications of the

prospective employee.

Prior experience in doing the type of work for which the individual is to be

employed is also important. A satisfactory work record for construction work indicates

physical stamina and the ability to handle hard physical labor. It is only logical to

employ an individual with a good work record in the type of work that is required.

If an individual will be required to drive utility vehicles, the person’s driving

record becomes an important issue. Motor vehicle records (MVRs) can usually be

obtained from local police departments or motor vehicle departments. Individuals

AWWA MANUAL M3

Chapter 4

25




driving vehicles of a gross vehicle weight exceeding specific limits may be required to

follow specific licensing requirements.

A preplacement physical exam should be used to determine physical qualifica-

tions of the prospective employee for the type of work to be performed. The doctor

performing the examination should have a signed statement of the applicant’s

physical record (Figure 4-1). This provides the doctor with advance knowledge of

special conditions to be checked. The doctor should be familiar with the utility andthe type of work that the prospective employee will be performing. After the

examination, the doctor should recommend or disapprove employment of the

applicant on a physical or medical basis.

Many utilities have expanded the preplacement physical examination to include

audiometric testing, which provides a record on file of the worker’s hearing ability at

the time of hiring. This could be of value at a later date for comparison purposes in

the event of a claim of hearing loss.

Orientation of the New EmployeeOnce an individual is hired by a utility, the new employee should be notified of the

utility’s safety policies and practices. The safety officer should talk with the new

employee even before he or she reports to the work area. The discussion shouldinclude safety policy, safety records, importance of accident reporting, and other

specific phases of safety. This orientation is particularly important for new employees

in construction work. In addition, the new employee gets a good impression of the

utility.

The employee’s immediate supervisor has a very important responsibility, that

is, the proper orientation to the specific working conditions of the job. All safety

requirements should be emphasized, including requirements for the equipment that

will be used. This should be done before the employee starts work.

With both the safety officer and the supervisor emphasizing the importance of

safety, the new employee will start work with a knowledge of the dangers involved in

the job and a proper attitude toward the utility.

During the first months of employment, additional time should be spent with anew employee to continue training in safe work habits. The supervisor should not

assume that the individual will automatically know the safe method; instruction will

be required for each new task that is assigned. Proper instruction and training before

the work is started will prevent many accidents.

The foreman should consider any person recently employed or transferred as a

new employee. The following steps should be taken:

1. Instruct the employee thoroughly about the job.

2. Inform the employee about plant safety requirements, proper clothing, safety

goggles, and other important items.

3. Initially, place the employee under the charge of a safety-minded employee

for instructions; give the employee an opportunity to adjust to safe work procedures.

4. Check to determine if the employee is doing the job safely.5. Reinstruct, if necessary.

WHEN ACCIDENTS HAPPEN ________________________________Despite the best safety program possible, accidents will happen, and the foremen and

supervisors should be trained to handle the situation. Every organization should have

a defined method of handling accidents, including predetermined instructions to the

foreman.





MEDICAL REPORT

Name of applicant __________________________________________________ Marital status ______________

Position applied for _________________________________________________ Requires X ray [ ] Yes [ ] No

CLINICAL HISTORY

Have you ever had or been told you had:Yes No Yes No

Epilepsy, convulsions, mental or nervous A back injury or other injurybreakdown, or other nervous disease? [ ] [ ] or deformity? [ ] [ ]

Any disease of the heart, high blood A hernia or rupture? [ ] [ ]pressure, shortness of breath, varicoseveins? [ ] [ ] A surgical operation? [ ] [ ]

Any disease of the lungs, including Have you ever been confined to atuberculosis? [ ] [ ] hospital or sanatorium? [ ] [ ]

Rheumatism, arthritis, neuritis, or Have you ever received workmen’sany disease of bones, joints, or muscles? [ ] [ ] compensation benefits? [ ] [ ]

Asthma, hay fever, anemia, low blood Have you had any diseases otherpressure? [ ] [ ] than those listed? [ ] [ ]

Have you any physical or nervous __________________________________________ condition that you think shouldbe considered in placing you? [ ] [ ] __________________________________________

Remarks: ______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

I warrant the above statements to be true as a basis for my application. False statements knowingly made arecause for discharge during or after probation.

Date ______________________ Signature of applicant ______________________________________________

REPORT OF PHYSICAL EXAMINATION(For use of examining physician)

I certify that I have carefully examined the above applicant covered by this medical report and find that the physicalcondition is as follows:

1. General appearance ________________________ 2. Height ____________ 3. Weight ____________

4. Heart ____________________________________ 5. Blood pressure ____________________________

6. Lungs ___________________________________ 7. Urinary findings ____________________________

8. Eyes ____________________________________ 9. Ears_____________________________________

10. Teeth____________________________________ 11. Feet_____________________________________

12. Hernia ___________________________________ 13. Skin disease ______________________________

14. Bone or joint disorders ______________________ 15. X ray ____________________________________

Recommendations and remarks:____________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

Date __________________________ Examining physician ___________________________________________

Figure 4-1 Medical history form.

SAFETY AND THE EMPLOYEE 27




Proper Medical CareThe first concern after an accident occurs is the injured employee. First aid should be

available at the job site, but discretion must be exercised when applying it. An injured

employee should be given first aid, but the individual should not be moved

unnecessarily if there is any indication of serious injury, particularly broken bones or

back injuries. If necessary, assistance should be called to the scene of the accident. If the individual can be moved, he or she should be taken to a medical facility as soon

as possible.

Accident CauseOnce the employee is under competent medical care, the foreman should investigate

the causes of the accident. It is important to investigate immediately, specifics of the

accident are more easily remembered. Immediate notification of the safety officer will

facilitate the investigation and the quick access to proper medical assistance. Since

many vehicles are now equipped with radio communication, the foreman should be

instructed to contact the dispatcher in case of serious injuries. The dispatcher can

secure quick ambulance services if required and can advise the safety officer of the

accident.

Duty StatusWhen an injured employee requires medical care, it is then necessary to determine

the employee’s duty status. This responsibility rests with the doctor treating the

individual. Many injured employees may not be able to return to their regular work

immediately but are physically able to perform less-demanding duties. The

designation ‘‘light duty’’ or ‘‘restricted work’’ is frequently used for the work status of

injured employees not able to perform their regular duties. The company doctor

should define the type of work an injured employee can do and list what restrictions

the injured worker has.

Psychologically it is better for the injured employee to be on light-duty status

than to be completely relieved of duty. This justifies continuing full wages and allowsthe employee to function productively. An organization that properly considers the

injured employee’s welfare will have a higher level of employee morale. Serious

injuries can result in low morale among employees if the utility neglects to provide

proper assistance to the injured employee and family.

Rehabilitation of the Injured WorkerIn cases of serious injury, the employee may be permanently disabled or injured and

unable to return to regular duties. The utility’s insurance generally handles the

rehabilitation of these employees. It should provide training, if necessary, so that the

individual can fit into a job commensurate with his or her physical abilities. The

injured employee should feel that the work being done is productive and within his or

her qualifications, experience, and physical abilities. Continuing the employment of the seriously injured, but rehabilitated, employee is beneficial, since other employees

recognize the organization’s interest in the injured person.

INSURANCE AND COMPENSATION__________________________It is essential (and required by law) that some form of protection, be it insurance or

worker’s compensation, be provided for the employee and the organization in case of





a serious accident. Such programs protect the employee and the organization from

undue financial expenses.

Occupational Injuries—Worker’s CompensationWithin the United States, each state has worker’s compensation laws. This legislation

assumes that no one intentionally causes accidents. It provides a planned method to

ease the burden on the injured employee. All work-related injuries are considered

compensable, and the employer is charged with the responsibility for compensation to

the employee. Each utility should be familiar with the applicable state laws and the

protection provided the worker and the utility.

Insurance for Vehicular AccidentsThe employee and the utility also require protection when an employee is involved in

an accident while operating a utility vehicle. Fleet insurance, which is provided by

many insurance companies, provides the necessary protection, particularly if personal

injury occurs. The insurance company handles the accident investigation, as well as

any litigation that might result from claims of the injured parties. In the case of a

serious accident, it is always possible for the driver, as well as the utility, to be sued.

Unless both are protected, undue hardship in the form of legal fees and settlements

could result.

SAFETY AND THE EMPLOYEE 29




Chapter 5

AWWA MANUAL

General Safety Practices

and Equipment

experience, and alertness of the workers. An undefined work procedure, in which theemployee is free to choose the work procedures, will certainly result in confusion andan increase in injuries. Safe work procedures for all jobs should be established and

Although most utility workers agree that the right way to do a job is the safe way,they do not agree on what constitutes the latter. It must be admitted that most jobscan be done safely in more than one way, depending on such factors as competence,

standardized if the maximum benefits from an injury-prevention program are to beattained. Standardization of safe work procedures together with adequate training and teaching programs—the proven way to reduce injuries—are the basic require-ments for safety.

The safety practices discussed in this chapter and following chapters were

prepared by experienced waterworks safety directors, laboratory technicians, super-intendents, and engineers. Although it is hoped that the procedures presented are

acceptable to the majority of water utilities, it is expected that some improvisationwill be needed to cope with a wide variety of field conditions. Adopted changes in workpatterns should be written into the work standards. Such standards should be in

conformity with applicable state or other laws and should be carefully scrutinized forpossible errors.

BEFORE BEGINNING A JOB

An employee should carefully consider any job from the viewpoint of performing itsafely and efficiently. The employee should study the safety instructions and ask theforeman for clarification when rules are not understood. Because the worker shoulddo only those jobs for which instructions have been given and for which he or she isqualified to perform, the employee has the right to question an assignment believed

30Copyright (C) 1999 American Water Works Association All Rights Reserved



SAFETY PRACTICES AND EQUIPMENT 31

to be unsafe. The employee should be aware of unsafe circumstances or unusualconditions, including unsafe equipment, unusual noises in machinery and otherplaces, fire, fumes, and other dangers. The employee should assess any unusualsituation that occurs and take intelligent action to correct the situation. The best set

of safety rules cannot make a safe worker, unless the worker learns to think safety,

act safely, and promote safety constantly.Before beginning any task, an employee must read and obey all appropriate

signs and warnings. Signs often point out such features as safe load limits, thenumber of workers allowed in hazardous locations, the time when equipment isunsafe to operate, or where and how materials should be stored.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT Furnishing personal protective equipment and enforcing its use should be a primarypart of any accident prevention program.

Face and Eye Protection

Suitable goggles and eye and face shields must be worn to protect the eyes and faceagainst impact. Eye protection must meet ANSI and federal standards. Although

goggles and face shields are available to fit over ordinary sunglasses, those withprescription-ground safety lenses are more comfortable for anyone who mustfrequently wear eye protection while on the job. These glasses also protect the eyeswhen off the job.

A worker should not use a chisel or other impact tool on a hard, brittle materialunless eye protection is furnished (Figure 5-1). Chemical goggles or acid hoods shouldbe used when there is danger from heat or chemical action.

Figure 5-1 Protective eye goggles should be worn when using chisels or other impact tools onhard, brittle material.





Welding and handling of molten metals may pose a danger from infrared and/or

ultraviolet radiation and the risk of molten-metal splash. To reduce radiant energytransmitted to the interior of the eye, filter lenses should be worn according to thefollowing guide:

1. Shade no. 3 for protection against glare or reflected light, spot-welding

operations, or light brazing.2. Shade no. 4 or shade no. 5 for light acetylene cutting and burning.3. Shade no. 6 for general acetylene welding or arc welding, or use by welder’s

helper.4. Shade no. 8 for heavy acetylene welding, cutting, or very light arc welding.5. Shade no. 10 for arc welding up to 250 amp.6. Shade no. 12 for arc welding at more than 250 amp and for atomic hydrogen

welding.7. Shade no. 14 for carbon arc welding.

Because welders must also chip and clean the weld, they should wear spectaclegoggles under their welding helmets. Often workers fail to appreciate the need for eyeprotection. If the precise reason for their objection is known, it can usually be

countered by education, logical persuasion, or personal appeal, plus supervisoryexample. As a final note, periodic eye examinations by licensed doctors have beenfound to reduce accidents among employees who sometimes do not realize that theyhave vision deficiencies.

Foot ProtectionSafety shoes and foot guards should be worn to guard the toes and feet when workersare handling heavy objects or using heavy tools, such as concrete breakers

(Figure 5-2). Well-made work shoes with a steel-box toe are available at slightly morethan the cost of other good work shoes. This safety feature is also available in most

Figure 5-2 Foot guards should be worn when handling heavy objects or using heavy tools.





rubber boots. To obtain more protection from very heavy impacts, thick flanged andcorrugated sheet-metal foot guards are recommended. With the flange resting on afirm floor surface, the foot guard should resist impact of at least 300 ft • lb withoutdamaging the undershoe or injuring the foot.

Hand ProtectionHands are often exposed to friction, minor scratches, and bumps, in addition to theinjuries caused by rough, sharp, or hot materials, and chemically active substances.Hand leathers, heavy gloves, or mittens of chrome-tanned cowhide, often reinforced

with steel staples or wire, are usually worn for protection when handling lumber,rough castings, or similar objects. Asbestos or asbestos and fabric best protect thehands from hot materials. When handling or mixing acids, alkalines, oils, solvents,

and other chemicals, rubber, neoprene, or plastic gloves are required, depending onthe substance. Aprons or other clothing made of the same material as the gloves mayalso be necessary.

Necessary wrist and forearm protection determines the style and length of aprotective glove, unless a separate gauntlet is worn. Always remember that wearing

hand protection around revolving machinery is dangerous.

Body ProtectionProper body protection not only includes suitable overcoats, pants, overalls, or fullyencapsulated suits for protection from chemicals but should also include suitableprotection from inclement weather. In many instances, there should be no exposedbody parts during the course of a job.

Head ProtectionHard hats should be worn when there is a danger from falling tools or materials.

They should also be worn by construction and distribution crews, as well as anyone visiting a job site. Hard hats are made of metal, plastic-impregnated fabric, orfiberglass crowns suspended on an adjustable fabric headband. Straps can be used to

keep the hat in position when the wearer is bending over. Hard hats should becomfortable, water resistant, well ventilated, and have great strength against impact.Metal hats should not be worn where there may be an electrical hazard.

In addition to its use as a piece of personal protection equipment, the hard hatserves as an eye-level warning to motorists and is, in reality, an adjunct to thework-area protection. Hard hats also dress up a work crew and create a good publicimage (Figure 5-3).

Safety BeltsSafety belts provide steady support for workers working in high places, on unstableplatforms, or with other unsuitable footing by carrying only a low static load. They

also protect workers from dangerous falls; the safety belt may be subjected to manytimes the weight of the worker. When using safety belts, the length of free fall should

be held to an absolute minimum because of the internal damage that may be done bya sudden jolt. To prevent this type of injury, shock absorbers are available. If possible,a chest harness should be used instead of a waist belt.





Figure 5-3 Hard hats should be worn at all job sites.

RESPIRATORY EQUIPMENT

Utility workers are exposed to the following respiratory hazards:nuisance dusts from rock, cement, coal, and wood;

dusts of toxic materials such as lead, arsenic, asbestos, and fluorides;

mists and fumes from chemicals and heated metals;

vapors and gases such as chlorine, ammonia, and carbon monoxide; and

oxygen-deficient atmospheres created by chemical action or displacement byother gases or vapors.

Respiratory problems from these hazards range from mild irritation to death.Because some of the most lethal gases and atmospheric conditions give few, if any,clearly recognizable warnings to the unsuspecting worker, the worker must be aware

of all possible hazards so that the correct respiratory protection can be used.

Adequate ventilation and elimination of the hazardous process producing thecontamination are the preferred methods of reducing or eliminating a respiratoryhazard. If these steps are taken, respiratory equipment will provide an extra factor of safety for the stray or reduced concentration of contaminants still present. Thisequipment should be available to effect shutoffs in case of accidental leaks or foremergency rescues. Recommendations from the National Institute of OccupationalSafety and Health (NIOSH) should be followed when selecting respiratory protection.

There are two types of respiratory protection. The first type removes con-taminants from the ambient air and is called an air-purifying respirator. The second





type of respiratory protection provides air from a source other than the surrounding atmosphere. These are called atmosphere-supplying respirators.

Air-Purifying Respirator Air-purifying respirators are available for protection against vapor and gas

contaminants. These respirators are designed for protection against specificcontaminants.

Vapor- and gas-removing respirator. Vapor- and gas-removing respirators

normally remove the contaminant by interaction of its molecules with a granularporous material, called the sorbent. There are several types of gas- and vapor-remov-ing respirators, such as chemical cartridge respirators, gas masks, particulate vapor-

and gas-removing respirators, and power air-purifying respirators. Other respiratorsuse catalysts that react with the contaminant to produce a less toxic gas or vapor.

Particulate-filtering respirator. Particulate-filtering respirators are used for

protection against dusts, fumes, and/or mists (Figure 5-4). A dust is a solid,mechanically produced particle. A fume is a solid condensation particulate, usually of a vaporized metal. A mist is a liquid condensation particle. Presently, all particulate-

filtering respirators use fibrous material (a filter) to remove the contaminant. As theparticle is drawn into the filter, it is trapped by the fibers.

Atmosphere-Supplying RespiratorThe two basic types of atmosphere-supplying respirators are the supplied-airrespirators and the self-contained breathing apparatus.

Supplied-air respirator. Supplied-air respirators consist of either a helmet ora facepiece, covering the nose and mouth, to which air can be supplied through a hose

from an uncontaminated source. The air can be furnished by a mechanical aircompressor with pressure reducer, a low-pressure hand blower, or the lung action of

Figure 5-4 A particulate-filtering respirator protects against dusts, fumes, and/or mists.





the wearer. A supplied-air respirator is suitable for use in tanks or other close spaceswhere work can be done near the air source.

Self-contained breathing apparatus. The distinguishing feature of allself-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) is that the wearer need not be connected

to a stationary breathing gas source, such as an air compressor. Instead, enough air

for up to four hours, depending on the design, is carried by the wearer. A greatadvantage of an SCBA is that it allows comparatively free movement over anunlimited area. The disadvantages are bulk and weight as well as the limitedservice life.

FIRST AID Any injury, no matter how slight, should receive prompt first-aid attention. If aninjury is serious, it should be treated as soon as possible by a physician. If there isabsolute certainty that movement will not be harmful, the individual should beassisted to the aid station or hospital. If the injury is serious or there is any doubt asto whether movement would aggravate the condition, medical assistance should be

brought to the patient. Various studies have shown that personnel prepared to give first aid are less

susceptible to accidents than those not so prepared. Consequently, all employees, tothe maximum extent, should complete an approved first-aid safety course. This helps

ensure that no employee will ever be out of reach of someone prepared to take care of an injury until professional medical attention is available. A first-aid certificate, goodfor a limited time period, is issued upon completion of the course, which must

thereafter be repeated for renewal of the card.Every utility, regardless of size, should establish standing orders and procedures

for first-aid treatment of injured employees. In large organizations, this can be doneby the medical staff. For smaller utilities, advice can be obtained from local chaptersof the Red Cross, industrial accident insurance carriers, and local and state healthdepartments.

First-Aid EquipmentProper first-aid treatment requires availability of well-equipped first-aid chests orkits, which should be prominently displayed throughout the plant and provided in all

utility vehicles. The location can be marked by placing a decal on the door orcompartment containing the kit. All employees should be made aware of their locationand use, and someone should be made responsible for upkeep of the kit to ensure that

it is in serviceable condition.Whenever possible, standard first-aid equipment should be supplemented with

special materials, such as a stretcher and splints, to meet particular needs. Oxygen isnot normally considered a first-aid supply, but it should be available in laboratories

where poisoning may occur. Wherever toxic substances may come in contact with theskin or be swallowed, specific antidotes should be available.The contents of a first-aid kit or chest will vary with the location and type of

work being performed. Kits for general and specific uses are available through vendors of safety equipment and supplies. However, kits should be assembled underthe direction of a physician or other competent authority having an understanding of the needs on the job, or they may be assembled under ANSI Standard Z308.1-1978,Minimum Requirements for Industrial Unit-Type First Aid Kits.





GENERAL SAFETY PROCEDURESHundreds of safety rules and procedures apply to the water industry employee. Noone person can be expected to know all the safety rules for the entire industry.However, some general safety procedures should be known by all. These are discussedbelow.

Lifting or LoweringThe right way to lift by hand is to:

1. Get a good footing.2. Place feet about shoulder-width apart.3. Bend at the knees to grasp the weight.

4. Keep the back straight.5. Get a firm hold.6. Keep the back as upright as possible, lifting gradually by straightening the

legs.

7. Turn the whole body, including the feet. Do not twist the back to change

direction while holding a heavy weight.8. Get help when a load is too heavy or bulky for one person to lift comfortably.

A worker should use mechanical handling equipment whenever possible andfollow these steps:

1. Check the load against the capacity of the equipment.2. Use safety slings properly applied; never use frayed rope or wire, which

should be destroyed.3. Stand clear while lifting with mechanical equipment.

4. Wear a hard hat for construction work or whenever there is danger fromfalling objects.

When lowering anything, apply the same rules used for lifting.

Fall PreventionIn order to prevent falls, a safety belt must be used on roofs and surfaces that slope

more than 15°. Their use should be considered when working on slippery surfaces atlesser angles or in strong winds. A safety belt should always be used when working onelevated objects such as towers, stacks, platforms, and tanks.

To prevent falls when traveling about the utility buildings, the worker should:1. Walk, never run, especially on stairs and inclined surfaces.2. Keep aisles and work areas clear of obstructions.

3. Develop safe habits—be neat and orderly in housekeeping; wipe up oil andgrease spots; pick up nails, rocks, and other stray objects.

4. Be able to see ahead when carrying a load.

5. Keep at least one hand on handrails when using stairs or ramps.6. Use a flashlight when traveling in the dark.7. Refrain from climbing over obstructions; use the safest route available.

8. Ascend and descend slowly from a vehicle; avoid getting in and out while a vehicle is in motion; require that all passengers be seated properly and that no one

stands or hangs on the outside; use safety belts and/or a harness where provided.





Running and Walking1. Do not run except in extreme emergencies.

2. Do not run or jump across ditches, scaffolds, or platforms.3. Do not jump into or climb out of a trench; use a ladder.

4. Always keep eyes open and walk cautiously.5. Never run up stairs or down stairs.6. Do not jump over piles of material; walk around them instead.

Structural Safety FeaturesStairways.

1. Never run on stairs. Take time to be safe and use the handrails provided.2. Keep stairs free from grease, other wet or slippery substances, or conditions

that could cause a fall.

3. Inspect handrails frequently to be sure they are free of splinters or loosenednails and that they are not working loose from moorings.

4. Never store tools, supplies, or other materials on stairways. Keep stairways

neat and clear.5. Always watch the steps just ahead. Never carry a load in such a way that

vision is obstructed.6. Take only one step at a time.

7. Be sure that stairways are properly lighted when used at night or on darkdays.

8. Look carefully in the direction of movement. If attention is distracted, stopuntil vision can be directed back to the stairway.

9. Report all loose treads, risers, and handrails for immediate repairs.Walkway aisles.

1. Temporary walkways, at least two planks wide, should be cleated underneathto prevent spreading.

2. The span between bearing points of planks 2-in. (50-mm) thick and 8-in.(200-mm) wide should not be over 8 ft (2 m), and the planks should be tested beforebeing placed in use.

3. Semipermanent walkways over trenches or openings should be at least threeplanks wide with suitable guardrail protection.

4. Aisles and walkways should be kept clear of obstructions.Handrails. For handrail safety, the following procedures are imperative:1. Handrails should be of solid and durable construction. No guard or railing

should be installed or used that could be broken, collapsed, or displaced by the weightof a person’s body. The top rail should withstand a 200-lb (90-kg) load applied in anydirection.

2. Handrails for stairs should be 30–34 in. (0.8–0.9 m) high and consist of three

rails. Toeboards should be ¼ in. (6 mm) above the floor. Railings around openingsshould be 42 in. (1 m) high.3. Railings without a midrail should not be permitted.4. Toeboard spacing above the floor may be increased to ½ in. (13 mm) where

snow or hazardous materials may collect.5. Wood railings should be built of sound materials. Handrails and midrails

should be dressed on all four sides and the edges of the handrail beveled.




Chapter 6

AWWA MANUAL

Small Tools

and Equipment

HAND TOOLS According to the National Safety Council, hand tools, used by most utility employees,are responsible for nearly 10 percent of all compensable injuries. In distributionsystem operations, the percentage of injuries attributable to hand tools is more thantwice that percentage. It is important that both employers and employees learn the

proper care and handling of tools. By following the safety precautions in this section,a major cause of injury can be reduced.

Basic Rules1. Always select the appropriate tool for the job; never use makeshift tools.

2. Check the condition of a tool frequently and repair or replace it if defective.3. Avoid using tools on moving machinery; stop the machine before making

adjustments.

4. Check the clearance at the workplace to make sure there is sufficient spaceif the tool should slip.

5. Have a good support underfoot so that there is no hazard of slipping,

stumbling, or falling.6. Protect hands by wearing gloves in confined places, except when using

hammers. Do not wear rings.7. Carry sharp or pointed tools in covers, or point them away from the body in

case of a fall.8. Wear eye protection when using impact tools on hard, brittle material.9. After using tools, wipe them clean and put them away, thus keeping the

workplace orderly.

39





10. Do not lay tools on top of stepladders or in other high places from whichthey could fall.

11. Learn and follow the correct way to use all hand tools.12. Use tools made of nonsparking material where fire is a hazard.

Axes and Hatchets1. Keep cutting edges sharp.2. Clear away overhanging brush or tree limbs and be sure that no nearby

obstruction can deflect the tool’s path.3. Place feet firmly, swing naturally, and keep one or both hands on the handle

as necessary.

4. Swing a hatchet like a hammer.5. Swing an axe like a baseball bat—not like a pendulum—away from the body

toward the place of cutting.6. Use eye protection and other body protective devices to prevent injury by

flying chips.7. When the axe or hatchet is not in use, place it in plain view, a safe distance

from the work area with the blade down or flat, never up. After work, store in a rackor case.

8. To carry a double-bit axe properly, grasp it by the handle just in back of thehead, with the blades vertical beside one leg. Carry a single-bit axe or hatchet thesame way, with the blade down or pointed away from the leg.

9. Never use the blunt edge or end of a hatchet as a hammer.

Chisels and Punches1. Use only tools in good condition. Never use a burred chisel or a hammer

with a mushroomed head.

2. If the chisel is not properly tempered or sharpened for the job, or if it isdefective in any way, return it to the tool room for repair.

3. Wear goggles to protect eyes from flying particles.4. Hold a cold chisel between the thumb and forefinger, with the palm up. If

the tool is gripped in the list, a blow that misses the chisel head is almost certain toresult in painful and sometimes permanent injuries to knuckles and hands.

5. Do not hold a chisel if hands are numb with cold, as control of the chisel

may be lost.6. Always use a holder for a chisel when another person is swinging the

hammer or sledge.

7. Protect other persons from flying chips by placing suitable screens aroundthe work area. Two persons chipping the same material should work back to back.

8. When using a bull chisel, hold it with tongs, never with hands. Take aposition that is clear of the swing of other hammers and to one side of the arc of swing

of the one being wielded.9. Never push wood chisels toward any part of the body.

Files1. See that there is a securely fitting, substantial handle on each file used.2. If any files have particularly sharp-pointed tangs, round them off to avoid

injury when reaching into the tool box.




SMALL TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT 41

3. When filing close to the chuck in a lathe, change hand positions so theextended arm or clothing will not be caught in the chuck jaws or dog. Short-sleevedshirts are usually recommended for such work.

4. Never hit a file with a hammer, because pieces of the hardened steel arelikely to fly off.

5. Do not make a center punch or a chisel out of an old file, because the metalis too brittle.

6. Do not use a file as a pry, because it breaks easily and may send pieces of jagged metal flying about.

7. Do not carry a file in a pocket unless a handle is over the tang, because incase of a fall the tang might cause injury.

8. Keep files clean and sharp to minimize the chance of slipping and causing awound.

9. Keep a supply of good file handles on hand, because the sharp tang of anunprotected file can make a painful and disabling wound.

Hammers

1. Select a hammer that is heavy enough and suitable for the job. Make surethe head is wedged securely on the handle and that neither is chipped or broken.

2. Keep the hammer clean and free from oil or grease to prevent slipping,which might mean a dangerous loss of control.

3. When using a hammer, grasp the handle firmly near the end, watch theplace of impact, and strike a true blow.

4. Always hammer with the tool’s face, which is especially hardened for thispurpose.

5. When starting a nail, hold it near the head to prevent smashed fingers.6. Do not use a hammer with a hardened face on a highly tempered tool such

as a drill, file, or die, because small chips may break loose and be propelled atdangerously high velocity.

7. When drawing nails that are hard to remove, place a wood block under thehammerhead to increase leverage.

Picks1. Make sure that the pick handle is smooth, free from splinters, and straight,

and that it fits tightly in the head.2. When swinging a pick, make sure no one is near enough to be hit.

3. Avoid striking toward or close to the feet.4. Leave adequate clearance in trenches for the swing, to avoid striking

unintended objects or user.

Saws1. Keep the saw sharp and clean and the teeth properly set.2. Use a crosscut saw for cutting across the grain, a ripsaw for cutting with the

grain.

3. Start the cut with two long, slow strokes toward the body, guiding with thethumb, then remove the hand before beginning work.

4. To prevent sticking, keep the blade true with the cut. In wet or gummywood, a little oil or paraffin may help.





5. Do not “ride” the saw. If it does not cut well, sharpening or setting may benecessary.

6. If one knee is used to steady the work, watch the balance carefully.7. Handle saw teeth carefully, because they can make a worse cut than a sharp

knife.

Screwdrivers1. Never use screwdrivers with split or splintered handles.2. Always use a screwdriver that fits the screw.3. Dress the point if it is worn, bent, or broken.4. Use an awl, auger, drill, or driven nail to start each screw. On rough work,

use a hammer.5. Never hold work in the hand; place it on a flat surface or in a vise.

6. Use screwdrivers with insulated handles for electrical work.

Shovels and Spades1. The handle should be strong and smooth, free from splinters, checks, and

splits. The blade should be smooth, sharp, and free from twists.2. When shoveling, leave enough clearance between the user and others to

avoid striking them with the tool or material. When working in a ditch, keep a good

clearance in front of and behind the worker.3. Use the ball of the foot, not the instep, to press the tool into clay or other

stiff material. Steel foot irons will help protect the instep.

4. Avoid strains when digging and lifting by using the leg muscles as much aspossible. Be sure of footing and balance when shoveling.

5. Never throw or toss a shovel or spade toward another person; pass it overwith the handle forward.

6. Never leave a shovel or spade where others may stumble over or strike

against it. Hang it up, place the blade securely in the ground or some material, or

stand the tool in a corner.

Wrenches1. Use wrenches that are the right type and size for the job. Never use a pipe

or other extension on the handle to get more leverage.2. Use only wrenches having jaws in good condition. Keep pipe wrench and

chain tong jaws sharp and clean. Inspect chain links closely for defects.3. Never use a shim to make the wrong-size wrench fit a nut.4. Do not use a wrench as a hammer.5. Always place the wrench on the nut so that the pull on the handle tends to

force the jaws further onto the nut. (Move the handle in the direction in which the jaws open.)

6. Pulling on a wrench is safer than pushing, but if the latter is necessary,keep the knuckles out of danger.

7. To avoid falls, see that the footing is good before applying pressure.

8. Do not place a pipe wrench on a nut to be reused.9. Adjust a pipe wrench to bite the work near the middle of the jaws, so that

there will be teeth in front if the wrench slips.





PORTABLE POWER TOOLS

Portable Electric Hand ToolsElectric shock is the chief hazard when using electrically powered tools. Electric-flash

burns, falls caused by a minor shock, and stumbling or tripping over electrical cordsare other dangers.Electric tools used in wet areas or in metal tanks expose the operator to

conditions favorable to the flow of current through the body, particularly if theoperator is wet with perspiration.* Insulating platforms, rubber mats, and rubber

gloves provide additional safety in wet locations.The following precautions should always be taken when using electric hand

tools:1. Only tools listed by Underwriters Laboratories should be used.2. Keep tools in safe condition—cleaned, oiled, and repaired. Most shocks are

caused by the failure of insulation between the current-carrying parts and the metalframes. Because such deterioration is harder to detect than worn or broken external

wiring, frequent inspection and thorough maintenance are necessary. Care inhandling the tool and frequent cleaning will help prevent the wear and tear that

cause defects.3. Ground the tool when in use. This protects the operator from shock. If there

is any defect or short inside the tool, the current, drained from the metal framethrough the ground wire, does not pass through the operator’s body Electric toolshaving a third ground wire built into the cord are recommended or required by manycodes. This wire may terminate in a jack, battery clip, or a special three-prong receptacle in the wiring system. The last device eliminates the possibility of theoperator forgetting to attach the ground wire. Double-insulated power tools may also

be used to reduce the shock hazard.4. Handle the tool carefully to avoid dropping it.

5. Use only approved and inspected extension cords.

6. Examine both the cord and connection carefully before use.7. Suspend cords over aisles or work areas, where possible, to avoid the danger

of stumbling or tripping.8. Do not hang an extension cord over nails or other sharp edges, allow it to

become kinked, or leave it where a vehicle may run over it.9. Protect the cord against contact with oil, hot surfaces, and chemicals.

10. Store extension cords in a clean, dry place where they can lie loosely coiled.11. Never patch any serious damage to cord insulation with tape; shorten the

line or get a new one.

12. Do not use the cord as a line to raise or lower the tool from one elevation toanother.

13. Disconnect the power line before accessories are changed and replace guards

or correctly adjust them before use.14. In the presence of flammable vapors or gases, use pneumatic hand tools

rather than electric ones.15. Do not, under any circumstances, allow a flexible shaft of a portable power

tool to form a loop, as this will make a knot, jerking the tool out of the operator’shand.

*In damp locations,

recommended.

the use of low-voltage equipment not exceeding 24 V or GFIs is





16. Wear goggles or a face shield while using electric hand tools if there is any

danger of flying particles.17. When using a portable grinder, always wear goggles and keep out of line

with the wheel. Use with proper ventilation.18. When using portable grinders or buffers on toxic materials, such as lead,

zinc, or brass, use adequate respiratory protection.19. Do not wear loose clothing when using portable power tools.20. Do not insert nails or other objects into the ventilating openings to hold a

fan while tightening the chuck or performing any other operation.

Pneumatic and Hydraulic ToolsThe same danger of tripping or stumbling is presented by a hydraulic hose as by anelectric cord. Persons or material accidentally striking the hose may unbalance the

operator or cause the tool to fall from an elevated location. When working with hoses,the following precautions should be taken:

1. When lying on the ground, the hose should be protected from vehicles and

pedestrians by two boards laid on either side of it or by a runway built over it. It is

preferable, however, for the hose to be suspended over aisles and work areas.2. Accidents sometimes occur when the hose, becoming disconnected, whips

about. Approved safety-type hose connections that do not readily come apart shouldalways be used. A short chain attached to the hose and the tool housing will prevent

such a hazard if the coupling should break.3. Keep the hose away from sharp objects that may weaken or cut it.

Other safety precautions apply to pneumatic and hydraulic tools in general. Thefollowing points should be noted:

1. Do not, under any circumstances, wear loose, bulky, or torn clothing when

operating portable drills or reamers.2. Keep tools in good condition and be especially careful that bits are ground

correctly, with uniform flutes and proper clearance.

3. Avoid feeding the machine too fast to prevent the bit from sticking.4. Line up the drill straight with the hole; if tipped, the bit is almost certain to

s t i c k .

5. Have two persons operate larger tapping machines.6. Install and maintain safety setscrews on all shaft collars.7. Keep shaft collars tight while tapping machines are in operation or when

they are being carried to and from jobs.8. Wear foot guards when operating tampers, pavement breakers, or similar

equipment.

9. Never use oxygen from a cylinder without reducing the pressure through asuitable regulator intended for that purpose.

10. Do not permit sparks or flame from the welding or cutting torch to come in

contact with the cylinder.11. Do not use compressed air to dust off clothing or any part of the body.12. Routinely check all hose clamps for tightness.

Metalizing and Sandblasting1. Protect the skin against the deposit of free metal discharged from the gun

when operating a metalizer.2. Wear eye and face protection when operating a metalizer.3. Wear an approved respirator when toxic metal fumes or silica dust are being

discharged.





4. Keep the sand-blast booth closed while blasting.5. Wear a face-mask assembly with forced-air supply at all times when

blasting. Only workers properly dressed should be admitted to the work booth.

Grinding Wheels1. Choose the right wheel and speed of rotation for each grinding job. Consult

the wheel manufacturer for detailed recommendations.2. Apply work gradually, allowing the wheel to warm slowly.3. Never operate a wheel that is loose on its spindle, out of balance, or nicked

or cracked.

4. Never place a wheel partly immersed in water, because the water-soakedportion may throw the wheel dangerously out of balance.

5. Keep the tool rest as close to the wheel as possible (not more than 1/8 in.[3.2 mm] away) without touching it. Make adjustments when the wheel is not inmotion.

6. Place the tool rest at or slightly above the wheel’s centerline.7. Grind objects only on the face, not on the side, of the wheel, regardless of

pressure required and regardless of their weight, size, or shape.8. Be aware that a glove may become caught and draw the hand into the

grinder or buffer.

9. Equip all grinders with protective glass shields. This shield is in addition togoggles or a face shield that should be worn during all grinding or buffing operations.

10. Avoid striking the side of the grinding wheel, because a sudden blow couldcreate a fault that might result in a broken wheel.

11. Immediately report and replace any grinding wheel that seems to be unsafe.12. Do not open guards to expose wheels or nuts.

Soldering Irons1. Keep hot soldering irons away from wood or other combustible material. Set

the tools on fireproof racks or holders when not in use.2. Turn off electric soldering irons before leaving the workplace.3. Never test the temperature of a soldering iron by holding it close to the face.

4. Avoid snapping or throwing surplus solder from the iron or wiping it on atrouser leg; keep a prepared pad handy for this purpose.

GAS AND ARC WELDERS

Use of Compressed Oxygen1. Never permit oil and grease to come in contact with oxygen cylinders,

valves, regulators, gauges, and fittings, because oxygen combines explosively with

such substances.2. Do not handle oxygen cylinders or apparatus with oily hands or gloves.3. Never use oxygen from a cylinder without reducing the pressure through a

suitable regulator intended for that purpose.

4. Keep the protective cap in place until the cylinder is secured and ready to beconnected.

5. After removing the valve cap, twist the valve handle for an instant to clearthe opening of dust or dirt.

6. If a valve is difficult to twist, point the valve opening in a safe direction andapply greater force. Avoid using a wrench on valves equipped with hand wheels.





7. Release the adjusting screw of the regulator after attaching it and before the

cylinder valve is opened.8. Never permit oxygen to enter the regulator suddenly. Open the cylinder

valve slowly.

9. Before the regulator is removed from a cylinder, close the cylinder valve and

release all gas from the regulator.10. Do not permit sparks or flame from the welding or cutting torch to come in

contact with the cylinder.11. Never interchange oxygen regulators, hoses, or other appliances with

similar equipment intended for use with other gases.12. Be certain that where oxygen cylinders are connected to manifolds or

headers, the manifolds are properly designed and equipped with one or more pressureregulators. (Oxygen manufacturers can furnish specifications for construction andinstallation of proper oxygen manifolds and pipelines.)

13. Open the cylinder valve fully when the cylinder is in use.14. Never mix gases in an oxygen cylinder.

15. Never use oxygen as a substitute for compressed air. (It is dangerous to use

oxygen for pneumatic tools, to start diesel engines, for imposing pressure in oilreservoirs, for paint spraying, for blowing out pipelines, or for other suchapplications.)

Storage of Compressed Oxygen1. Do not store cylinders near flammable material, especially oil, grease, or

any substance likely to cause or accelerate fire. (Oxygen is not flammable, but it doessupport combustion.)

2. Do not store reserve stocks of cylinders containing oxygen with reservestocks of cylinders containing combustible gases; separate the two lots by 20 ft (6 m)

or with a noncombustible barrier.

Use of Acetylene1. Use and store acetylene cylinders in an upright position to avoid the

possibility of spilling acetone.2. Keep sparks and flame away from acetylene cylinders. Avoid hanging lit or

unlit blowpipes or torches without having a suitable regulator attached to the

cylinders.

3. Never pass acetylene from cylinders through blowpipes or torches withouthaving a suitable regulator attached to the cylinders.

4. After removing the valve cap, open the valve for an instant to clear awaydust or dirt.

5. Release the adjusting screw of the regulator after it has been attached andbefore the cylinder valve is opened.

6. Close the cylinder valve and release all gas from the regulator beforeremoving it from a cylinder.

7. Never interchange acetylene regulators, hose, or other appliances withsimilar equipment intended for use with other gases.

8. Never transfer acetylene from one cylinder to another and do not mix

acetylene with another gas in the cylinder.9. Never use manifolds for acetylene cylinders unless the former are properly

constructed.

10. Keep the wrench for opening the valve on the valve spindle whenever thecylinder is being used.





11. Never subject acetylene to a working pressure over 15 psi.12. Close the valves and put the caps in place to prevent leaks when returning

empty cylinders.13. Never attempt to refill an acetylene cylinder.14. Be aware that the pressure in an acetylene cylinder does not accurately

indicate the amount of gas contained. (The quantity of gas is determined by theweight of the cylinder and its contents.)

15. Never test for acetylene leaks with an open flame; use soapy water for thispurpose.

16. Never bring acetylene into contact with unalloyed copper, except in ablowpipe or torch.

17. Keep cylinders secured at all times.Storing Acetylene

1. Do not store reserve stocks of acetylene cylinders with reserve stocks of oxygen cylinders; separate the two.

Arc Welding Equipment and Welding Circuits

1. Keep welding leads and primary power leads clear of ladders, passageways,or doors. Do not place leads and cables used to conduct power to portable welding units where machines or trucks may run over them.

2. Repair or replace defective cable immediately. Use locking joint-insulatedcable connectors with capacity equal to or exceeding that of the cable. Disconnect thepower before splicing any cable.

3. Do not allow the power-supply cable used for portable welding units tobecome tangled with the welding cables or to be near enough to the welding operationto sustain damage from sparks or hot metal.

4. Do not start welding unless all electrical connections, the power supply, the

welding leads, the holder, and the ground clamp are secure and the welding machineframe is well grounded. Securely attach the work clamp before beginning to weld.

5. Disconnect the welding machine from its power supply when the welding machine is to be left unattended.

Personal Protection1. Do not strike an arc unless face shields or helmets are worn by everyone

nearby2. Wear a skull cap under the welding helmet.3. Be certain the face shield or helmet is light-tight, and that it adequately

protects the eyes, head, face, and neck.4. Always wear eye protection when chipping slag.

5. Wear good leather gauntlet-type gloves that are loose enough to be easilyremoved.

6. Wear high-top shoes, preferably the unlaced-boot type, to prevent weld-spat-ter burns on the feet and ankles.

7. Weld only in a dry place and with dry equipment. (If conditions are

otherwise, supervising personnel with proper authority should approve theoperations.)

8. Keep shirt sleeves buttoned and pockets closed to avoid catching dangerousweld spatter.

9. Inspect personal protection equipment before beginning to weld.10. Treat all electric devices, such as welding machines, portable electric tools,

lights, and blowers, with respect. Do not remove light bulbs without turning off the





current. (Exposure to electricity does not develop immunity.) Keep the body dry anduse special precautions to insulate the body when clothing is wet from perspiration orother moisture.

11. Weld with a fully insulated electrode holder.12. Remove electrode stubs from the holder only when the body is not in contact

with the work.13. Before welding in a confined space, check the area for an explosive

atmosphere as well as for oxygen deficiency and toxic atmosphere. Provide adequate ventilation to assure a good supply of fresh air.

14. When welding or cutting brass, bronze, galvanized steel, cadmium-coatedsteel, or metals coated with lead- or zinc-bearing paint, either indoors or outdoors,make sure that unacceptable levels of the fumes are not breathed. (An exhaust

system to remove toxic gases or fumes at their source is recommended. If thisprocedure is not possible, adequate respiratory protection must be supplied.)

15. Place holders that are not in use where they will not come in contact with

other metal objects or workers.16. Do not weld any kind of tanks, open or closed, until they are steam-cleaned

and tested to eliminate the danger from flammable gases.17. Either remove all flammable material from the area in which welding or

cutting is to be done, or cover and shield vulnerable objects from sparks. Have a fireextinguisher conveniently located.

GENERAL EQUIPMENT

Wheelbarrows1. Do not overload a wheelbarrow; it should be easy to handle.2. Always push a wheelbarrow, never pull it.

3. Place the load as far forward as possible so that the wheel will carry thebulk of the weight.

4. Do not underestimate the weight of a wheelbarrow when using planking orrunways.

5. Keep pneumatic tires properly inflated.6. Wear gloves in close quarters or have the handles equipped with hand

protectors.

Hand Trucks1. Load hand trucks properly to prevent materials from tipping.2. Refrain from riding on trucks or engaging in horseplay.3. Proceed slowly and estimate the clearance, especially on platforms, to

prevent overturning.4. Use metal hand protectors on handles.

5. Watch out for other employees to prevent a mishap.6. Report any mechanical defect for repair.7. Do not use seriously defective hand trucks.

ScaffoldsThe following are some types of scaffolding that are permissible: (1) carpenter’shorses decked with safe planks (chairs, boxes, barrels, or other improvised supports

are not safe); (2) A-frames (do not stand on the top rung), preferably two planks wideand two planks thick for heavy loads (A-ladders one plank wide are permissible);





(3) tubular steel or aluminum scaffolding, safety-plank decked, with needed toeboardsand handrails.

1. In the absence of state safety orders or other applicable laws, the minimumstandard for safety scaffold planking requires planking to be either 2 in. (50 mm)

thick by 10 in. (250 mm) wide and 8 ft (2 m) or 12 ft (4 m) long, or 3 in. (76 mm) thick

by 10 in. (250 mm) wide and 15 ft (5 m) long.2. Scaffold planks should extend over their end supports not less than 6 in.

(150 mm) nor more than 12 in (300 mm).3. There should be a maximum overhang of 8 in. (200 mm) on every scaffold.4. In the absence of safety planks, only class A lumber should be used for any

span or temporary decking of supports. Recommended types of wood are Douglas fir,southern pine, Norway pine, tamarack, and Sitka spruce.

5. Planks should have cleated bottoms to prevent slipping on tubularscaffolding.

6. Inspect all scaffolding material upon installation and thereafter every fourmonths.

7. Comply with all state safety orders when scaffolds are built.

8. Design every scaffold and its supporting members to carry a given load witha safety factor of at least four.

9. Use a handline to raise or lower tools and materials.10. Do not jump on or off a scaffold.11. Use adequate signs or barriers to protect scaffolds against moving objects,

such as hand or power trucks.12. Do not use a scaffold for any other purpose than that for which it was

designed.

13. Do not paint scaffold planking, except for necessary identification marks,because paint might hide defects. For protective and preservative purposes, applyseveral coats of linseed oil on new planking. Apply additional coats depending on ageand condition.

Swinging Scaffolds1. Hoist the scaffold 1 ft (0.3 m) off the ground and test with four times the

working load before use.

2. Fasten the scaffold to a building wall to prevent sway.3. When in use, do not combine two swinging scaffolds by a bridge.4. Do not permit more than two workers on a swinging scaffold at the same

time.5. Keep excess scaffold rope coiled in a drum on the ground.

6. As additional protection, use a life belt and a safety line when working froma scaffold.

7. Work only within the convenient reach of a scaffold.8. Permit only experienced workers to erect and remove scaffolds.

Ladders1. If straight and extension ladders are not chained or roped at the top, they

must be held by someone.2. Snap spreaders should always be engaged on stepladders.3. Make someone responsible for ladders and their maintenance.4. All ladders should conform to ANSI standards.

5. Use stepladders instead of short straight ladders where possible.6. Test ladders for defects using the ANSI method. Test rungs with a wood

mallet.





7. Before a ladder is used, carefully examine it for defective side rails andrungs. If the rope on an extension ladder is not in first-class condition, replace it

immediately.8. Store and protect ladders from the weather.9. Do not take apart extension ladders in order to use two sections separately.

10. Destroy ladders that cannot be repaired. Repair or destroy ladders withweak, cracked, or missing rungs or weak or cracked side rails. Do not use homemade

ladders.11. Do not paint ladders, except for necessary identification marks, because

defects in wooden ladders may be concealed. Instead, apply several coats of linseed oil

to new ladders.12. If a ladder is placed over a doorway, rope off the doorway and erect warning

signs.13. Always face ladders when ascending or descending.14. Only one worker should be on a ladder at one time.15. Do not use a stepladder as a straight ladder.

16. Do not use the top of a stepladder as a platform on which to stand.

17. Ascend only to the third rung from the top of a straight or extension ladderand the second step from the top of a stepladder.

18. Place straight ladders so that the distance from the base of the ladder to thewall is 25 percent of the length of the ladder.

19. Place nonskid ladder feet on straight ladders used on a hard, smooth base,such as concrete. Use spiked ladder feet when the ladder is on a soft or loose base,

such as earth. In other words, use proper nonskid ladder shoes on all ladders.20. Establish a level, stable base for all ladders.21. Do not use ladders as skids, braces, or scaffolding members or for any

purpose other than that for which they are intended.22. Always check to be sure a ladder is safe before using it.

Machine Guards1. Do not remove protective guards while the machine is running.

2. Keep guards in good repair.3. Projecting shaft ends should have a smooth edge and should not project

more than one-half the diameter of the shaft, unless guarded by a nonrotating cup orsafety sleeve.

4. Cut off all projecting keys, setscrews, and other unguarded projections of moving parts and make them flush or guard them with a-metal cover.

5. Avoid the hazard from bolts, nuts, setscrews, or other projections onrevolving surfaces of shaft couplings. Equip shaft couplings with hood guards.

6. Where oiling must be done frequently, provide openings with hinged orsliding, self-closing covers.

7. Where oiling must be done while a machine is in operation, use extensionfittings.

8. Use guards that do not interfere with the machine operation and that givemaximum protection to the operator.




Chapter 7

POWER

AWWA MANUAL

Large Tools

and Equipment

SHOVELS AND DRAGLINES1. Allow only authorized personnel to operate power shovels or draglines.

Operators must wear hard hats.2. Inspect equipment and be certain that it is in safe operating condition.

3. Do not allow anyone to stand, walk, or work under suspended loads orbooms. Be sure that people will not be caught by the swing of the machine cab orcounterweight.

4. Avoid overloading buckets or booms. Know the safe load limit of the

equipment. Post the manufacturer’s limitation for loads at various angles of the boomin the cab and strictly observe these limits.

5. Do not undercut the bank when moving earth.

6. Be certain that the driver of the truck or engine has dismounted and is inthe clear before swinging a load over the equipment.

7. Load dump trucks or cars evenly so that material does not overhang thesides.

8. Shut off the power and secure all movable parts before leaving the machine.Keep floors and running boards free of grease, oil, and debris.

9. Lower the boom and rest it on a horse or suitable support if the machine isto be idle for long periods of time.

10. Use a handhold for getting off or on the equipment.11. If a signal person is needed, appoint one and follow only that person’s

signals. Use standard signals.

12. When operating near electric-power transmission lines or apparatus, followlocal, state or provincial, and federal regulations.

13. Keep the crane or dragline as close to level as possible before lifting heavyloads, in order to prevent overturning the equipment.

51





14. When leaving the equipment, set the brakes, secure the boom, lower thedipper and bucket to the ground, and take the engine out of gear.

15. Before lifting an unusually heavy load, test the brakes by trying a short lift

to make sure the load is under full control.16. If a load does not ride properly when raised, lower it and have the sling or

slings adjusted.

17. Never allow anyone to ride on loads or buckets.18. Do not allow people to come near enough to be hit by swinging loads.19. Use a tagline to prevent the load from spinning.

CONCRETE MIXERS1. Before towing a concrete mixer, securely fasten the hitch and secure the

safety chain.

2. Get help to handle the tongue when connecting or disconnecting the mixerfrom a trailer hitch. Move mixer in tow backwards only when a signalperson instructsthe driver to do so.

3. Keep mixers level to prevent tipping. On a hill, block mixer wheels.4. After starting the engine, close the engine cabinet to cover all belts and

pulleys.

5. Be certain everyone is out of danger before the drum is moved up or down.When working on a mixer, be sure the drum is in a lowered position.

6. Before cranking the motor, make sure hands, fingers, and clothing are clearof belts, pulleys, and gears.

7. Keep away from the drum opening when the mixer engine is running.Guard belts, gears, pulleys, flywheels, and rollers.

8. When exposed to cement dust, wear proper respiratory equipment andtight-fitting clothes.

9. Wear goggles when cleaning hardened concrete from drums.

10. Stop the engine and lock the drum before making repairs.11. To prevent burns or scalds, do not refuel the mixer engine while it is

running or hot.12. Keep the mixer clean, and do not allow waste material to accumulate in or

around it.

HOIST OPERATIONS

Air Hoist1. Permit only authorized personnel to operate air hoists.2. Before operating a hoist, be certain that it is in good working condition, that

the wire rope or chain is not defective, that the hook is not bent, and that spring rope

or chain retainers on the hooks are working.3. Display the safe load capacity of each hoist in conspicuous figures on the

hoist body of the machine. Do not exceed the weight limitation.4. Always try to center the hoist over the load before lifting.

5. Allow for any possible swing when the load leaves its resting place, andstand to one side when making the lift if the load is attached at an angle to the hoist.

6. Manipulate the controls to lift the load slowly.7. Do not stand or allow anyone else to work or stand under suspended loads.




LARGE TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT 53

8. Never lift a load on the point of the hook. Equip hooks with spring-loadedlatches.

9. When moving a hoisted load, always push, rather than pull it, in order tokeep feet out of danger if the burden should fall.

10. Keep hands from places where pinching is likely to occur.

Mobile Cranes1. Permit only authorized personnel to operate a crane or hoist.2. Display the safe load capacity of each hoist or crane in conspicuous figures

on the hoist body of the machine. Do not exceed the weight limitation. Check crane orhoist to be sure it is in good operating condition. Inspect visible critical components

daily.3. Test hoist limit controls and brakes before each shift, as well as boom

supports and clevis pins.4. Before handling an unusually heavy load, test the brakes to make sure full

control is available.5. Appoint a signalperson and move the load only at the standard signals

(Figure 7-1).6. Be certain that everyone is safely out of the way before moving or swinging

a load.7. Lower a load that does not ride properly when raised. Adjust signals and

rigging as necessary.

8. Do not carry loads over workers, and do not let anyone walk or stand undera suspended load or the crane boom.

9. If possible, avoid uneven ground when “walking” a crane that has a load onthe boom.

10. Never allow anyone to ride on loads or hooks.

11. Avoid proximity to electrical conductors or apparatus.12. All personnel working with lifting equipment must wear hard hats.

13. If a crane or other equipment makes accidental electrical contact with anenergized line, do not touch the crane or equipment.

14. If possible, use synthetic fiber slings in lieu of wire when operating nearelectrical conductors, or ground the crane.

15. Securely lock outriggers and place outrigger pads properly on timbers orsteel or aluminum plates to secure footing for safe operation of the crane.

16. Use extreme caution when working cranes on unstable ground or adjacentto an open excavation.

Overhead Traveling Crane1. Display the safe load capacity of each hoist or crane in conspicuous figures

on the hoist body of the machine. Do not exceed the weight limitation. Permit only

authorized personnel to operate a traveling crane.2. Use both hands when climbing onto or descending from the crane cab. Lift

tools and materials to the cab with a handline.

3. Lock out and tag the main power switch of a crane if repairs are to be made.4. Keep unauthorized persons off the crane.5. Ensure that controls are in the off position before opening or closing the

main switch.





6. Inspect all crane equipment before each shift. Make sure that circuitbreakers, limit stops, brakes, and all other safety devices are operative. Check thecondition of the hook and associated rigging.

7. If the power should fail, move the controls to the off position at once; wait

until the signal lamp lights before turning the controls to the on position.

8. Never depend on a limit switch to stop a motor; use the controls for thispurpose.

9. Be certain that all signals are clearly understood. Observe the details of

loads being moved, and, if anything seems unsafe, stop the crane until the situationis corrected.

Figure 7-1 Standard signals for mobile cranes.




LARGE TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT 55

Figure 7-2 Standard signals for overhead traveling cranes.

Figure 7-3 Overhead traveling cranes are used to lift and move large, heavy objects.





10. Use only standard signals to control crane operations (Figure 7-2).11. Do not move loads over the heads of workers or allow them to walk, stand,

or work under a suspended load. When moving loads in populated areas, sound awarning signal to make sure that everyone moves to safe locations.

12. Whenever the crane is left, place all controls in the off position, open the

main switch, and set the brakes so that they are secure.13. Require all personnel to wear hard hats.14. Use only approved equipment for lifting all types of material (Figure 7-3).




Chapter 8

AWWA MANUAL

Operating and

Maintaining Vehicles

MOTOR VEHICLE OPERATION

The Driver1. Develop the knowledge and skills required to make defensive and safe

driving practices a habit. Check and maintain the vehicle properly, use all safety

equipment, show courtesy to the other driver, signal well in advance of any directionalchange, and take pride in developing driving skills.

2. Know and observe all traffic regulations.

3. Give each newly employed driver a road test, using the type of vehicle that

will be driven regularly. Give additional road checks after any accident to determineand correct any unsafe driving habits.

4. Refuse to drive unsafe vehicles and be responsible.

Checking and Equipping the Vehicle1. Check vehicle safety daily. Check lights, horn, muffler, glass defroster, tires,

wipers, and oil and fuel levels. Adjust mirrors, seat belts, and seats to a comfortableposition.

2. Equip trucks with flares, flags, and fire extinguishers as required by local

law. Use suitable lights and reflectors that outline the truck.3. After starting the engine, slowly move the vehicle while the brakes and

steering are tested. Drive the vehicle only after proven safe.

4. Do not overload vehicles or load them so that vision is obstructed. Identifyobjects extending beyond the truck bed with appropriate flags.

5. Equip each vehicle with the respective forms for reporting accidents andneeded mechanical repairs, and instruct the driver how to use them.

6. Equip all vehicles used after daylight hours with adequate blinker warning lights so that the vehicles will be visible from either direction.





7. Do not transport employees on trucks unless seats are installed. Do notstand on the truck’s running board or bed.

Avoiding Accidents

1. Because intersection accidents occur frequently, use extreme caution whileapproaching and entering an intersection.

Approach intersections with foot off the throttle and poised over the brake. Thisis particularly important if the light is “stale” green or if the intersection isblind.

First look left, then look right, then look left again.

Never assume the right-of-way; always yield it.

2. Pass other vehicles with caution.

Check for clearance from behind, as well as ahead, before passing.

Tap your horn to alert the driver of the car you are passing.

Accelerate and pass, and return to your own lane as quickly as possible.3. Backing accidents are preventable motor vehicle mishaps. Backup alarms

are required on most trucks. To eliminate most backing accidents, take these simple

precautions.

If possible, park in a position that will not require backing.

Leave a safety cone at the rear of the vehicle when parked.

Circle the vehicle before moving it, retrieve the cone, and check for obstructions.

If backing is necessary, be sure it is possible to do so safelyturn head and look. If any doubt exists, get out and look.

Use mirrors and also

If rear vision is restricted, have someone direct, using prearranged signals youboth understand. Stop if the guide is no longer visible.

4. Bad weather driving has its own built-in hazards that can be overcome byobserving the following safety suggestions:

Remember, the first few minutes of a storm are likely to produce slippery

pavement because the oil film on the road has not yet washed away.

Slow down.

Pump brakes when stopping. Use them gently.

To recover from a skid, ease up on the gas. As traction is gained, steer gently inthe direction of the skid. Add power smoothly, and steer gently to original lane.Front-wheel drive vehicles may require some pressure on the gas pedal to

recover.

5. Following other vehicles too closely is another major cause of accidents. Always avoid it. Use the defensive-driving two-second interval rule to maintain a safedistance from the car ahead. Also, “drive ahead” by watching the cars ahead of theone being followed. Because driving behind a truck or camper precludes driving ahead, follow such vehicles at a longer distance. When safe to do so, pass the vehiclethat blocks visibility.

Additional information appears under Refueling Motor Vehicles, and Truck andCar Tire Inflation in this manual.




OPERATING AND MAINTAINING VEHICLES 59

SERVICING DIESEL AND GASOLINE ENGINES

Storing Gasoline and Oil Agencies interested in fire prevention control the storage of flammable liquids.Because safety requirements vary with different localities and even different sectionsof the same locality, the following organizations should approve storage facilities:

Local fire department;

State fire marshal’s office;

Fire insurance examiner’s office;

Fire insurance rating inspection bureau; and

Local and state building inspection bureau.

Store gasoline, diesel, and oil using extreme caution according to the following:1. Store large quantities of gasoline and diesel fuel outside of buildings. Store

oil in small tanks or drums aboveground in open-faced buildings with adequate

ventilation.2. Transport or store small quantities of gasoline or diesel fuel in approved,

properly marked safety containers.3. Always adequately ventilate storage areas or facilities where flammable

liquids are used.

4. Never fill tanks or small containers to capacity. Allow space of at least threepercent for expansion due to increased temperature.

5. Keep all tanks and containers closed, except when filling or emptying.6. Do not place small containers within 10 ft (3 m) of stairways, exits, or

passageways.

7. To avoid igniting gasoline or oil:

Arrange a standard procedure for filling and emptying containers.

Control static electricity by grounding and bonding tanks, hoses, and receivers.

Maintain constant contact between the nozzle and the gas tank.

Do not transfer gasoline during electrical storms.

Use explosion-proof lighting and electrical equipment.

Prevent excessive rise in temperature; do not store flammable liquids in the sun.

Keep gasoline away from open flames or heating units,

8. Practice meticulous housekeeping:

Avoid spilling liquids, and wipe up all overflow immediately.

Store waste in covered metal containers until disposal.

Do not accumulate flammable materials.9. Do not permit smoking; display prominent “No Smoking” signs.

10. Know the location of all exits.11. Use an approved pump to dispense fuel to gasoline engines. Do not use

gravity-flow equipment.

12. Know the location and type of fire-fighting equipment and how to use it.

Provide approved fire extinguishers, and post signs indicating their locations.

Check fire extinguishers regularly to ensure proper working order.

Do not block or obstruct the area around extinguishers.





13. Keep a portable fire extinguisher near any gasoline storage area. (SeeChapter 17, Fire Protection and Handling Emergencies in this manual.)

Starting an Engine1. Before starting an engine:

Make sure that all guards around moving and rotating parts are in place.

Remove all tools that are near the engine.

Make sure that the floor near the enginegrease, gasoline, and water spillage.

is clean, orderly, and free from all oil,

Ensure that all personnel are clear of danger.

Inspect for the presence of gasoline or oil vapors.

2. Make certain that the compressed-air equipment used for diesel starting has the proper pressure. If compressed air is not available, never use other bottled

gases to start a diesel engine.3. Make certain that battery connections are secured on engines with electric

starters. If jumper cables are used, properly attach them where sparks will not ignitebattery or gasoline vapors.

Operating the Gearshift1. Be thoroughly familiar with the manufacturer’s instructions for operating

and servicing machinery.2. Place the shift in neutral before starting the engine.

3. Keep guards in place at all times.4. Determine that equipment to be operated by the engine is in proper running

condition before engaging gear shift.

Managing Exhaust

1. Have all exhaust from engines vented to the outside by a properly installedmanifold and exhaust system. Periodically check this system to ensure that it is ingood operating condition and is free of leaks.

2. Make sure that the outside exhaust does not recirculate back into buildingsthrough open windows or ventilators.

3. Carefully investigate all pits and depressions in the building for accumula-

tions of hazardous vapors.4. Upon entering a building, immediately check for the presence of exhaust or

other gases; use only approved test instruments and methods.5. Maintain ventilating equipment in good condition.

General Rules of Repair1. Be properly clothed for the job:

When using or working close to revolving power tools, rotating shafts or drums,or machines with moving parts, never wear rings, neckties, loose or torn

clothing, or shirts with loose, floppy sleeves.

Wear a cap or hairnet to keep hair away from moving parts.

Keep shoes in good repair. Avoid rubber heels; use a nonslip material such as

neoprene.





Keep a complete change of work clothes available. Wash clothes frequently, andseparate them from street clothes.

Do not wear oil- or gasoline-soaked clothing, even for a short time; do not placesuch articles in hot water for cleaning because vapors may reach open flames

and explode.Never use compressed air to clean work clothes.

2. Set up and follow a regular, tested procedure for maintaining and repairing

engines.

3. Do not oil, adjust, or repair an engine while it is running or while its

exhaust manifold is hot. Stop the motor, and make sure that no one else can start itwhile work is being done.

4. Do not use gasoline, carbon tetrachloride, or other highly toxic cleaning

agents. (See the Repairs and Solvents section under Pumping Stations for informa-tion on solvents for cleaning engines.)

5. Wipe machine frequently, and keep the used rags in covered metal

containers until disposal. (See the Repairs and Solvents section under Pumping

Stations for additional information on solvents.)6. Do not smoke while working on an engine.

7. Get help to raise heavy objects, or use a chain hoist or other lifting

equipment.

8. Secure heavy, unbolted engine parts if it becomes necessary to leave thework area.

9. Practice good housekeeping; keep the floor around engines clean, dry, andfree of slippery materials and other obstructions. Wipe up spillage immediately.

10. Use nonsparking tools where flammable and explosive vapors may bepresent.

11. Know where an emergency shower is for use if clothes catch fire.

12. Know where fire extinguishers are, and be familiar with their use. (Periodic

training for all employees in the use of fire extinguishers is recommended.)13. When repairs are complete, remove all tools, portable lamps, planks, ropes,

and other objects, and clean up carefully. Before starting the engine, follow therecommendations presented earlier in this section.

AUTOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT Employ safe working practices to avoid the hazards involved in the maintenance, use,

service, and repair of the automotive equipment of waterworks plants. The following sections cover particular hazards and preventive measures found effective by otherindustries dealing with automotive equipment. These standards also apply to

automotive equipment used in the water industry.

Heavy-Duty EquipmentFollow these rules or precautions when working on, with, or around heavy equipment,such as dump trucks, backhoes, trenching machines, sidebooms, bulldozers, gas

shovels, air compressors, and front-end loaders:1. Place substantial blocking under any chain-hoist-suspended or jack-

supported equipment under which people must work. (The operator of trenching

equipment should never leave the controls while shovels are suspended withoutblocking.)





2. Keep feet clear of passing automobiles or moving machinery when it isnecessary to work underneath a car or other equipment. Wear safety shoes.

3. Do not inhale excessive carbon monoxide gas from exhausts of running engines. Provide proper ventilation.

4. Do not keep gasoline in open containers or pits.

5. Use a reasonably nontoxic solvent with a high flash point for cleaning parts.Never use gasoline or carbon tetrachloride.

6. Get help or use a hoist to lift unusually heavy loads.

7. Keep wrenches or other tools clean and in safe working condition.8. Secure unbolted heavy parts or engines if necessary to leave the work.9. Wear goggles when eye protection is needed.

10. Keep aisles and open spaces on floor free of tools and parts.11. Change clothes that become soaked with oil or gasoline; do not risk a fire.

12. Check that all lock washers and cotter pins are in place before deeming themaintenance work complete.

13. Always keep a suitable fire extinguisher ready. Inspect fire extinguishersregularly, and keep them in good operating order.

14. Enforce no-smoking rules.15. Ground electric appliances, keep them in good working condition, and

ensure that sparking will not ignite gases or vapors. Do not permit live cords to touchworkers.

16. Put oily rags in closed metal containers for disposal after use.17. Review personal-protection stipulations for arc welders (see section on Gas

and Arc Welders) before attempting such work.

Refueling Motor Vehicles1. Stop the engine before refueling.2. To avoid static sparks, insert the hose nozzle firmly in the tank, and, make

metallic contact. Hold the nozzle throughout the delivery to prevent overflow.

3. Maintain tight connections on the hose and nozzle to eliminate all leaks.4. Do not permit the tank to overflow.5. Drain the hose before removing the nozzle.6. Hang the nozzle securely, and cap the tank tightly.7. Change gasoline-saturated clothing immediately to prevent burns or skin

injury.8. Use a reasonably nontoxic solvent with a high flash point for cleaning parts.9. Prohibit smoking when delivering or receiving gasoline.

Grease Pits and HoistsIn plants without pits or hoists, most of the following rules are applicable whereequipment is greased or oiled:

1. Keep floors, steps, or walkways free of spilled oil or grease.2. Keep shoes free of oil and grease. Do not wear shoes with rubber heels.

(Neoprene or other nonslip soles and heels are suitable.)3. Control tools or other objects that might fall on or strike passersby

4. Keep hoses, cans, and other objects off driveways and walks.5. Keep out of danger when guiding a car to a hoist or pit.6. Do not allow anyone to remain in or near the car while it is being raised or

lowered.

7. Hold the lift control valve while a car is being lowered or raised.8. Never shoot a grease gun into the hand or point it at anyone.





9. Use tools correctly.10. Clean tools daily using a reasonably nontoxic solvent with a high flash

point, and wipe them frequently.

11. Make certain that the differential plate and the front-end plates will notstrike an obstruction and that no one is endangered when the car is backed away.

When the hoist is in a raised position, insert a clearly visible safety bar or rodthrough fluted holes to prevent the hoist from descending.

Steam and Wash RacksMany waterworks plants do not have elaborate areas or apparatus for steam or watercleaning automotive equipment. The following rules generally apply, however, to bothcomplete, temporary, or makeshift cleaning procedures.

1. Fill the coils to the proper level before igniting a steam cleaner.2. Be certain that the nozzle outlet is unobstructed.

3. Secure the hose connections at the nozzle and the machine.4. Provide adequate heat insulation at the nozzle handle and along the portion

of the steam hose touched by the operator.

5. Protect eyes and face with a face shield or goggles. Wear moisture-repellentclothing and footwear. Ensure that the ventilating system is properly removing the

fumes/vapors.

6. Carefully ground the noncurrent-carrying parts of a steam-cleaning machine.

7. Bond the steam nozzle to the container when steaming any container thatpreviously contained a flammable liquid.

8. To prevent caustic burns, carefully handle and prepare steam- or water-cleaning soap or compounds.

9. In oil-fired cleaners, use fuel with a sufficiently high flash point to preventaccumulations of volatile vapors.

10. Clean the firebox before ignition to prevent flarebacks.

11. Periodically check the blowoff gauge for proper functioning. After the burnerflame is off, keep the water supply on until coils are cool.

12. When the steam hose is not in use, secure it in its container.13. Periodically inspect steam hoses, especially at sharp bends.14. Prohibit horseplay in the area, especially with the steam-cleaning

equipment.

15. Remove the coil cover before lighting the fire under the coil.

16. When car or truck tops and hoods are being washed or polished, use a lowplatform or portable scaffold, when practicable, to prevent slipping.

17. Watch out for sharp edges when using a sponge or chamois.18. Do not use flammable solvents on the wash or steam racks.19. Keep all oily and greasy rags in closed metal containers.

20. Always practice good housekeeping.

Jacks1. Always make sure that the footing is substantial and at right angles to the

direction of lift.2. Center the jack head to prevent its slipping out of place under load.3. Protect hands, particularly the knuckles, by placing the jack so that there

will be a free, unobstructed swing of the handle.4. Avoid leaning over a jack handle while it is under load. (If something should

give way in the jack, the handle may fly up and cause injury.)





5. Remove jack handles from their sockets while jacks are under load so

workers will not fall over them or knock them out of position.6. Brace or support all jack-lifted loads diagonally to prevent the jacks from

tipping over.

7. Install adequate blocking under all jack-lifted loads before attempting to

work under them.8. Use good judgment in selecting jacks for a particular job; choose only a jack

that is safe and strong enough.9. When lowering, maintain a firm grip on the jack handle, and stay to one

side.

Chain Binders1. When using chain binders to secure a load, stand so that they are pulled

rather than pushed to apply tension on the handle.

2. Protect hands when a handle breaks over the center.3. Do not extend the handle of a chain binder; use two binders if necessary.4. Do not use defective binders. Have them repaired.

5. Place binders so that the handle does not extend beyond the edge of thetruck.

6. Secure the handle with an approved fastener.

Inflating Truck and Car Tires1. Always set the hand brake, and turn off the motor before inflating a

vehicle’s tires.2. Thoroughly inspect tires before inflating. Take extra precautions if obvious

weak spots exist in the casing; a blowout may cause blindness.3. Know and use only the pressure recommended for the size and kind of tire.4. Use a reliable pressure gauge. (Rough handling can easily throw a gauge

out of adjustment, and, in cold weather, some gauges do not work well.)

5. Place all tires mounted on multipiece wheels in a restraining device such asa cage that can withstand the maximum force that would be transferred to it during a rim wheel separation occurring at 150 percent of the maximum tire specification

pressure for that type of rim wheel. Place a single-piece wheel into a retaining deviceor barrier unless it is bolted to the vehicle during inflation. Permit only qualifiedpersonnel to do this task.




Chapter 9

AWWA MANUAL

Procedures for

Construction and

Related Activities

WORKING IN CONFINED SPACES

Underground structures, such as valve and meter manholes and vaults, may havecontaminated air. Records show that people have died in manholes contaminated bygas from a leaking gas main or by methane from decaying organic matter. In oneincident, a man died in a valve manhole with a soil floor because substances (such as vegetable matter) in the subsoil depleted the oxygen in the air so that animal lifecould not exist. Do not enter an underground structure without first assuring that theair is safe. Follow these precautions:

1. Use proper tools for opening the manhole or vault and handling the cover to

prevent foot and back injuries.2. Exercise every precaution to protect the work area from traffic hazards

(Figure 9-1). Barricades, signs, high-level warning devices, and lights should meet

local and state or provincial regulations to adequately warn traffic. (See section on

Posting Barricades and Warning Signs.)3. Do not enter until a proper entry permit is completed. The permit should

contain the following information (see Figure 9-2).

Specify the minimum acceptable environmental conditions for entry and work inthe confined space.

Assure and certify that the specified requirements are met.

Specify by name or job title the person authorizing or in charge of entry.

Name the attendant, if required.





Establish rescue procedures to summon assistance.

Describe hazards known or reasonably expected to be present in the confinedspace.

Specify means of isolating, cleaning, purging, or inerting necessary before entry

to remove or control hazards.

Describe additional hazards that might be generated by entrant’s activities.

Specify personal protective equipment,

ing, etc., necessary for entry or rescue.

including respiratory protection, cloth-

Where hot work is necessary, authorize it either as part of the entry permit or bya separate permit.

Specify rescue equipment that must be readily available.

Describe type of air monitoring done, time, date, and readings.

4. Train all employees working in or near confined spaces in proper work

procedures, confined space hazards, and rescue procedures.

5. Use approved equipment and methods to verify the absence of harmful ortoxic gases in an underground chamber before personnel enter. Do not consider safeany underground or confined structure until it has been demonstrated to be free of harmful gases and to contain sufficient oxygen to sustain life. Use an approved deviceto determine oxygen deficiency and concentrations of toxic or flammable gases.Periodically calibrate all monitoring or indicating equipment, and maintain records.

6. Provide adequate and continuous ventilation to ensure sufficient fresh airfor personnel within a vault or manhole. When a blower is used for this purpose, placethe discharge end near the bottom of the manhole to force the air up and out.

7. Prevent surface water or debris from accidentally entering the vault orsubsurface during work.

Figure 9-1 Barricades should be used around manholes and other work sites.




PROCEDURES FOR CONSTRUCTION 67

Figure 9-2 Sample permit—confined space entry.





Figure 9-2 Sample permit—confined space entry (continued).





8. Use proper shoring and bracing to prevent cave-ins while vaults or similar

openings are under construction. (See Constructing Trenches in this section.)9. Never endanger personnel safety with improper use of tools. Because falling

tools are hazardous, subsurface workers should always wear hard hats.10. Use mechanical lifting aids to raise, lower, or suspend heavy or bulky

material to personnel working in manholes or vaults.11. Always use a ladder for entering or leaving a manhole, vault, or pit over 4 ft

(1 m) deep.12. Prohibit smoking in or about a manhole.13. Continually station an attendant at the manhole entrance, and manhole

entrants should wear a lifeline and harness.14. Train the attendant to apply first aid and CPR. He or she should have

immediate access to rescue respiratory equipment and should maintain communica-tion with the person inside the confined space. A two-way radio is handy for obtaining

emergency help, if needed.

WORKING IN EXCAVATIONSHand Digging

1. Wear approved hard hats when working in or around excavations.2. Use only tools that are sharp and in good condition.3. Keep a safe distance from other workers to avoid striking them with tools.4. Do not jump into an excavation. If the excavation is shallow, sit on the

shoulder and slide in. Use ladders where required.

5. When requiring employees to be in excavations 4 ft (1 m) deep or more,provide an adequate means of exit, such as a ladder or steps. Locate it so no morethan 25 ft (8 m) of lateral travel is required. Extend the ladder from the bottom of the

excavation to at least 3 ft (0.9 m) above the top. Before climbing out of an excavation,

look all ways for traffic.6. Remove earth and other material to avoid overhanging banks. If undercut-

ting is necessary, provide adequate bracing. Restrict the public from all braced areas.7. Do not place excavated material closer than 2 ft (0.6 m) from the edge of an

excavation. Keep all tools, working from the excavation shoulder.

materials, and loose objects orderly and away

8. Keep tools, equipment, and excavated material out of open traffic lanes.Continually remove pebbles and small stones from, or prevent them from lodging on,a hard-surface roadway where tires may pick them up and throw them.

9. If possible, keep the spoil bank and/or the vehicle between workers and the

traffic.

10. Provide and maintain all necessary barriers, temporary bridges, walks,

warning signs, flags, flares, lights, and, when necessary, watchmen and flaggers toprotect workers, vehicles, and pedestrians (Figure 9-3).11. Take all necessary measures to prevent accidents to personnel and damage

to equipment. (See Shoring in this section.)12. Do not go under an overhanging bank; when working near one, be very

cautious.

the

13. If it is necessary to remove an overh

center, always facing the point of danger.anging bank, work from one side toward

14. If the walls of an excavation contain glass, wire, or other sharp objects,

carefully remove them.





15. When resuming excavation after heavy rains or freezing weather, inspect all

banks for cracks. These may indicate earth movement and the probability of cave-in.16. Frequently inspect the sides and rim of all open excavations to guard

against cave-in. Operate earth-moving equipment from a position that will not

imperil personnel or property by a cave-in due to vibration, stress, or dead weight.17. When making tunneled openings, be certain that the soil is either suitablybraced or compact enough to prevent cave-in.

18. If it is absolutely necessary to work above an overhanging bank, use a safetybelt and a lifeline. Have a helper nearby to assist in an emergency.

19. If caught in a landslide, jump or run up, never down, the bank.20. Avoid striking electric or telephone conduits, gas lines, or other substruc-

tures, particularly when using a pick, sharpshooter, or air gun. Locate other utilityinstallations before starting work.

21. Require workers to wear adequate eye, ear, and foot protection when using

a jackhammer or when exposed to flying particles or falling objects. Protect passersbyand property with canvas screens around impact work.

22. Always face machinery such as clam shells, backhoes, or trenching machines, and stay beyond one shovel length from the sweep of buckets or extended

booms.23. If another worker will strike or sledge impact tools, hold the tools by tongs

or toolholder, not by hand.24. When possible, provide a safe area for onlookers away from the work site.

Always keep children away from work areas.25. Take rests at designated locations away from the excavation.

Figure 9-3 Installation of a water main requires necessary barriers, warning signs, and otherprotective measures.





Trenching MachinesThe following rules apply equally to all mechanical devices used to dig trenchesand/or make excavations including various types of trenchers, backhoes, buckets,scoops, and similar pieces of equipment.

1. Operators should always wear hard hats.2. Never attempt to oil or grease a mechanism or repair or adjust any moving

part of a trenching machine while it is in operation. Only qualified personnel shouldoperate a trenching machine.

3. Guard all moving parts. Before starting the conveyor, make sure that no

person is endangered by it.4. To remove obstructions from the conveyor mechanism or buckets, stop the

machines.5. Be alert for falling material that might roll from the conveyor.6. When practicable, drop dirt between the excavation and the highway to act

as a barrier.

7. Cautiously fill gasoline or diesel tanks. Keep spout in metallic contact with

the machine to prevent static sparks from bridging the gap and igniting the vapors.Do not smoke. Keep proper fire extinguishers available when refueling constructionequipment. Use only approved containers when storing flammables on the job site;

clearly mark and define storage areas.8. Use flags by day and flashing lights or flares by night to warn the public of

the trenching machine and its operations. Liberally use these precautions on all

highway or street work. Plan the warning system before the work is started.9. Operate the machine vertically to prevent undercutting the trench walls.

10. When loading or unloading trenching machines or other heavy equipmentfrom truck beds, lowboys, or other conveyances, provide suitable skids and ampleblocking to prevent movement of the conveyance.

ShoringProper shoring cannot be reduced to a standard formula. Each job is an individualproblem and must be considered under its own conditions. Federal and state orprovincial standards list specific recommendations for shoring of excavations(Figure 9-4). The worker should take the following general precautions:

1. Do not take chances that may lead to injury or stop work.2. Either use tight sheet shoring to guard against the caving in of sandy soil or

loose material when the depth of the excavation exceeds 5 ft (2 m), or cut back thebank to the proper slope. Keep shoring at or near the bottom of the ditch as it isexcavated and follow with bracing to ensure safety Trench shields are also acceptableas a protective system. A trench shield does not protect the environment, only theworker.

3. The placement of shores will depend on the type (classification) of soil

encountered. Local, state or provincial, and federal laws mandate the distances andsizing of shoring support systems.

4. Extend shoring of any type below the excavation bottom whenever possible,and brace it thoroughly using timbers, wedges, and cleats, or a pipe/screw-jackcombination. Place all bracing at right angles to the sheeting or uprights and rigidlywedge, bolt, or cleat it to prevent movement. Hydraulic units are being used in many

types of utility-trench construction. (See Figures 9-5 and 9-6 for proper procedure.)





Figure 9-5 Proper installation of trench bracing prevents serious accidents.

Figure 9-6 A properly braced trench can save lives.





5. Use only full-sized lumber that is assessed to be sound and straight.6. Install the upper braces or screw jacks first, and remove them last for best

protection.

7. Also consider excavation dimensions, soil stability, variable weather andmoisture conditions, proximity of other structures, weight and placement of soil and

equipment used on the job, and sources of vibration when choosing the type of shoring to use, if any. The decision must rest with the engineer or foreman in charge.

8. Use hydraulic jacks temporarily only, and replace them with properly sizedscrew jacks or solid bracing.

Blasting OperationsOnly authorized and experienced employees may use explosives. These employeesmust conduct blasts in accordance with nationally recognized good practices. Always

heed the following principles for avoiding accidents when using explosives:1. The fewest possible people should handle explosives to reduce the risk of

accident.2. Choose only those with good judgment to handle explosives. Train these

people properly.3. Rigidly enforce all safety regulations.4. Do not use a two-way radio near blasting areas, as it might prematurely

detonate a charge.5. Have the explosive manufacturer’s technical representative instruct the

field crews in all blasting practices.

Storing Explosives1. Always purchase, possess, store, transport, handle, or use explosives in

accordance with local, state or provincial, and federal regulations.2. Store explosives only in a magazine that is dry, well ventilated, properly

located, substantially constructed, and securely locked. Keep the area within 25 ft

(8 m) of magazine clean and clear.3. Keep explosives away from children.4. Prohibit smoking, carrying of matches, open lights, or other fire or flame in

or near a magazine or while explosives are being handled.5. Prohibit the use of firearms near of a magazine.6. Store only explosives in a magazine; leave all other materials outside.7. Replace the cover on a partially used package or case of explosives.

8. Store all cases of dynamite so that cartridges lie horizontally.9. Store blasting caps or electric blasting caps in a box, container, or magazine

separate from other explosives.

10. Protect blasting caps or electric blasting caps from the direct rays of thesun.

11. Store fuse or fuse lighters in a cool, dry place, away from any flammableliquids.

Handling Explosives1. Handle explosives carefully and with respect.

2. Open kegs or cases of explosives only outside and away from the magazine.3. Use wooden, rubber, or fiber tools to open cases of explosives.4. Burn empty explosives cases in the open to prevent them from being used

as fuel.





5. Keep explosives out of clothing pockets.

6. Do not allow sparks from construction machinery or welding operations to

fall in or near explosives or into drilled holes being loaded with explosives.7. Permit only essential persons near the blasting area.8. When destroying any explosives, strictly adhere to the methods recom-

mended by the manufacturer.9. Keep surplus quantities of explosives out of the tunnel or shaft during

blasting operations.10. Use fingers only to remove blasting caps from the box. Keep wire, nails, or

other instruments out of the open end of blasting caps.11. Do not tamper with or remove the wires of an electric blasting cap.12. Never tamper with or change the circuit of a blasting machine.13. In cold weather, warm the fuse slightly before uncoiling to avoid cracking

the waterproof coating.

Using Explosives1. Properly dispose of explosives that have become obviously deteriorated by

water or aging.2. Do not make up primers in a magazine or near explosives.

3. Do not force cartridges of any explosives either into a bore hole or past any

obstruction in one.4. Avoid springing a borehole near another one loaded with explosives.

5. Be sure the hole has cooled sufficiently before springing a second time.6. Use only a wooden rod for tamping.7. Use only noncombustible material for stemming.8. Before firing a charge, ensure that all surplus explosives are in a safe place

and that all persons and equipment are at a safe distance or under sufficient cover.Give adequate warning before firing a charge.

9. Allow smoke and fumes to dissipate before returning to the blast area.

10. Recharge a misfired explosive with a new detonator, and make anotherattempt to set it off; do not drill, bore, or attempt to pick out the explosive.

11. Use only one manufacturer’s blasting cap in a circuit.12. Discontinue all blasting operations during electrical storms. Be careful

during a high wind, as it may produce sufficient static to detonate charges.13. Use a blasting galvanometer to test all electric blasting caps before using

and when connected in a circuit.14. Use no. 14 gauge single-conductor copper blasting wire. Be certain that the

wire ends are bright and clean before making electrical connections.15. Do not cut cap leg wires unless absolutely necessary.16. Insulate or isolate blasting circuits from all possible sources of current or

paths of leakage.

17. Eliminate from the blasting area all electric wire or cable that is notrequired to set off the charge.

18. Use waterproof electric blasting caps and lead wires when blasting in wetconditions.

19. Use delay electric caps for setting off charges in footing holes.20. Operate a blasting machine at its maximum force.21. Cut the fuse only when ready to insert it into a blasting cap. With a clean,

sharp blade, squarely cut off an inch or two of the fuse to ensure a dry end. Withouttwisting, seat the fuse lightly against the cap charge.





22. Cut the fuse long enough to extend at least 2 ft (0.6 m) beyond the collar of the hole to allow time to get safely away. The minimum length of a safety fuse is36 in. (1 m).

23. Use a standard cap crimper, making sure that the cap is securely fastened

to the fuse.

24. Under wet conditions, thoroughly waterproof the joint between fuse and cap.25. Always keep the fuse free of kinks.26. Use sufficient stemming to protect explosives from the end spit of a fuse or

flying matchheads.27. After a blast, permit only an experienced powderman to work in the area

until it is definitely proved safe.

Posting Barricades and Warning Signs1. Place advance warnings, instructional signs, barricades, and delineators

well ahead of the construction area to warn motorists and pedestrians of the area andsafely take them through or past it. All such protection devices must meet theappropriate federal, state or provincial, or local specifications for size, shape, color,

and placement.2. Protect the work area with barricades, barriers, or planks to provide a safe

working space. If necessary, use flaggers to direct and slow down traffic. When used,place trucks or air compressors between the work and the traffic (Figure 9-7).

3. During periods of reduced visibility, use adequate lighting on all barricades.4. When no work is in progress, place adequate barriers, barricades, flashing

lights, and signs to warn and divert traffic. Use reflecting tape on all barricades.5. In winter, divert traffic, if necessary, from streets covered with surface ice

resulting from a main break until sanding or scarifying restores safe driving conditions.

6. All personnel should wear protective clothing including hard hats and high visibility traffic vests.

Figure 9-7 Trucks or air compressors should be placed between the work and traffic.




Chapter 10

AWWA MANUAL

Using Pipe

and Leaded Joints

PIPE

Proper HandlingHandling pipe is no job for an amateur; assign only trained professionals using properequipment to this task. Safe, successful completion of work involving pipe handling

also rests on following a proven method. Do not take undue risks with the safety of the crew by trying unconfirmed shortcuts; the time saved is not worth the chance of a

serious accident. Carefully follow tested procedures for handling pipe:1. Ensure that members of each crew work together in moving pipe by hand.

Accidents sometimes result because one person lifts or lets go of the load before theothers are ready. Use standard signals.

2. Use a U-shaped carrying bar, carrying tongs, or pipe sticks that areadequate for the pipe’s size and weight. Do not use makeshift tools.

3. Firmly grip the lifting bar or tongs; be sure hold will not slip.4. When lifting or lowering a weight, bend the knees, place the load on the leg

and thigh muscles (not on the abdominal and back muscles), and keep the back fairlyperpendicular.

5. Lift and lower when the person in charge signals so that all crew membersmove together. Avoid sudden starts or stops.

6. Ensure that skids are of ample strength, and securely place them.7. When unloading pipe from trucks or cars, lower individual pieces by snubs

all the way down the skids (Figure 10-1).

8. Do not stand between the skids while pipe is being lowered.9. Before snubbing operations begin, carefully inspect the ropes for defects.

10. Wear gloves for all snubbing operations, as slipping rope may burn barehands.

11. Prevent the uncontrolled rolling of pipe. Use wood chocks when necessary.





12. When manually lifting or lowering pipe in an excavation, use two or morerope slings looped under the pipe and handle from each side of the excavation. Toprevent a heavy pipe from pulling workers into the excavation, anchor one end of each

rope sling to a massive object such as a truck.13. When aligning pipe in the excavation either manually or mechanically, keep

hands and fingers away from ends of pipe and other substructures that could crush.14. Govern crane operations by the signals of a qualified worker only.15. Never try to catch and hold a length of pipe that slips from a crane or hoist

sling.

16. Be alert to unsafe excavation sides when measuring, testing, or inspecting pipe in place on an excavation bottom.

17. When cutting sections of pipe, keep feet in the clear and use adequateblocking, chocks, or pipe vises to prevent pipe movement. Wear safety goggles.

18. Keep tools and appliances in good condition for handling, cutting, threading,or treating pipe. Always use the right tool for the job.

19. Do not let tools or materials become stumbling hazards where pipe is being handled.

20. Avoid shortcuts and makeshift methods that may increase the hazards of handling pipe.

21. When cutting, sawing, or milling asbestos–cement pipe, take specialprecautions, and follow local, state or provincial, and federal regulations.

Proper Storage1. Store small pipe in racks according to length and size.

2. Always block pipe to prevent it from rolling or falling.3. Carefully handle threaded pipe, because threads are sharp and can cut

flesh.

Figure 10-1 Individual pieces of pipe should be lowered from trucks or cars.




USING PIPE AND LEADED JOINTS 79

4. Store pipes larger than 2 in. (50 mm) in diameter by stacking them withspacing strips placed between each row.

5. Arrange and block each row of stacked pipe to prevent it from rolling from

the pile (Figure 10-2). Use reasonably permanent material, such as chemicallytreated wood, for blocking.

6. Always withdraw pipe from the top rows.7. In pipe-storage areas or where cranes handle allied pipe material, teach

workers the signals used by the operator, and stay clear of the load’s path. Usestandard signals.

8. Always keep pipe yards and walkways clean and orderly (see Figure 10-3).

Handling Accidentally Energized Water MetersElectric current will flow only through a closed circuit. Electrical utilities commonlyground a service via a driven ground rod at the transformer pole or via the servicegrounds, where there are three or more services. These services are usually groundedto the water pipe.

In the event of an electrical fault or defective neutral, the current can flow

through the water-service system and return to the electrical source through anotherroute such as the neutral wire of other electrical services in the area.

Everything is safe so long as the “water system circuit” is neither interrupted

nor opened, such as when the water meter is removed. In this case, anyone whotouches the pipe where the meter was removed can complete the electric circuit and

have the current flow through his or her body.To protect the employee removing or installing a meter, bypass the meter by

attaching an insulated jumper wire of adequate current-carrying capacity to the pipeat both sides of the water meter. The jumper clips should penetrate any coating of dry

Figure 10-2 Pipe should be stacked so as to prevent it from rolling.





Figure 10-3 Storage yards should be kept clean and orderly.

soil, rust, or corrosion that acts as insulation and make good electrical contact withthe metal of the pipe. The jumper is a better conductor than the human body, and thecurrent will flow through it, rather than through the employee working on the meter.

After the meter is removed, use a clamp-on ammeter to measure the amount of

current flowing through the cable. If any current is detected, notify the local electric

utility immediately, as well as the homeowner if a residential meter is being replaced.

LEADED JOINTS

Melting Lead1. When melting lead, minimize actual contact with, or spillage of, hot

material. Take special precautions whenever the work is done where spillage could

endanger workers in vaults, excavations, or other excavations.2. Do not put wet material or water into the molten lead or suddenly add large

quantities of lead to the melting pot. Such actions frequently cause explosions in thelead pot.

3. While the lead is melting, heat the ladle to evaporate any moisture in it.

4. Preheat new lead before adding it to already molten metal.5. When adding or drawing lead to or from the pot, always wear gloves or

mittens, roll down sleeves, use a face shield, and wear high-top shoes (Figure 10-4).6. When pouring lead, secure footing, wear gloves, roll down sleeves, and wear

a face shield. Stand in back of the bell or sleeve opening (Figure 10-5). If the jointcontains moisture, pour in a small amount of oil before the lead.

7. Do not obstruct the path between the lead-melting operation and the pointwhere the lead is to be poured. Warn all workers along the route to be alert and to

stand clear when hot material is being carried.




USING PIPE AND LEADED JOINTS 81

Figure 10-4 Proper protective clothing should be worn when adding lead to a melting pot.

Figure 10-5 Stand in back of the bell or sleeve opening when pouring a joint.





8. Do not breathe any fumes or vapors from melting pot. Use respiratoryprotection if airborne concentrations of lead exceed acceptable limits.

9. Exercise personal cleanliness to help reduce the hazard of lead poisoning.Wash hands and face before eating or drinking.

10. Wear adequate clothing (with sleeves rolled down), gloves, and eye shield

while handling molten metal.

Caulking1. Permit only those workers actually engaged in caulking in the immediate

area.

2. Keep a caulking operation free from distractions or unsafe conditions that

could contribute to an accident.3. Maintain and use only tools that are approved and in good condition.4. Wear adequate eye protection when using impact tools.5. Provide adequate work space around the joint to be caulked.

Melting Compounds1. When melting calking compound, avoid unnecessary contact with primer orcompound fumes, especially when using bitumastic or phenolic compounds. To reducethe hazard of burns from fumes retained in clothing, change and clean clothing every

day.2. When carrying the hot material in buckets, use buckets with riveted

construction for additional protection.

3. Carry hot compounds in closed buckets constructed for that purpose. Forsafety’s sake, each worker should carry only one bucket at a time, using only onehand. Keeping the other hand free may help prevent accidents by providing betterbalance.

4. Use handlines to raise or lower buckets containing hot material.

5. Open the kettle valve slowly to avoid splashing the hot compound.6. Never leave the kettle unattended while the contents are hot.




AWWA MANUAL

Chapter 11

Water Storage Areas

PUMPING STATIONSDanger is always present where machinery, such as pumps and motors, is operating and where high-voltage electricity is used. Undoubtedly, pumping station operatorshave the highest respect for the hazards involved in their occupation. Unfortunately,familiarity tends to breed carelessness and complacency Pay attention and remain

alert to avoid injury. Never be caught off guard. Carefully follow the safetyprecautions presented in this section.

Warm-Weather Operation1. Place gates across door areas to allow ventilation while excluding un-authorized persons.

Oiling Machinery1. Stop machinery before cleaning, oiling, or adjusting it.2. Lock out and tag the switchgear so that no one can start a machine being

worked on.3. Before starting a machine, be certain that personnel are clear of danger and

that working parts are free to move without damage.4. Apply enough oil or grease to lubricate adequately without overflow.5. Immediately wipe up all spilled oil or grease.

6. At each lubrication, inspect the condition of all visible machine parts.Immediately report unsafe conditions.

7. Replace all guards immediately after lubrication and before starting themachine.

8. Never point a grease gun at anyone or shoot grease into the hand.9. Handle tools properly.

10. Never leave tools where someone may trip over them.

11. When lubricating moving machines or machine parts, locate the lubricantfittings at least 12 in. (0.3 m) from dangerous moving parts, unless a pipe extendsfrom the fitting outside a guard.

83





Repairs and Solvents1. Lock out and tag the controlling switchgear before beginning work so that

another person cannot start the machinery.

2. Before commencing work, place substantial blocking under any equipment

suspended or supported by jacks or a chain hoist.3. Properly ventilate the work area. Use mechanical ventilation, if necessary,

to increase air circulation. When working in a confined space, follow the applicablerules for testing and ventilation.

4. Use only solvents having flash points of l00°F (38°C) or higher. (Petroleumsolvents, such as Stoddard solvents and kerosene, have high flash points and aresufficiently effective for cleaning operations involved in maintaining automotiveequipment. The volatility of such agents is low enough to prevent them from reaching

hazardous concentrations in ordinary size workrooms at normal temperatures.)5. Do not use solvents in confined places, such as tanks and pump pits,

without good mechanical ventilation. Use a respirator, if needed, for comfort and

protection when working in high solvent concentrations. (Petroleum solvents have an

anesthetic action in high concentrations, and all commonly used volatile solvents aretoxic to some degree. Benzol [benzene] is highly toxic, although its kindred substancestoluol [toluene] and xylol [xylene] are less toxic and, therefore, less dangerous. Woodalcohol, or methanol [methyl], is a strong poison. Other alcohols vary widely in

toxicity but, in general, are less poisonous than methanol. Petroleum solvents, suchas the naphthas and many trade name compounds, such as Stoddard solvents, areless toxic.)

6. Be careful when using solvents whose complete composition is not presented

on the container. (Trade name compounds may contain benzol or other highly toxicsubstances. Commercial grades of relatively nontoxic solvents may contain consider-

able amounts of highly toxic materials as impurities.)7. Bead material safety data sheets (MSDS) before using any solvent. The

MSDS will provide information on toxicity, flammability, and other usefulinformation.

8. Wear nonpermeable gloves to protect against possible skin irritation fromsolvents.

9. Do not use gasoline, carbon tetrachloride, or other highly toxic or low flashpoint cleaning agents. (Kerosene, Stoddard solvents, petroleum naphthas, and methylchloroform [1,1,1-trichloroethane] are reasonably safe. The last-named substance isnonflammable.)

10. Change clothes that become soaked with oil or gasoline rather than riska fire.

11. Keep a suitable fire extinguisher handy and ready for use.

12. Maintain sufficient labor and hoisting equipment to handle heavy objects.

13. Examine tools and keep them in safe working condition.14. Secure unbolted heavy objects if leaving the workplace.

15. Wear goggles when eye protection is needed.16. Keep aisles and open spaces on the floor free of tools and other objects.

17. A job is not completed until after it is certain that lock washers, cotter pins,and safety devices are in place.

18. Safely dispose of used solvents and solvent-soaked rags according toapplicable hazardous waste disposal regulations.




WATER STORAGE AREAS 85

Machinery Guards1. Adequately secure guards to shield, fence, rail, enclose, or otherwise guard

prime movers, power transmission equipment, and machines and machine parts.

(Such procedures will protect employees against exposure to, or accidental contact

with, dangerous moving parts.)2. Where it is necessary to change belts, make adjustments, or add lubricants,

provide guards with hinged or removable sections.

3. Where the guard or enclosure is within 4 in. (100 mm) of a moving part, themaximum opening in the screen should not exceed ½ in. (13 mm).

4. Where guards are located more than 4 in. (100 mm) and less than 15 in.(0.4 m) from a moving part, the maximum opening should not exceed 2 in. (50 mm).

5. Place standard railing guards not less than 15 in. (0.4 m) or more than20 in. (0.5 m) from moving parts.

6. Use guards strong enough to provide real safety. Construct guard structuresso that they cannot be pushed or bent against moving parts.

7. Remove and replace guards for maintenance only when the machinery is not

in operation.

Electric-Switch Panels1. Locate and construct switchboards so that fire hazard is minimized.2. Locate switchboards where they will not be exposed to moisture or corrosive

gases.3. Adequately illuminate the front and back of all switchboards when

adjusting, replacing, or repairing parts.4. Maintain a clear, adequately sized working space with secure footing around

all switchboards and motor-control equipment.5. Place special insulating mats on the floor at all switchboards.6. Properly guard or screen open switchboards, make them accessible only to

qualified and authorized personnel.7. Sufficiently ground all electric equipment, including switchboard frames.

8. Post permanent and conspicuous warning signs for panels carrying morethan 600 V.

9. Secure areas screened off because of high voltage with locks that open fromthe inside without keys.

10. Open and properly lock out and tag switches when personnel are working onequipment.

11. Use fully enclosed, shockproof panels when possible. Use interlocks on suchequipment so that it cannot be opened while the power is on.

TRANSFORMER STATIONS1. Familiarize water-utility employees with the layout and construction of

transformer stations so that they can safely do routine inspections and minormaintenance and recognize and report major damage, dangerous conditions, and

other problems needing correction by power company personnel. Provide plans of theelectric system at each station. Following are the types of stations normally found inwaterworks installations:

A two-pole structure consists of two 35-ft (11-m) poles with horizontal timbers

mounted approximately 12 ft (4 m) aboveground to support transformers. Associated equipment, such as disconnects and lightning arresters, is normally





installed on the crossarms of one pole. No enclosure is required in the two-poletype of station.

A ground platform consists of a concrete pad or base with two 35-ft (11-m) polesat either end of the pad. Transformers are placed on the pad below thehigh-voltage bus, which is normally 8 ft (2 m) above the base. Associated

equipment is installed on the crossarms of the incoming-line pole. The station isenclosed with a chain-link fence of sufficient dimensions to give required insideclearances (Figure 11-1). The gate provided on one side has a lock. The

structures and the fence are grounded. Warning signs are placed on all sides of the enclosure. If a building wall forms one side of the area, all windows andopenings are screened and barred.

A vault consists of a fireproof room—generally within a building—withminimum dimensions of 8 ft 20 ft (2 m 6 m). Ventilators to the outside

provide adequate cross-ventilation. Entry is by an approved fire door withoutself-locking devices. A sign warning of high voltage is prominently displayed onthe outside of the door. The high-voltage bus generally extends from one end of

the vault to the other, in the form of a strain bus (with protecting fuses) mountedon stanchions. The incoming line to the vault may enter either overhead from apole and down a standpipe or underground from a manhole. All low-voltageequipment is located outside the vault.

Figure 11-1 Transformer stations should be enclosed with a chain-link fence.





2. Instruct employees to report any dangerous or defective conditions or vandalism immediately. If a hazard is found, guard the area or take other action to

prevent accidents and injury to others. Report fallen cables, wires, timbers, or otherobjects immediately.

3. Familiarize all employees with the location and use of fire extinguishers.

Never use water or foam extinguishers near live conductors; carbon dioxide ordry-powder extinguishers are recommended. Extinguishers should contain onlynonconducting materials. Regularly inspect extinguishers to ensure good condition.

4. Securely lock enclosure gates and vault doors at all times except when entry

is required. Only qualified employees should have keys.5. Use a sharp, pointed tool or bar to periodically examine poles for decay at

the ground line. Tap poles above the g-round line with a hammer for evidence of decayor dry rot.*

6. Regularly inspect structures and fences to ensure that they are in place,undisturbed, and undamaged.*

7. Keep the area within and near enclosures clear of tall grass, weeds, andbrush.*

8. Always practice good housekeeping. Keep approaches and aisles to gatesand doors clear. Never use enclosures and vaults for storing tools and materials.*

9. Periodically check all warning signs and keep them in good repair.*

10. Inspect vaults for vapors and abnormally high temperatures. Check all

types of stations for leaking oil.*11. Be extremely careful when working about installations. Assume that the

transformer is energized unless it has been tested and proved otherwise. In absenceof such proof, observe all safety precautions for presence of full voltage.

12. Keep disconnect sticks clean and free from oil and grease and free of cracks.*

13. Wear gloves that meet approved standards when making disconnectsaround high voltage.*

14. Visually check gloves before each use, and have qualified personnel inspectthem annually for leaks.*15. Report any leaking transformer immediately.

16. Regularly inspect transformers known to contain PCB materials, andmaintain permanent records.

WELLS

DrillingGenerally, utility personnel do not drill wells. Rather, the drilling is handled bycontract with specialized, knowledgeable individuals doing the work. Drilling shouldcomply with applicable federal, state or provincial, and local regulations and safety

provisions.1. Before moving in or setting up the drilling rig, inspect the proposed site to

ensure it is free of overhead and underground electrical hazards and other utilities.2. Restrict the drilling area to authorized people only; do not allow the public

closer than 50 ft (15 m).

*Restrict these duties to employees of the power company, unless the watercompetent electrical staff and the electric company agrees to allow the inspection.

utility has a





3. Require the driller on each shift to ascertain that all machinery andequipment, such as tools and cables, are in safe working condition before drilling begins.

4. Construct a suitable working platform at the drill hole, and safely arrangethe materials or tools that must be stored or used on the platform.

5. Substitute wire rope for chains where possible.6. Use wire rope to lift the cap; never drive the casing while the cap is

suspended above.7. Maintain all machinery clutches in good condition to ensure that the release

mechanism will function properly.8. Install and maintain all necessary guards for mechanical power

transmission.

9. Stop the engine while repairs are being made.10. Permit only experienced personnel to work on the dynamiting of wells.

Always provide separate storage facilities for explosive caps and dynamite. (SeeBlasting Operations in this manual for additional information on explosives.)

11. Safely handle and store gasoline on a drilling job; provide gasoline drums

with locked spigots.12. Take adequate measures to prevent explosions and asphyxiations fromsubterranean gases. Amply ventilate all enclosures.

Housing Wells1. When wells are located within a building, amply ventilate them to assure all

toxic or flammable gases are exhausted to the outside. Securely lock the building atall times, and allow only authorized personnel on the premises.

2. Collect well-head gases and vent them to the outside of the well house.Liberate them at an elevation above the roof.

3. All electrical equipment should be explosion-proof. Prohibit smoking withinthe well house.

4. Consult engineers at the department of health if the well house is believedto contain toxic or flammable gases. The engineers can test the air for hazardoussubstances or for the lack of oxygen. (The common gases to be investigated are carbondioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, and hydrogen sulfide.)

5. Properly fence in wells and associated electrical equipment not housed inbuildings to keep out unauthorized persons. Post signs warning of high voltage andother dangers in or about the fenced areas.

ELEVATED TANKS

Climbing TanksPermit only trained, experienced workers to work on standpipes and elevated tanks.Such occupation is hazardous and not suited to the water-utility employee untrainedin this type of activity Do not employ nonprofessionals to conduct the necessaryperiodic tank inspections. Observe the following precautions:

1. Use a safety belt wherever possible.2. Keep shoes in good repair at all times. Before climbing, inspect shoes, and

remove oil, grease, mud, or other slippery material.3. Face the ladder when ascending or descending; always use both hands. Do

not permit more than one person on a ladder at the same time.





4. Keep ladder rungs free of oil, grease, mud, or other slippery material.5. When using a ladder for the first time:

Carefully inspect it for defective rungs, loose weldings or rivets, and otherdangers.

Test each rung before putting full weight on it.Note carefully the width and spacing of the rungs.

Be extra careful if rungs are staggered.

6. Step on every rung. Use a ladder with safety feet.7. Protect ladders set up in alleyways, walkways, and roadways by proper

placement of barricades.8. Do not place ladders on slanting, oily, or slippery surfaces; if unavoidable,

secure the ladder thoroughly or have another employee hold it.9. Do not remain on a tank during an electrical storm.

Repairing Tanks

1. Follow these personal safety measures:Do not wear loose, bulky, or torn clothing.

Wear a hard hat when underneath overhead work.

Use a safety belt aboveground if both hands are needed for the work.

Wear an approved respirator when spray painting or when exposed to hazardous vapors, fumes, and dust.

Wear safety goggles, respiratory protection, and face shields when wirebrushing, chipping, dusting, sand blasting, welding, burning paint, ordisinfecting.

2. Properly use and maintain tools and equipment.

Keep tools clean and in good repair.Do not use matches or other open flames in tank interiors. Use explosion-proof flashlights or electric lights.

Ground all electric equipment. Use three-pronged plugs with a third long groundlug.

Use only extension cords that are listed by the Underwriters Laboratories and

labeled to show compliance with National Electric Code requirements. Regularlyinspect cords before using.

Provide only rubber-sheathed cords for equipment in tanks and other groundedstructures.

Use low-voltage equipment, GFIs or 24 V, in damp locations and in tanks that

are wet or that will cause excessive perspiration.

Use bronze tools if there is any danger from flammable or explosive gases.

3. Before entering a tank:

Use approved equipment and methods to check for toxic and explosive gases and vapors or absence of oxygen.

Inspect the ventilation.

not adequate.

Provide ventilating equipment if natural ventilation is





Sufficiently light dark interiors.

Place portable generators, compressors, and other equipment where their engineexhaust gases will not enter the tank.

Before starting work in the tank, cover the riser opening with timbers, grating,

or other protection if there is no permanent grating.4. Keep a firm grip with one hand if it is necessary to work briefly from a

ladder. Do not reach farther than an arm’s length from the ladder. Use a safety belt if work at one location will take a lot of time.

5. Do not work from a ladder in a high wind.6. Do not inspect or work alone on or inside a tank. Workers entering a tank

should wear harnesses to hold them upright. Fasten the harnesses to a safety line.Station a helper on the outside to hold the line, and keep rescue equipment available.

7. Securely fasten all temporary planks and scaffolding.8. Carry tools in tool box, bag, or tool belt; never carry tools, particularly

sharp-edged or pointed tools, in pockets or pants belt. Minimize the number of toolsin a tool belt.

9. Haul tools, equipment, and materials with a handline and tool bucket.10. When descending, bring the tools. Do not leave tools on elevated ledges,

angle irons, or roofs.

11. Take all possible precautions against dropping tools.12. Inspect all rope and tackle and wire rope before using. Do not load such

tackle beyond rated capacity.13. Never look at the direct light of an arc welder without protective goggles.

(Even reflected light from an arc welder is sufficient to injure eyes.)14. When using rope for slinging purposes, keep it away from sharp edges,

which could fray or cut it. Apply blocking and padding where needed.

Handholds and Railings

1. For fixed ladders over 20 ft (6 m) in height, refer to local, state or provincial,and federal regulations regarding cages or climbing devices (Figure 11-2). All laddersshould extend 3 ft (1 m) above the landing.

2. Provide handholds or grips above the tops of all ladders.3. Provide railings for balconies and stairways.4. When working around tanks for the first time, carefully check all railings,

handholds, and gratings. Do not assume that they are in good condition, and do notuse or lean against them until they are proven reliable.

5. Before using, ensure that handholds and railings are free of grease, oil, ice,

or other slippery material.6. Do not use railings to carry weights and loads from block and tackle.

Fencing1. To protect equipment and personnel and to deter trespassing, enclose all

distribution system facilities, including tanks, with at least a 6-ft (2-m) chain-linkfence or equivalent.





Figure 11-2 Elevated tanks should be equipped with approved cages or climbing devices.

RESERVOIRS AND LAKES

General Precautions1. All employees should watch carefully for unusual and unsafe conditions,

such as leaks in dam structures, defective machinery, unsafe practices, etc., and

report them immediately to the employee in charge.

2. Post warning signs and guard railings where the public may approach any

hazardous place. Warn the public of any unusual hazards.

3. Where a water hazard exists, install, in an accessible location, cork or kapok

life rings attached with a 3/8-in. (10-mm) Manila or nylon line.

4. At work sites near open water or dams along canals, at forebays, and at

other structures, provide life rings, vests, snub lines, and other suitable precautions.

5. Establish a system of hydraulic and mechanical work clearances to ensure

that employees doing maintenance or construction work around dams or reservoirs

will be safe. Hydraulic clearances promote awareness that people are working where

an unexpected flow of water may endanger their safety.





Power Boat Safety1. Examine bilge for excess water.

2. Ventilate compartments; leave compartments and bilge open until engine isrunning. Run bilge blower 5 min before starting engine.

3. Check all emergency gear—life jackets, cushions, ring buoys, fire extin-guisher, boat hooks, oars, etc.—before using boat.

4. Run engine long enough to reach normal operating temperature. Check

instrument panel. Stop engine if oil-pressure gauge fails to indicate sufficientpressure.

5. Report weak battery or any other difficulties in starting engine.

6. Check bow and stern mooring lines. Be certain one end of each line issecured to substantial fitting on the boat.

7. Run engine at least once weekly, and bring up to normal operating temperature to dry out internal condensation.

8. Shut off fuel line at tank when finished with boat.

Using Emergency Gear1. Supply a life jacket or cushion for each person on board.2. Except in large boats with sufficient freeboard, all persons who must walk

about in the boat, handle material, or lean over the side, should wear life jackets.3. Everyone aboard should wear life jackets during operations at night or

when in choppy water.4. Equip boats operating at night with lights, mooring lines, boat hooks, and

two oars.5. When boats are operated at night, notify someone on shore of departure

time and estimated return time.

6. Cork ring buoys, if supplied, shall have 50 ft (15 m) of 3/8-in. (10-mm) Manila

line or equivalent attached.




Chapter 12

AWWA MANUAL

Operating and

Maintaining Buildings

CLEANING WINDOWSMake window cleaning, a hazardous occupation, safe by following these rules:

1. Inspect the safety harness each day before use. Make sure that all metalparts, ropes, and straps are in good condition.

2. Examine window anchors before using them. If an anchor is loose or badly

worn, do not use it, and tell the supervisor immediately.3. If acid or alkaline cleaning solutions are used, inspect the safety rope

frequently for chemical deterioration, and wear rubber gloves.4. Before climbing outside, put one belt terminal in place on the anchor, and

anchor both terminals, without twists, before starting work.5. Tell the supervisor if extreme cold or wind is creating a hazard. Operations

should then be shut down.6. Also inform the supervisor if work going on above window cleaning

operations creates a hazard from falling objects.7. Always keep one belt terminal anchored until inside the sill.8. Work with one hand only and stabilize with the other to place less strain on

the safety belt.

9. Firmly grip and use one tool at a time to avoid dropping it. Prevent waterfrom falling on pedestrians or vehicles.

10. A competent person should inspect the safety belt at least once every threemonths.

CLEANING, SCRUBBING, AND WAXING FLOORS All cleaning chemical solutions and waxes should have mixing, storage, and safehandling instructions. All containers should be well marked for contents. Never mix

93





different solutions together if their containers do not provide instructions. Avoidmixing chlorine-based cleansers with other compounds.

1. Use only the proper containers for soap, powders, and other cleaning materials.

2. When scrubbing old or splintered woodwork or flooring, use only long-

handled scrub brushes or mops.3. Use wringers to prevent hand injuries from pins, pieces of glass, or other

sharp objects that the mop may pick up.4. Remove exposed nails, tacks, or splinters from the woodwork surface before

scraping or cleaning.

5. When using steel wool or sandpaper, wear gloves.6. Post signs to warn all persons of the dangers of slipping on wet or waxed

floors. Use only floor waxes that contain nonslip ingredients.7. Frequently inspect handles of mops, brooms, or other long-handled tools.

Repair splintered handles, and discard split handles.8. Wear approved rubber gloves when using a strong washing solution,

cleaning water closets or urinals, and disinfecting toilet seats.

9. Keep mops, brushes, pails, and other utensils out of hallways, doorways, orstairways, unless the equipment is being used there.

10. Remove loose objects before dusting tops of lockers, tall cabinets, or similarfurniture.

11. When working at a doorway, secure the door, either open or closed.

PAINTING WITH BRUSH1. When painting indoors or in closed areas, provide sufficient ventilation.2. When working with lead, zinc, or other toxic-based paint, keep hands away

from the mouth. Wash hands before handling food or tobacco.3. Avoid excessively using solvents to remove paint from the skin. Avoid using

carbon tetrachloride. Use protective creams to help reduce skin contact with paint orsolvent.

4. Prohibit smoking or open flames when a hazard of fire or explosion from

solvent or paint vapors exists.5. To reduce fire hazard, discard rags containing oils or paints in closed metal

containers.

6. Conform the furnishing, construction, and use of ladders or scaffolds toeither existing safety regulations or ANSI safety recommendations. (See chapter 5,

General Safety Practices and Equipment.)

SPRAY PAINTING

1. Use an approved respirator to reduce the hazard of inhaling vapors, fumes,

or mists. When purchasing a respirator, obtain the correct apparatus for protection.2. Wear gloves and other protective equipment to reduce unnecessary contact

of excessive paint material or solvent with the skin.3. Prohibit smoking and open flame anywhere near the painting.4. Use only explosion-proof lights within the spray booth.5. Do not use any electric switch, outlet, or appliance capable of producing a

spark inside the booth. Do not make or break an electrical connection for infrareddrying within the booth.




OPERATING AND MAINTAINING BUILDINGS 95

6. Do not use compressed air to clean spray-booth interiors.7. Consider using falling water or a water spray immediately behind a paint

spray operation in the booth to trap and remove any excess paint and to reduce thedanger of fire or vapor explosion. Combine the use of water with the proper andadequate flow of air required to direct and convey the excess spray toward the water

curtain.

OPERATING ELEVATORS1. Do not operate a freight elevator without proper authorization.2. Close and latch the gates or doors, and make sure that people and objects

are out of the way before starting.3. Know the safe capacity of the car, and stay within that limit.4. Before the doors or gates are opened, always be sure that the control is in a

neutral position and that the elevator is completely stopped.5. Require all passengers to face the front of the car. If scuffling or horseplay

starts, stop the car.

6. Do not permit material other than elevator equipment on the top or cover of any elevator car.

7. Never reverse an elevator without fully stopping it first.8. Take an elevator out of service if it does not work properly; report the defect

immediately.

9. Make an inspection trip each morning before admitting passengers.10. Do not carry passengers or freight while inspections, repairs, or adjust-

ments are in progress. Do not move the car when any one person is in the pit or ontop of the car, except as that person directs.

11. Be sure that the locking device and safe-hoisting attachments are in placebefore any heavy, concentrated loads are moved on or off.

12. Withdraw the locking device before raising the car more than a few inches.13. Keep the car gates, if any, closed while the car is in motion. If there are no

gates, keep passengers away from the open edge of the car platform.14. If the power goes off while the car is moving, set the control at the stop

position; start the car as usual when the power returns.15. Conduct an annual pressure test, as recommended by ANSI Standard A17.1

(1978) Sec. 213, on all hydraulic elevators to determine if there are any leaks in theunderground casing.

16. Do not use elevators designated for freight to carry passengers.




Chapter 13

AWWA MANUAL

Operating Storerooms

and Stockrooms

To operate a storeroom, stockroom, or other storage facility safely and efficiently,always keep the premises safe and orderly In other words, good housekeeping mustprevail. Take every precaution to prevent injuries to employees handling the storedmaterials. Carefully observe the safety rules presented in this section.

GOOD HOUSEKEEPING1. Keep all aisles and walkways clear. Passageways should be wide enough to

transport materials to and from storage (Figure 13-1).2. Keep passageways clear to permit access by fire-extinguishing equipment.

3. Keep floors clear of all loose objects and free of water and oil.4. To minimize fire hazards, do not accumulate wastepaper, scrap lumber, or

other waste material.5. Clearly designate storage areas and aisles (Figure 13-2).

PROPER STORAGE1. Never overfill storage bins. Do not let materials protrude into the aisle.

2. Do not store round objects up high unless they are completely contained ina bin or box.3. Store glass, glassware, and other fragile material where they are easy to

reach.

4. Properly stack materials on a firm, even foundation. Avoid stacking to ahazardous height. Where possible, crosstie the tiers for mutual support.

5. When storing heavy materials in buildings, stay within the floor’s safe loadlimit.

6. Whenever possible, all materials stored in bins and racks should be visible.




OPERATING STOREROOMS AND STOCKROOMS 97

Figure 13-1 Aisles and walkways should be kept clear to allow easy access to storage bins.

Figure 13-2 Aisles and storage areas in the water utility stockroom should be clearly designated.





7. Store heavy or bulky materials in bins and racks so that personnel can

easily get them without reaching or using a ladder.8. To avoid spills, do not store corrosive materials on upper shelves.9. To prevent toppling, properly secure and fasten storage bins and racks to

floors or walls.

SAFE HANDLING PRACTICES1. Wear gloves, especially when handling wooden crates or metal containers.

Safety shoes are also recommended.2. When uncrating materials or opening boxes or barrels, remove all metal

straps and projecting nails before actually unpacking.3. Do not overload hand trucks. Carefully balance the load to avoid excess

strain on the operator. Keep trucks in good repair.4. Securely fasten skids and runways before use. Pin the dock plates to

prevent shifting.

5. Properly dispose of broken glassware.

HANDLING DRUMS

1. Wear gloves when handling drums.2. Keep hands at top center while rolling drums. To change direction, grasp the

chimes and apply force.

3. Upending a full drum that weighs over 200 lb (91 kg) requires two people.Two workers should stand with the container between them, grasp both chimes, andlift one end while pressing down on the other. As the drum is brought to balance,release the bottom, and straighten up with the drum.

4. To upend a drum that weighs less than 200 lb (91 kg), the worker should

stand close to the top end of the drum, place feet close together, grip the underside of the drum end with hands about 8 in. (0.2 m) apart, bend knees so that hips are lowerthan shoulders, and apply the lifting effort with the legs.

5. To tip a drum, grasp the nearest chime with both hands, push the drum toa balance, and then ease it down; use a rocker type of drum tilter.

6. Slide drums endwise down skids.7. Use a parbuckle to pull drums up skids if the work must be done alone.8. To loosen or tighten a bung, always use a proper bung wrench with a long

handle; never use a pipe wrench.

OPERATING POWER TRUCKS AND FORKLIFTS1. Before using a truck, test the brakes and be sure the truck is in good

operating condition.

2. In crowded passageways and when approaching intersecting aisles, driveslowly and cautiously.

3. Face in the direction of travel and be alert for danger, particularly whenbacking.

4. When leaving a truck, lower forks, shut off the power, and set brakes.5. Be sure that people can hear the trucks warning signals, but use them only

when necessary.

6. Stop a safe distance from other trucks or pedestrians. Always givepedestrians the benefit of the doubt, as they may be deaf or wearing hearing protection.




OPERATING STOREROOMS AND STOCKROOMS 99

7. When approaching an elevator, fully stop the truck at least 6 ft (2 m) fromthe gate, and set the brakes. Ring for the elevator, and wait until it completely stopsbefore moving the truck.

8. Be sure the total weight of truck and load does not exceed the safe capacityof the elevator.

9. Insist that loads be stacked or trimmed for proper clearance before lifting orhauling.

10. Keep to the right of aisles, and permit no one to ride on truck or trailer.11. Allow only authorized maintenance and repair-persons to work on the truck

mechanism.

12. Do not ride in a truck whose control mechanism is installed in the tongue.Such placement indicates the vehicle was not designed to carry a person safely.

13. When transporting a load, always keep it as low as possible and tiltedtoward the body.

14. Never travel sideways on an incline, with or without a load.15. Equip forklifts with rollover protection, backup alarms, and seatbelts.




Chapter 14

AWWA MANUAL

Identifying Hazardous

Chemicals

THE EMPLOYEES’ RIGHT TO KNOW

Employees who work with chemicals have the right to know what harmful ordetrimental effect those chemicals might have on them.

Follow these steps to establish a right-to-know program for your employees.1. First, conduct an inventory of hazardous chemicals in the workplace by

listing those chemicals that are hazardous. Read product labels, and look for wordssuch as “caution,” “danger,” or “warning,” which indicate that the product ishazardous. Several other organizations, such as the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) and OSHA, provide information onhazardous materials.

2. Properly label all incoming hazardous chemical containers. (Manufacturersand importers are required to do this, but part of your program is to make sure.)Label should at least do the following:

Identify the hazardous chemical;

Indicate the chemical’s specific hazard, including the part of the body affected, if known;

List the manufacturer’s, importer’s, or responsible party’s name and address.The name on the label should allow you to cross-reference the hazardous

material with its material safety data sheet (MSDS).3. Obtain MSDS for each chemical from its manufacturer/importer. These data

sheets provide the following information:

chemical identity;

physical and chemical characteristics of the hazardous chemical (i.e., flashpoint);




IDENTIFYING HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS 101

physical hazards of the hazardous chemical, including the potential for fire,explosion, and reactivity;

the chemical’s health hazards, including signs and symptoms of exposure andmedical conditions that generally are aggravated by exposure to the chemical;

the primary route(s) of entry;the OSHA permissible exposure limit, AGGIH threshold limit value, and anyother exposure limit used or recommended by the manufacturer or importer;

whether NTP (National Toxicology Program) lists the chemical as a carcinogen;

precautions for safe handling, including hygienic practices, protective measures,and procedures for cleanup of spills;

control measures, such as engineering controls, work practices, or personalprotective equipment;

first-aid procedures;

date of preparation;

the manufacturer’s name, address, and telephone number; andemergency phone number.

The MSDS should be available for each chemical in the workplace. Provideemployees on each workshift easy access to the MSDS. If employees must travel tomore than one geographical location, keep the MSDS in one central location, forinstance, in a dispatch office (different states or provinces may have different

regulations). Local fire departments may require these sheets as part of federalregulations concerning emergency response.

4. Train employees about hazardous chemicals when the employees receivetheir initial work assignments and whenever a new chemical is introduced to the

workplace. Also train employees about:

operations where hazards are present;

location of MSDSs and the written right-to-know program;

methods and observations used to detect presence or release of hazardouschemicals;

physical and health hazards of chemicals in the workplace;

measures employees can take to protect themselves;

details of hazard communication program and MSDSs; and

explanation of labeling system.




Chapter 15

AWWA MANUAL

Handling and Storing

Chemicals and

Administering First Aid

Employees handling acids, caustics, or other corrosive or toxic chemicals should nothave any exposed skin. Wear appropriate gloves, aprons, and eye and face protection

to prevent personal injury. Also adopt the following safety procedures for eachchemical to minimize or eliminate hazards.

ACTIVATED CARBON

Handling and Storage1. Prohibit smoking at all times wherever carbon is stored and whenever it is

handled and unloaded.2. Wear proper respiratory protection when bags of carbon or bulk material are

unloaded or otherwise handled (Figure 15-l). Avoid excessive dust and inhalation of carbon dust.

3. Store carbon in a clean, dry place, in single or double rows, with accessaisles around every stack for frequent fire inspections. This arrangement willaugment easy removal of burning carbon in an emergency.

4. Never store carbon in large stacks.5. The storage area should be fireproof, with self-closing fire doors separating

the carbon room from other sections.

6. Storage bins for dry bulk carbon should be fireproof. Equip the bins for firecontrol by installing carbon dioxide equipment or arranging them so that a fine sprayof water can flood them.




HANDLING AND STORING CHEMICALS 103

7. Protect carbon storage areas from contact with flammable materials.

(Carbon dust mixed with oily rags or chlorine compounds can ignite by spontaneouscombustion.)

8. Do not store carbon where a spark from overhead electric equipment could

start a fire. If a fire occurs, realize that carbon monoxide is a potential hazard. (See

Carbon Dioxide, Providing Ventilation, in this section.)9. Clean electric equipment frequently and protect it from carbon dust.

Preferably, use explosion-proof electric wiring and equipment. (The heat from a motormay ignite the accumulated carbon dust; this material, especially when damp, is agood conductor of electricity and could short-circuit the mechanism.)

Controlling FiresContrary to the behavior of some dusts, airborne mixtures of activated carbon dustsare not considered to be explosive. Tests conducted by carbon manufacturers havefailed to indicate any explosive tendency in activated carbon dust.

Activated carbon, like ordinary charcoal, burns without producing smoke or

flame and glows with the release of intense heat. Such fires are difficult to detect and

when found are equally hard to handle. Fires in large storage bins or stacks may existfor some time before being discovered. The smell of charred paper from the bags orthe scorching of paint on the side of the bin indicates that a carbon fire is in progress.

Follow these tips to control carbon fires:1. Never douse burning carbon with a large, straight stream of water, as the

fire will spread when burning particles of carbon scatter because of the intense heat

Figure 15-1 Protective clothing is required for handling carbon.





and the formation of steam. Use hoses equipped with controllable spray nozzles.

Carbon dioxide extinguishers will help check an open carbon fire, but will not put itout; carbon dioxide is effective in enclosed storage bins but acts rather slowly. Toavoid the carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide hazards of a carbon fire, instructpersonnel in the area to wear self-contained breathing apparatus.

2. Remember that the pores of activated carbon have sufficient absorbedoxygen to support combustion without outside air. Carbon will start to burn withoutatmospheric oxygen if a temperature of 350°F–450°F (175°C–230°C) is reached,

depending on the type of material. The best way to combat a large carbon fire is tosoak the burning substances thoroughly with cold water from spray nozzles to reduce

the temperature below the ignition point.3. To control small fires (consisting of one to three bags of carbon), remove the

burning material to a safe place using long-handled shovels and a steel wheelbarrow.If the carbon is properly stacked, such fires can be controlled quickly and with littlemanipulation.

Using Protective Equipment

1. Provide an approved respirator for all personnel handling or working withactivated carbon. If dust is excessive, wear chemical goggles. Also wear loose-fitting,dust-proof clothing, with the collar closed and the ankles tied at the shoe tops(Figure 15-1).

2. Provide adequate shower facilities for all personnel handling carbon. Useliquid soaps that are rather mild and compounded especially for removing carbonblacks. Avoid harsh soaps and detergents.

3. Provide dust-collecting equipment where carbon is being unloaded into binsor hoppers. Similar gear is advisable in transferring bulk carbon from hopper cars tobins or tanks, not only to prevent excessive dust, but also to release air pockets.

ALUM AND FERROUS SULFATE

Handling and Storage1. Workers should wear proper respiratory equipment and chemical goggles

(Figure 15-2) hw en handling or exposed to aluminum sulfate or ferrous sulfate dust.Both chemicals irritate the skin and mucous tissue because of their acid and

anhydrous nature. Also, the dust can seriously injure eyes.2. Wear loose, denim-quality, dust-proof, long-sleeved clothing and a bandana

and a cap. Tie trousers at the ankles. Apply protective cream to exposed skin.3. Store the material in a clean, dry place because moisture can cause caking.

When cleaning storage bins, hoppers, and other containers, observe the sameprecautions as when handling the chemicals.

4. Electric equipment exposed to ferrous sulfate dust should be dust-proof.Because this chemical readily absorbs moisture, particularly on humid days, andconducts electricity when damp, it may cause short circuits and corrosion that canruin essential equipment.

5. Do not use compressed air to clean dry-feed machines and appurtenances;an industrial, water-chamber vacuum cleaner is much safer.

6. When handling the chemicals, use an effective dust mask, and keep handyan adequate supply of filter pads. (The mask is not operating properly if its wearercan taste the materials.)





Figure 15-2 Protective dress is required for handling dry chemicals.

7. Remember that mixtures of dry alum and quicklime can generate heat and

explode if confined. Do not use the same conveyor or dust-collecting equipment forboth materials unless it is properly cleaned after each use.

8. Use mechanical dust-collecting apparatus at handling points to minimizedust. Cover equipment and connections as tightly as possible.

9. When handling liquid solutions, take proper individual protective measures,particularly for the skin and eyes. Face shields, boots, gloves, and a rubber apronoffer good protection from liquid splashes or sprays (Figure 15-3). A quick action

eyewash fountain provides the best way to quickly wash any chemical from the faceand eyes.

10. Equip solution (chemical) pumps with antisplatter shields around the

stuffing box to protect personnel against leaks (Figure 15-4).

Administering First Aid1. Treat skin irritations and mild burns in the same way as any acid burn:

wash with plenty of warm water and soap, never allow prolonged contact of the dustwith the skin, and thoroughly shower as soon as possible. For dry, cracked skin, apply

a good-quality hand cream or lotion on the hands and face.2. If aluminum or ferrous sulfate gets in the eyes, wash the eyes out with large

quantities of warm water. If irritation continues, consult a physician.3. Irrigate irritations of the mouth and nasal passages with warm water.





Figure 15-3 Protective equipment is required for handling chemical solutions.

Figure 15-4 A chemical solution pump should be equipped with a splash shield.





ANHYDROUS AMMONIA

Handing and Storage1. Handle cylinders and containers carefully. Never drop cylinders or permit

them to collide with one another. Move cylinders with light hand trucks equippedwith safety chains. When unloading cylinders from a truck to ground level, it is bestto use a hydraulic lift gate or suitable skid with a rubber bumper at the bottom.

2. Avoid hoisting containers. If lifting is necessary, do so with safety-testedclamps or cradles. Try not to use ropes, cables, and chain slings.

3. Store cylinders where heavy articles cannot fall on and damage them.Shield the containers from mechanical disturbance or contact with moving objects.

Ammonium chlorite can develop as a result of this mixture.

4. Do not store ammonia near chlorine or in the same room with chlorinecylinders.

5. Store tube-type cylinders (usually 1-ton containers) on their side, on a levelrack or platform, with suitable blocks to keep them from rolling. Place cylinders

upright, and support them by clamps or guard chains to prevent falling.6. Store cylinders and containers in a cool, dry place away from heat, and

protect them from continued dampness. Do not keep them outdoors in the directsunlight where they may overheat. (Storage near radiators, steam pipes, or other

sources of heat may raise the pressure to a dangerous point, and dampness may causeexcessive corrosion.)

7. When transporting containers, securely fasten them to the carrying vehicle,

so that even under unusual strain they will not shift from their mountings or fallover.

8. During transportation and storage, always keep the cylinder and containercaps in place until cylinders are ready to be connected. The unloading valves are notdesigned to withstand accidental shocks. If the valve ruptures, the cylinder couldbecome a deadly missile.

9. Weigh cylinders or containers, including caps, before connecting for use, andcross-check with the gross weight shown on the tag. Repeat when cylinders are empty.

10. Ventilate the storage room, and arrange the cylinders so that a leaking container can be easily removed. Use fireproof storage and equipment rooms that are

equipped with an exhaust ventilating system.

Controlling Leaks1. Immediately attend to leaks in the ammonia valve, valve connections,

ammonia feed lines, and in the ammoniator, which are indicated by the characteristicodor of ammonia. Shut off the flow of ammonia first at the container.

2. Detect the exact leak location by holding an open bottle of hydrochloric acid

or a cloth swab soaked with hydrochloric acid near the leak. This will generate acloud of ammonium chloride mist near the discharge. (The old method of using sulfurtapers is not recommended, as the tapers may ignite escaping ammonia.)

3. If the ammonia leak is heavy, take every precaution to avoid a flash fire orserious explosion. Ammonia gas will burn if it is blended with the proper amount of

air. The flammable limits of such a mixture are between 15 percent and 28 percent of ammonia, by volume.

4. Gaseous ammonia is lighter than air and rises; therefore, ensure that ventilating systems exhaust the air from the ceiling of a room and bring fresh air inat the floor level.





5. Permit only authorized persons (preferably two employees, with onestanding by in case of an accident) equipped with proper respiratory protection toinvestigate leaks and make repairs; prohibit everyone else from the affected area.

6. Open cylinder or container valves slowly and only with the special wrenchprovided. (Leaks around cylinder valve stems can usually be stopped by tightening

the packing-gland nut, which has a left-hand thread.) Use only the tools furnished bythe ammonia suppliers, as the leverage obtained with longer wrenches may damagethe valve and worsen the leak.

7. If a serious leak develops and cannot be controlled, drop the container orcylinder into a vat of water. A total of 53 lb (24 kg) of ammonia may be dissolved in100 lb (45 kg) of water at 68°F (20°C). Do not discharge water that has been used toabsorb ammonia into separate or combined sewers, unless greatly diluted. Pour waterfrom a hose on the leak to absorb a considerable portion of the leaking ammonia.

8. Use self-contained breathing apparatus in instances of serious leaks, whereoxygen levels may be deficient.

9. The injector-type suction hose, with a large rubber funnel placed above theleak, will often help to control ammonia fumes while repairs are being made.

(See Chlorine, Controlling Leaks in this section.)10. Never neutralize liquid ammonia with an acid because this method

generates a great amount of heat and accelerates the liberation of gaseous ammonia.

11. If possible, turn a leaking container so that the leak is on top. In this way,only gas will be discharged, and the water will have a better chance of absorbing theammonia.

12. Use shutoff valves, relief valves, and pressure-reducing valves especiallymade to handle ammonia. Never use copper or copper-bearing fittings or valve seats,as they can corrode rapidly. Fittings should be schedule 80 black iron or forged steel.

Piping should be extra-heavy black iron on the supply side of the pressure-reducing valves and of standard black iron on the discharge side. All piping and fittings should

meet the recommendations of ammonia manufacturers. Never use galvanized pipe,

and welded joints are preferable to threaded joints. Never use brazed joints becausethey deteriorate rapidly.

13. Whenever an ammonia line possibly may be closed at both ends while being filled with liquid, protect the line by a hydrostatic relief valve.

14. When cylinders are manifolded (set up in a battery) to increase the rate of gas flow, install a check valve between each cylinder and the manifold. If this is notdone, a venturi effect created by the manifolding arrangement will result, and one of the manifolded cylinders will completely fill with liquid ammonia. If the valves arethen closed, a slight increase in pressure could cause the cylinder to burst.

15. Never apply direct heat to an ammonia cylinder. If it is necessary to heat itto increase the rate of withdrawal, place the cylinder in a water bath. Never exposecylinders to temperatures of more than 110°F (43°C).

16. If a fire occurs, make every effort to remove the ammonia cylinders from thepremises. If they cannot be removed, inform the firefighters of their location andcontents and of any explosion hazard that may be involved.

Using Gas Masks and Protective Equipment1. Always provide gas masks approved for protection against ammonia. These

should have a full face piece and green ammonia canisters. The canisters will protectfor about 15 min at an ammonia concentration of 3 percent and for 5 min at aconcentration of 15 percent. When ammonia fumes begin infiltrating the canister,





secure a new one. Use self-contained breathing apparatus or supplied-air respiratorsin the event of a serious leak.

2. Anticipate where in an ammonia system leaks can develop, and place themasks and protective equipment where they can be safely reached in an emergency.

Also strategically locate the controls for the ventilating system.

3. No one can remain in an atmosphere containing 1.5–2 percent ammonia forlonger than 15 min without developing severe skin burns. Ammonia’s high solubility

in water causes irritation to any skin surface where moisture has accumulated. Toprovide some protection, apply petroleum jelly to neck, armpits, crotch, wrists, and

ankles.

4. Employees who work with ammonia and may be exposed to the liquid or gasshould wear gauntlet-type rubber or neoprene gloves, rubber aprons, gas masks, andcotton clothing and underwear.

5. When necessary to work on leaks with a high concentration of ammonia,wear a rubber or neoprene one-piece suit sealed at the ankles, wrists, and around theface, and a supplied-air respirator with full face shield or a self-contained breathing apparatus. This equipment will adequately protect for about 30 min, except against

the freezing effect of ammonia.6. Thoroughly train workers how to use masks and other protective equip-

ment. Urge employees to report defective gear. Always maintain these devices infirst-class condition.

Administering First Aid1. If ammonia touches the skin, remove it as soon as possible, take off

contaminated clothing, and flood the affected skin areas with large amounts of waterfor 15 min. Consult a physician immediately.

2. Use extreme care in taking off clothing that has become frozen, as forcibleremoval may tear the skin. Thaw the clothing first with water at room temperature.

3. Locate safety showers with a capacity of at least 30 gpm (2 L/s) where

possible ammonia fumes will not make them unusable.4. When ammonia has been removed from the skin, treat the burn the same as

any heat burn. Lightly bandage it. Do not apply salves or burn ointment unlessdirected by a physician.

5. Remove ammonia from the eyes immediately; maintain and use a treadle orbrow-operated eyewash fountain for this purpose. Force open the eyes, and turn backthe lids, and flood with water for 15 min. (Any delay in such treatment may result inserious loss of vision.)

6. After thoroughly washing the injured eyes, immediately consult a physician.Do not put nonwater-soluble oil or other preparations in the eyes.

7. Immediately take to fresh air anyone overcome by an ammonia atmosphere,and summon a doctor. Keep the victim warm with blankets, and do not allow him or

her to get up. Start artificial respiration if the victim is not breathing.8. Completely immobilize and give oxygen to anyone exposed to ammonia who

is breathing in short, shallow breaths. Immediately obtain medical assistance. If the victim’s breathing is short and shallow; and if the victim has a tight chest, bloodshoteyes with swollen lids, and a cough that may discharge bloody mucus, she or he is ina serious condition.

9. Thoroughly wash nose and throat burns with water. Urge the victim todrink large amounts of milk.

10. Instruct in first aid all who work with ammonia. Conveniently locate afirst-aid cabinet containing all necessary supplies for treating ammonia injuries.





Include a copy of the ammonia first-aid instructions of this section and the names andphone numbers of physicians.

AMMONIUM SULFATE

Handling and Storage1. Do not store ammonium sulfate in damp or humid places because ammonia

fumes will be evolved and the material will cake.2. Do not store ammonium sulfate near steam pipes, hot walls, and other

sources of heat or where it can come in contact with chlorine.3. Never allow ammonium sulfate to mix with quicklime or lime dust; such

combinations can produce sufficient heat to explode. Ammonium sulfate, by itself, isnot explosive.

4. Do not handle ammonium sulfate in confined areas because it slowly emitsammonia fumes. When handling the material under dry or dusty conditions, wearproper respiratory equipment, dust goggles, and loose-fitting clothing.

5. If allergic to ammonia compounds, wear sufficient protective clothing toavoid bodily contact, and apply an ointment or petroleum jelly to exposed skin.6. Protect eyes against splashes of ammonium sulfate solutions. If the dust or

liquid gets into the eyes, wash them immediately with large amounts of water. Ammonium sulfate is mildly acidic, and a strong solution can irritate skin.

CARBON DIOXIDE

Production1. Keep the premises continually clean. Prohibit smoking wherever combus-

tible gas is present.2. Locate generating equipment as close to the point of application as

practicable.3. Locate generators and auxiliary equipment in a well-ventilated space large

enough to permit personnel to move freely on all sides of it. Use explosion-proof lighting, particularly if combustible gases supply the carbon dioxide.

4. Use preventive maintenance to ensure that the system will always be free

from leaks and that all safety devices and alarms will function properly.

Using Compressors and Blowers1. Adequately supply the compressor with free air.

2. Provide equipment with suitable guards to prevent injury from moving parts and burns from hot surfaces. Electric interlocks to prevent the removal of

guards while compressors and blowers are operating may be advisable in someinstallations.

3. Do not service compressors and blowers while they are in motion. If circumstances demand such servicing, extend lubricators to preclude injury frommoving parts.

4. Keep all materials, such as rags, paper, and other light objects, away from

compressor air intakes.5. Take all excelsior and other filter material removed from scrubbers to a safe

location, and destroy it.





Providing Ventilation1. Install in a well-ventilated space to reduce danger in the event of leaks.2. Adequately vent the carbonation basin or chamber to prevent excess back

pressure in lines. (Such protection is particularly important in the submerged-com-

bustion carbonator units.)3. Take extreme care in dealing with the danger of carbon monoxide—thegreatest hazard in the generation and handling of carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide,a very toxic gas, is a product of incomplete combustion. If coke is used for carbondioxide generation, carbon monoxide is always present in the gas; more carbon

monoxide is present if the percentage of carbon dioxide is high.4. If the plant is designed such that water must be recarbonated in enclosed,

covered basins that have been dewatered for cleaning or making repairs, thoroughly

ventilate the basins. Before allowing workers to enter the basins, use a suitablecarbon monoxide tester to check if the atmosphere in these basins (and in any others

to which they are connected and which have been simultaneously dewatered) is belowthe maximum permissible concentration. Until the concentration of carbon monoxide

is within the permissible limits, wear appropriate respiratory equipment. Appropriateequipment is based on the CO concentration found in the area.5. Carbon dioxide, heavier than air, has a surprising ability to flow unexpec-

tedly to empty basins and flumes. Portable blowers with canvas ducts are very usefulfor ventilating such areas before and during cleaning. Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs almost entirely by inhalation of the gas and may come on practically withoutsymptoms in an individual who is comparatively inactive. The most commonsymptoms of complete asphyxia are pounding of the heart, dull headache, flashesbefore the eyes, dizziness, ringing in the ears, nausea, and sometimes (but not often)convulsions.

CHLORINE

Handling and Storage1. Do not handle chlorine cylinders roughly. Never drop cylinders or permit

one to collide with another. Use hand trucks equipped with safety chains to movecylinders up to 150 lb (68 kg). Use specially designed electric hoists fitted with the

proper lifting bar for l-ton containers. When unloading cylinders from a truck toground level, use a hydraulic lift gate or suitable skid with a rubber bumper at the

bottom.2. Avoid hoisting cylinders. If such action is necessary, work with safe lifting

clamps or cradles; avoid using ropes, cables, and chain slings. To move cylinders fromstorage to the chlorine feeding room, carry them with a properly balanced hand truck,preferably with a clamp support or safety chain at least two-thirds of the way up the

cylinder to hold it in place. Move l-ton containers using the same type of safetyequipment used for unloading freight cars (Figure 15-5).

3. Store cylinders weighing up to 150 lb (68 kg) upright where heavy materialscannot fall on or against them. Support the cylinders so that they cannot fall over.Shield stored cylinders from mechanical disturbances, especially by moving objects.Do not store cylinders below ground level or in the chlorine feed room. Store l-toncontainers on their sides on a level rack or platform with adequate safety blocks toprevent rolling.

4. Always keep the protective caps in place when the cylinders or containersare not in use and are being handled because the discharge valves and fusible plugs





Figure 15-5 Approved chlorine handling clamp should be used when handling chlorine con-tainers and an emergency repair kit should be kept nearby.

are not designed to take shocks. As soon as a cylinder or container is empty anddisconnected, replace the protective caps. Always tag or mark the empty cylinders or

containers immediately. To avoid confusion, store full containers or cylinders

separately from empty ones.5. Store chlorine containers and cylinders in a cool place, and protect them

from exposure to external heat sources. Never permit the temperature of the contentsto approach 140°F (60°C). Store outdoor containers and cylinders away from directexposure to the sun and the weather. Keep them clean, and inspect them regularly forleakage.

6. Do not store containers or cylinders near flammable materials or exposethem to continuous dampness.

7. Make certain that the storage area is well ventilated, and arrange

containers or cylinders so that a leaking unit can be removed with minimal handling of other containers. The storage room should be noncombustible and equipped with aproper type of exhaust ventilating system. A shatter-resistant inspection window

should be available in the door or wall if allowed. Some jurisdictions (i.e., Alberta,Canada) do not allow ventilation to the outside. Some fire codes require all exhaust of leaking chlorine gas to be scrubbed prior to discharge.

8. Place containers and cylinders in the order in which they are received sothat the oldest are used first.

9. Install electronic chlorine detectors in the chlorinator room, in the chlorinestorage room, and in the withdrawal room, with a sounding alarm and warning light.Check these devices regularly.





Controlling Leaks1. The slightest odor of chlorine may indicate a leak; immediately attend to a

leak because small leaks can grow rapidly2. Assign two workers to repair a chlorine leak, with one acting as a safety

observer. Provide both with self-contained breathing apparatus or supplied-airrespirators while making repairs.

3. Carefully make connections to the cylinder valve. When threaded connec-

tions are used, ascertain that the threads on appliances and unions are the same asthose on the container-valve outlets. If connections that do not fit are forced together,

they will leak.4. Unless the apparatus is designed to handle liquid chlorine, keep the valve of

the 1-ton container in the proper position to withdraw gas. The two identical valveson the 1-ton container are connected to eductor pipes inside the container. When acontainer is lying on its side and the valves are in a vertical line (one above the other),the lower valve will discharge liquid chlorine, and the upper valve will dischargechlorine gas from above the liquid level. Most plants using 1-ton containers have the

cradles holding the containers on scales or in scale tanks 1–2 in. (25–50 mm) higherat the valve end, thus elevating that portion to ensure that gas instead of liquid willbe drawn when chlorine is taken from a full container.

5. Never alter or repair containers or valves, except for tightening the packing

nut to stop gas leaks around valve stems. Never tamper with the safety devices on thecontainers. The fusible plug on cylinders below the valve seat cannot be controlled by

the valve. The l-ton container is equipped with six (three on each end) fusible metalplugs designed to soften or melt at 158°F–165°F (70°C–74°C) thus allowing thecontents of the container to discharge.

6. Open container valves slowly Do not use a wrench longer than 6 in.(150 mm) because use of large wrenches or pipe wrenches will damage the valves.

One complete turn of the valve stem counterclockwise will open the valve sufficiently

to permit maximum discharge.7. To test for chlorine leaks, attach a small cloth or swab soaked with ammonia

water (10 percent NH3) to one end of a stick, and apply it to the suspected area.(Some operators prefer to use a small bottle fitted with an aspirator.) A white cloud of

ammonium chloride will result if there is any leakage.8. Supply all employees handling and using chlorine with an approved chlorine

respirator, preferably a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), and instructthem how to use it. Conduct chlorine gas drills at least monthly to familiarizepersonnel with working while wearing SCBAs and in using chlorine-leak safetydevices. Keep SCBAs, thick, loose-fitting gloves, and aprons of nonporous material inlockers outside of the chlorine equipment area where they can be reached quickly inan emergency.

9. All installations using chlorine should keep a chlorine-leak repair kitconsisting of suitable clamps, drift pins, hammers, wrenches, and other tools foremergency service on cylinders where leaks cannot be otherwise stopped (Figures15-5 and 15-6). Drift pins should be of brass or steel and of suitable size to fit the

usual fusible plug containers. Drift pins are not suitable for packing holes in thecylinder walls; instead, use wooden plugs and clamps.

10. If the installation uses liquid chlorine, carefully assess whether the

installation’s location makes it necessary to have absorbing tanks. These tanks can besufficiently flooded in depth and volume with a solution of caustic water or alkali tocompletely absorb the contents of the container or cylinder. Isolated treatment plantshave less need for absorbing tanks than installations in populated areas. Locate the





Figure 15-6 All installations using chlorine should be equipped with chlorine emergencyequ ipm en t .





caustic soda or alkali tank next to the storage or use area. Equip such receptacleswith suitable anchor clamps to keep the chlorine cylinder or container from floating

when it is nearly empty. Table 15-1 presents recommended quantities of alkalinesolutions for absorbing chlorine.

11. When a chlorine leak occurs, immediately turn on the chlorine-room ventilating system, if installed.

12. Permit only authorized and trained personnel equipped with SCBAs toinvestigate chlorine leaks. Keep all other persons away from the affected area. If theleak occurs on the outside of the building, keep everyone to the windward side of theleak and, if possible, at a higher elevation.

13. When a leak occurs in equipment in which chlorine is being used, close thechlorine container valves first.

14. If a leaking chlorine container is positioned so that liquid chlorine isescaping, turn or raise the container so that only gaseous chlorine is discharged.

15. Never apply water to a chlorine leak because the leak is worsened by the

corrosive action of chlorine and water.16. It should prove helpful to use a 2-in. (50-mm) water ejector connected to a

high-pressure water-supply system and equipped with at least a 50-ft (15-m) 2-in.(50-mm) rubber garden hose that has an enlarged rubber funnel for sucking up mostof the chlorine gas. The discharge from the ejector can be in the raw-water channel orto a point where the chlorine water will not create harmful conditions.

17. If dry ice is available, pack it around a leaking container to greatly reducethe rate of evaporation. If the leak cannot be stopped, place the entire cylinder in anabsorbing tank.

18. Because it is unlawful to return a leaking cylinder to the supplier, removeits contents before shipping (Figure 15-7). Immediately notify the cylinder’s supplierof the defective cylinder, and ask the supplier to dispose of it.

19. Never directly apply heat to a container, as it could rupture from internalpressures. If it is necessary to heat a container, use a water bath controlled not to

exceed 80°F (27°C). (See Field Chlorination in this section.)20. Never use grease or oil on fittings that will be in contact with chlorine.21. Before disconnecting the flexible leads between containers to gas headers,

close the cylinder valve, and draw the gas under pressure from the header andflexible leads before closing the header valve. Turn on and operate the exhaust systemwhile the cylinders are being disconnected and the chlorine lines and equipment arerepaired.

22. Put the plastic, protective cover for the rotameter tube in place before

operating chlorine equipment provided with rotameters.

Table 15-1 Recommended Alkaline Solutions for Absorbing Chlorine





Figure 15-7 Chlorine transfer must be performed with extreme care.

23. If fire breaks out, make every effort to protect the chlorine cylinders orcontainers or to remove them from the danger area. Inform firefighters of thecylinders’ location and poisonous nature.

Using Respiratory Equipment1. Respirators should preferably be self-contained, supplied-air breathing

apparatus. Use canister-type gas masks for escape only. The concentration of chlorinegas in air during a leak will probably be unknown. Some jurisdictions have prohibitedthe use of canister masks for protection against chlorine.

2. Store and use respiratory equipment according to manufacturer’s recom-mendations for shelf and service life. Dispose of canisters when they reach theexpiration dates marked on them.

3. Store SCBAs in cabinets located conveniently near (but not in) the chlorineroom so that they may be obtained for emergency use without going through thechlorine-gas area (Figure 15-8).

4. Preferably, assign a separate SCBA to each employee who will be involvedwith chlorine leaks, including mechanics and pipe fitters required to work on chlorineapparatus. In this way, each mask can be fitted to its wearer, and no time will be lost

adjusting masks in an emergency.5. Make and record monthly inspections of all emergency respiratory equip-

ment. Conduct semimonthly drills, and require all employees to test their masks forleaks through loose eyepieces, faulty tubing connections, defective or worn spots, andloose canisters.





Figure 15-8 Emergency equipment should be located near (not in) the chlorine room.

6. Permit only specially trained employees to repair respirators. Keep on handrepair parts, as well as extra canisters for emergency use. Frequently inspect eachrespirator in service.

7. For emergency use in heavy concentrations of chlorine in confined spaces,all chlorine-using installations should maintain either a supplied-air respirator with

a 5-min egress pack or a self-contained breathing apparatus.8. Warn all employees to avoid carelessness and foolhardy exposure to chlorine

gas and that no one is immune to chlorine gas.

9. If trapped in a chlorine gas area without a respirator, leave immediately,avoid panic, keep the mouth closed, do not cough or breathe deeply, and keep the headas high as possible until fresh air is reached.

10. Always maintain an adequate supply of ammonia solution (10 percent) totest for chlorine leaks.

11. Conspicuously exhibit all chlorine safety instructions just outside thechlorine room and in the first-aid kit.

Ventilating Exhaust

1. Each chlorinating plant or room should have an adequate ventilating system that is designed to remove leaking chlorine gas.2. Because chlorine gas is heavier than air and tends to concentrate near the

floor, locate the vents or grilles for removing contaminated air in the floor or scale pits

or as near the floor as possible. Such openings should be near the center of the roomor at the end of the room opposite the entrance. The exhausts from this system shouldexit through the roof or to a suitable outside location. Exhausts should never besituated near other ventilating systems. Station motors and fans for the installationoutside the chlorine room, preferably on an upper level.





3. Familiarize every employee using or handling chlorine with the location of the switches for starting the ventilation system. Conveniently locate switches outsidethe rooms where chlorine equipment is used. Clearly mark them with large letteredsigns and directional arrows. The best procedure is to have the ventilation systeminteract with the detection system. When the detection system finds a problem, the

ventilation equipment will start.4. Do not equip chlorine-ventilating systems with covers that must be removed

before the system can be effective. Locate exhaust openings so that covers are not

required.

5. Ventilation can be achieved with a combination fresh-air and exhaust

system consisting of fans that force fresh air into the room through openings near theceiling and other fans that draw off chlorine-contaminated air from the room throughfloor vents. Such installations should be designed to completely change the air in thechlorine room at least every 3 min. The inlet and exhaust fans should be coupledelectrically so that exhaust fan failure will not cause the inlet fan to blow the chlorinegas to other rooms.

6. Conduct frequent drills for all employees who work with ventilating

systems. Maintain equipment in good condition, and test that all apparatus areoperating properly.

7. Room arrangement is a prime function of personnel safety and equipmentprotection. If a choice of arrangement is available, construct the chlorine room so thatit can be entered only from outside. Provide no interconnecting door between the

chlorine storage area or the chlorine feeders and the rest of the plant.

Room Temperature

1. If the chlorine scale room is separate from the chlorine feeder room, keepthe air temperature in the latter about 5°F (–15°C) higher than that in the former.

2. Lower temperatures in feeding equipment may cause the gas to condense toform liquid chlorine, creating trouble with the feeding equipment. The so-called

“slugs” of liquid chlorine have been known to burst rotameter tubes and thin-walledgas lines on feeders.

3. Maintain temperatures in chlorine equipment rooms or buildings between70°F–80°F (21°C–27°C).

Administering First Aid1. Immediately take the injured employee to open air, away from chlorine gas.2. Call a physician immediately.3. Place the victim flat on his or her back, with head and back slightly

elevated. Supply blankets if necessary. Keep the victim warm and quiet because rest

is essential.4. Because splashes of liquid chlorine and chlorinated water destroy clothing

and may cause irritation and acid burns. remove or cut away contaminated clothing.

5. If the victim is unconscious and breathing has apparently ceased, startartificial respiration immediately. Call the fire department rescue squad. Thebreathing victim may be greatly aided by application of oxygen with proper

equipment. Start oxygen delivery immediately, and, if the victim has stoppedbreathing, start artificial respiration.

6. Give nothing orally.7. If the eyes are slightly irritated, wash them with water.





8. To treat skin affected by liquid chlorine, neutralize the chlorine with largeamounts of water for at least 15 min.

9. Conspicuously post a copy of the first-aid instructions near the first-aid kit,and always keep and conveniently locate proper first-aid supplies for emergency use.

Field Chlorination1. Know the rules and regulations for safe handling of chlorine and first-aid

treatment for chlorine gassing.2. Be sure that respirators and all other safety equipment are available before

beginning a field chlorination job.3. If possible, set up equipment for water-main disinfection a safe distance (at

least 100 yd [91 m] from the nearest occupied building.

4. Observe all safety precautions when connecting apparatus and equipment,and use approved fittings.

5. Ensure that hoses are in good condition before connecting them to thecylinder and the main.

6. Ensure that the water in the main is flushing before the chlorine is added.

7. After the equipment is connected, open the chlorine valve of the cylinder,and test for leaks.

8. Open rotameter or gas header valve, and again test for leaks.9. To avoid water backup into the chlorine apparatus and the cylinder when a

vacuum chlorinator is not being used, make sure that the chlorine tank pressure is

approximately 25 psi (172 kPa) more than the operating pressure desired. Also, becertain that the operating pressure is approximately 5 psi (34 kPa) more than thebackpressure from the water main.

10. After all equipment has been tested for pressure and leaks, open the

discharge valve, and adjust the feed for proper operation; continue testing for leakswhile disinfecting.

11. Never repair a chlorine hose with tape or clamps; always use a new

replacement. Pressure test hose with CO2, and keep it dry. Obstructions or kinks in ahose line may cause it to burst.

12. When necessary, particularly in cold weather, to raise the temperature of chlorine cylinders to increase gas pressure, heat the cylinders in a suitable iron drumthat is kept approximately half full of water. Do not rest cylinders on the bottom of the drum; use cradle or stand that will hold them at least 3 in. (76 mm) above thebottom of the drum. Apply heat to the bottom of the drum only with torches or otherequipment. Do not allow the temperature of the water bath to exceed 70°–80°F

(21°–27°C). Keep the cylinder of heating gas on the windward side and at least 10 ft(3 m) away from the chlorination equipment.

13. Equip field chlorinating equipment with proper pressure gauges so thathose lines and lightweight connections are not subjected to excessive pressures

(Figure 15-9). Connecting a chlorine cylinder directly to a chlorination cock is veryunsafe.

14. After the proper chlorine dosage is obtained, shut off the chlorine gas at thetank, and keep the main flushing valve open for not more than 1 min. If the vacuumapparatus is not being used, flush the hose and equipment immediately with carbondioxide gas before shutting the chlorination cock and disconnecting the hose.

15. Watch out for a chlorine gas pocket in the main when removing the silverdelivery tube from the corporation cock. Wear a proper respirator.





Figure 15-9 A field chlorination unit should be equipped with proper pressure gauges.

16. During chlorination, check a hydrant or a suitable sampling place ahead of

the point of chlorination for possible backup of chlorinated water in the main.17. Take every precaution to prevent chlorine gas from escaping to the air,

particularly in residential areas. If the foregoing precautions are observed and direct

gas feed equipment is properly flushed with carbon dioxide before disconnection, nonoticeable release of chlorine should occur.

18. When using high-test hypochlorites for solution feeding, wear rubber glovesand aprons, a dust respirator, and goggles and a face shield. If a considerable amountof dust arises, wear a SCBA.

19. Use caution in handling high-test hypochlorites, both dry and liquid. Protectthe eyes, and do not breathe hypochlorite dust. Remove contaminated clothing

immediately.20. Use proper warning devices to keep unauthorized persons away from the

area.

21. Always have respiratory equipment and other protective and first-aid

equipment ready on the windward side of the chlorination apparatus.

FLUORIDES

Handling and Storage1. Give all personnel handling fluorides detailed safety instructions.2. Avoid breathing fluoride dust, wash thoroughly after handling fluorides, and

clean up spillage.





3. Wear respirators, chemical goggles, rubber gloves, and protective clothing whenever handling or exposed to sodium fluoride or sodium silicofluoride dust. Wearrubber boots and acid-proof aprons if handling hydrofluoric, fluosilicic, and

hydrofluosilicic acids. Thoroughly wash protective equipment before and after use.Install an eyewash fountain and emergency shower in the immediate vicinity in the

event of acid splashes or sprays.4. Prevent dust or acids from entering open cuts, sores, or lesions.5. Equip all fluoride-handling equipment, such as storage bunkers, weight

hoppers, and dry-feed machines, with devices to keep the dust hazard to a minimum.Furnish acid pumps with clear plastic shields around glands and parts to protectpersonnel from acid spray.

6. Store fluorides in an area specifically designed for that purpose; to avoidmistaken identity of fluoride, do not store it in different locations. Cover andadequately vent all acid containers, and store them where there is no fire hazard.

7. Have personnel, protected as described above, safely dispose of containersthat have held fluoride compounds.

Administering First Aid1. For internal poisoning, have the victim drink, as soon as possible, a glass of

lime water (saturated solution of calcium hydroxide), 1 percent solution of calciumchloride, or a large quantity of milk.

2. Wash external injuries with large amounts of warm water.

3. Immediately flush eyes affected by the chemicals with warm water, andthen consult a doctor.

LIME

Handling and Storage

1. Quicklime is similar in action to that of a strong caustic and is primarily anirritant. Protect persons exposed to dust with chemical goggles and suitablerespirators because lime is very irritating to the eyes, mucous membranes, and upperrespiratory tract and can cause lung damage after prolonged exposure.

2. Store quicklime in a dry place where it will not be exposed to moisture. This

chemical has a great affinity for water, and a great deal of heat evolves when the twocome in contact. Storage under damp conditions may start fires in nearby flammablematerials.

3. Never mix dry quicklime with dry alum or similar materials. In certainpreparations, the quicklime’s reaction to the water of hydration (18 H2O in the case

of alum) will generate heat and cause an explosion in confined spaces.4. Sufficient contact with lime dust can cause dermatitis or skin burns,

particularly at perspiration points. To protect the skin as much as possible, wearheavy denim clothing with long sleeves, bandana, and trousers tied around the shoetops. Cover exposed skin, such as the hands and neck, with protective cream. Whenclothing becomes permeated with lime dust or splattered with liquid lime, remove andthoroughly launder it immediately. Even if there is no dust, wear protective clothing in case bags break or the dust-collection system fails.

5. Use an efficient dust-collecting system whenever dust is present at handling

points. Use a quick dry-pickup vacuum cleaner to remove dust around unloading equipment and slakers.





6. Instruct personnel always to thoroughly shower immediately after handling

quicklime, whether or not dust was present.7. Always wear dust goggles and face shields when inspecting or operating

lime slakers. Spattering of the hot lime suspension can severely burn and injure eyes.

The hot mist from lime slakers is also dangerous, as it usually carries lime dust.

8. Closely monitor the water supply to lime slakers, as an interruption of thewater supply while lime continues to feed may create explosive temperatures. A dialthermometer, properly located, or a temperature-sensitive warning device should bestandard equipment.

9. Be aware that hydrated lime has a less caustic reaction and is therefore lessirritating to the skin, but it can seriously injure the eyes. In the form of dust,however, this material is as industrially hazardous as quicklime. Thus, wear dustrespirators and chemical goggles.

Administering First Aid1. Treat lime burns the same as any caustic burn. Thoroughly wash with large

quantities of soap and water.

2. Immediately wash affected eyes with a large amount of warm water for atleast 15 min. Consult a physician immediately. If a liquid lime slurry is spattered intothe eyes, treat them at once, as serious injury can result in a few minutes.

3. If the throat and nasal passages are irritated from prolonged exposure tolime dust, consult a physician immediately.

OZONE

Use and Exposure1. Ozone is used as a disinfectant in some water utility operations. Most ozone

systems that are used in water treatment are air-fed systems and consist of four main

components–feed-gas preparation, ozone generation, ozone contacting, and ozonedestruction.2. Ozone is a colorless, pungent gas that is extremely corrosive. It is

incompatible with all oxidizable materials.3. Employees should not be exposed to ozone above levels of 0.1 ppm.

Using Protective Equipment1. Unless the concentration of ozone is known, employees should use

respiratory protection of the highest level possible (SCBA or supplied air).

2. Due to the pungent odor, employees will not be able to stay in anatmosphere of high concentration.

Administering First Aid1. An employee exposed to ozone should be immediately removed from

the area.

2. If unconscious, the employee should be given artificial respiration.3. Medical aid should be summoned immediately.





POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE

Handling and Storage1. When handling this material, wear gloves, respirators, eye protection, and

protective clothing.2. Do not bring this strong oxidant into contact with organic or other readily

oxidizable substances, such as lubricants, carbon dust, etc., as explosions may occur.3. Do not store it in open containers.4. Diluted solutions are mildly irritating, and high concentrations are caustic.

SODA ASH (SODIUM CARBONATE)

Handling and Storage1. Store soda ash containers in a cool, dry place where they will not be subject

to moisture. Moisture causes caking, which leads to difficulties in handling.

2. Use ventilating and dust-collection systems where dust is present.3. If exposed to dusts or mists of soda ash, wear protective equipmentincluding chemical safety goggles to protect eyes, a close-fitting dust respirator, andprotective clothing to avoid skin contact. Because light soda ash (made by the

ammonia process) usually emits a slight amount of ammonia, persons allergic toammonia compounds should take the same precautions recommended in the handling of ammonium sulfate.

4. Cover exposed skin surfaces, such as the hands and neck, with a suitablecream or petroleum jelly to minimize effects from soda ash dust.

5. When handling soda ash solutions, take the same precautions as whenhandling dust. Wear goggles or face shields and rubber aprons, gloves, and boots if conditions warrant.

6. Equip pumps and equipment that handle soda ash solutions with suitablespray or splash guards. Mark danger points and soda ash storage areas with warning signs.

Administering First Aid1. Soda ash in finely divided form, such as dust or a mist of concentrated

solutions, is intensely irritating to the respiratory tract and mucous membranes and

is particularly irritating to the eyes. Prolonged exposure can cause ulceration of thenasal passages.

2. Immediately wash from the skin with large quantities of water for at least15 min.

3. Immediately remove clothing contaminated with soda ash dust or solution;

wash before reuse.4. Immediately irrigate eyes affected with soda ash dust or solution with warm

water for at least 15 min. If the exposure is severe, consult a physician immediately.

5. Consult a physician if the victim inhaled dust or mist into the nose andupper respiratory tract; gargling or spraying with warm water will reduce theirritation.





SODIUM CHLORITE

Handling and Storage1. Sodium chlorite products are buff-colored salts shipped as a flaked solid in

lithographed steel drums (100 lb [45 kg] net weight) equipped with flowed-in rubbergaskets (Interstate Commerce Commission Specification 37-D). According to ICCregulations, these drums are single-trip containers and cannot be reused for chlorite

products. All shipments carry a yellow label that reads “Oxidizer” and must beshipped by freight (rail or truck) or by railway express—never by parcel post orair express.

2. Sodium chlorite products are powerful oxidizing agents that have equivalentavailable chlorine contents of 110–130 percent. The dry material is extremely stableunder ordinary atmospheric conditions. The product itself is not sensitive tomechanical shock and is nonexplosive, but the dry or moistened solid forms a

dangerously explosive and combustible mixture with organic matter, such as oil,

grease, alcohol, aldehydes, wood, paper, and clothing. The dry or moistened solid

reacts vigorously with sulfur and sulfur compounds, such as sulfides, sulfites, andhydrosulfites, and even with rubber that has been vulcanized with sulfur.

3. Both the dry product and solutions react with acids to liberate chlorine

dioxide gas (greenish yellow to reddish yellow in color), which in air mixtures atconcentrations of more than 30–35 mm Hg (4.0–4.7 kPa) partial pressure may explodeas a result of sparking or exposure to heat or sunlight. The odor of chlorine dioxide is

evident at approximately 10–14 ppm and is sufhciently irritating at 45 ppm toproduce a headache. The gas is more insidious than chlorine, as chlorine dioxide doesnot have the choking effect that chlorine has and therefore does not immediatelycause violent coughing. Thus, persons will allow themselves to be exposed to ClO2

much longer than to chlorine, causing final symptoms to be much more severe. Thephysiological effect of ClO2 is similar to that of chlorine in that the mucous

membranes are irritated, resulting in edema. Symptoms are usually similar to thoseof a common cold but in severe cases may resemble a quick pneumonic crisis.

4. Use approved SCBAs or supplied-air respirators to protect against chlorinedioxide gas.

5. When handling either the dry material or solutions, avoid spillage. If

sodium chlorite solution touches a wooden floor, a deposit of small, finely dividedcrystals in intimate contact with the wood fibers will occur on drying. Friction caused,for example, by running a hand truck over the floor or by scuffing of a worker’s shoemay cause ignition.

6. Carefully wash clothing contaminated with chlorite in water. Do not allow itto dry while the chemical is still present in the fibers. Locker fires have occurredbecause of failure to observe this precaution.

7. If a fire breaks out in a drum of chlorite, control the fire by adding a fewshovelfuls of soda ash or sand. Do not spray water into a burning drum because of the

hazard of explosion. When possible, remove the drum to where no damage can bedone. Allow the fire to burn itself out. Use an 8-in. (0.2-m) steel rod to which is weldeda steel ring approximately 2 in. (50 mm) larger in diameter than the OD of the

chlorine drum for handling drums under such dangerous conditions.8. Use a stream of water to control a small quantity of burning chlorite, such

as a few pounds on the floor. If water is not available, use a shovelful of soda ash tohelp confine the fire.





9. Store chlorite products only in their original containers in a cool, dry area,out of contact with oxidizable materials, reducing compounds, sulfur and sulfurcompounds, and acids. Keep covers in place to avoid contamination. Handle the

chemical with only absolutely clean, all-metal equipment, used only for such service.Spills of either the salt or solution should be avoided. In case of an accidental spill,

the flakes should be swept into an all-metal container and flushed down a drain withlarge amounts of water. The area where the spill occurred should be washed free of alltraces of chlorite solution.

Administering First Aid1. Although chlorite has no noticeable effect on the skin, wash exposed areas

as soon as possible.

2. Immediately wash contaminated eyes with large amounts of water for atleast 15 min.




AWWA MANUAL

Chapter 16

Procedures for

Bacteriological and

Chemical Laboratories

GENERAL LABORATORY PRECAUTIONS

1. To minimize exposure to chemicals, work in well-ventilated areas, andalways wear protective laboratory garments. Regularly inspect protective clothing

and other safety equipment.2. Always wear protective safety glasses or plastic face shields when in the

laboratory, especially when working with corrosives or when there is danger of flying

particles or spattering of liquids.3. Never touch any chemical with bare hands; always use the proper spatula,

spoon, or tongs.4. Use tongs and protective tight-fitting gloves when handling hot solutions or

residues.5. Wear a protective hat in areas where the head room is minimal.6. Because contact lenses can increase injury from chemical splashes, never

wear them in laboratories where chemicals are handled. Wear safety glasses instead.7. A safety shower and eye bath should be standard equipment in everylaboratory.

8. Locate a well-stocked first-aid kit in an easily accessible part of thelaboratory Follow the posted first-aid instructions, and learn how to use the kit.

9. Do not neglect any accident, no matter how insignificant; apply first aid andthen notify the laboratory supervisor.

10. Immediately clean up and put all chipped, cracked, or broken glassware intocontainers marked “For Broken Glass Only” for final disposal. Do not put this

material in regular wastebaskets. In sinks used for washing glassware, place




PROCEDURES FOR LABORATORIES 127

removable rubber mesh to minimize breakage and to prevent cut fingers by allowing smaller pieces of broken glass to fall through to the sink bottom where they can beremoved when the sink is drained.

11. Immediately clean up all broken glassware, spilled water, and chemicals.

Dispose of discarded chemicals so that they cannot injure anyone. Refer to the

laboratory’s chemical hygiene plan and the MSDS for the proper disposal for anychemical.

12. Work with volatile acids, bases, or solvents under a hood. Wear a face shieldwhen changing apparatus or inspecting such operations.

13. Do all ether and chloroform extractions under a hood, with the door down

and the fan on; do not inhale vapors.14. Work with flame under a hood with door down; never reach over a flame.

Leave the hood on when not in use or if it is uncertain whether the laboratory willremain adequately ventilated when the hood is off. Do not store chemicals in hoods.

15. Do not work with flames and flammable solvents under the hood at the

same time. Keep all open flames away from flammable chemicals.16. Never work in a poorly ventilated area. Use appropriate respiratory

equipment when air contaminant concentrations are not sufficiently restricted byengineering controls.

17. Conveniently locate fire hoses, fire blankets, and fire extinguishersappropriate for the potential fire hazard within easy reach of any work area. Instruct

all laboratory personnel how to use them.18. Do not work alone if the procedures conducted are hazardous. Be alert to

unsafe conditions, and correct them. Avoid horseplay or other behavior that might

confuse, startle, or distract another worker.19. When diluting acid with water, always add the acid slowly to the water

while stirring. Adding water to concentrated acid causes spattering, evokes heat, andmay cause acid burns of skin and clothing.

20. Do not discharge such liquids as oil, grease, mercury, gasoline, ether, and

other solvents into laboratory drains. The drainage system may pocket vapors andpresent an explosion hazard. Nitric acid and mercury will quickly destroy lead pipe

traps and fittings. Use a polyethylene sink trap to catch accidental mercury spillage.21. Dilute acids and alkalies, and flush them down the sink drains with large

amounts of water.22. Always use suction bulbs on pipettes to avoid chemical burns, poisoning, or

infection; never create suction with the mouth.23. Use an instrument only after completely studying its instructions.24. Never try to repair or tinker with apparatus or instruments that are not

thoroughly understood.

25. Never use laboratory apparatus for storing, preparing, and serving food ordrink. Do not eat, smoke, chew gum, or apply cosmetics near chemicals. Wash handsand leave the laboratory before doing those activities.

26. Provide safe water for drinking. Avoid all physical cross-connectionsbetween the drinking water supply and the piping or facilities containing sewage,

sludge, or other fill. Do not allow cross-connections, even if temporary.27. Provide small, portable stepladders; stepping or climbing on stools to make

adjustments or readings limits the worker’s ability to move rapidly and therefore isdangerous.

28. For efficiency and safety, always keep the laboratory neat and clean. Returnall equipment not being used to the cupboards or stockrooms. Always keep aisles,benches, and floor clean and clear.





29. Keep all bench and desk drawers closed in order to avoid tripping andcollisions.

30. Watch out for tripping hazards, particularly when carrying glassware.

Watch out for steps when entering and leaving walk-in refrigerators and incubators.

31. Plan the setup of laboratory apparatus. Avoid blocking access to the main

control valves or switches. Reaching through a complicated apparatus to shut off thegas or water valve or heat switch may upset the equipment and cause personal injury.

32. As part of the regular laboratory routine, clean up at the end of each shift orworkday. Remove trash at least once daily.

33. Protect all workers in bacteriological laboratories with antityphoid vaccine,

and keep immunization effective with the necessary booster shots.34. Do not take chances with bacteria. Use proper sanitary practices at all

times, particularly when working with pathogenic or unknown bacteria. Do not leavecontainers of harmful bacteria accessible to unauthorized persons. Store such bacteriain locked cabinets when not in use.

35. Thoroughly swab working surfaces with an effective bactericidal agent

before and after planting samples. Use generous amounts of the agent for cleaning up

spi l l s .36. Instruct workers to place safety chains around pressurized cylinders to keep

them from falling over (Figure 16-1).

Figure 16-1 Safety chain should be placed around pressurized cylinders.





GENERAL APPARATUS PRECAUTIONS1. Never use weak, damaged, or imperfect apparatus. As soon as a piece of

equipment is found to be defective, remove it from service and either repair or destroyit. Regularly maintain and inspect all laboratory equipment. Use equipment only for

its designed purpose.2. Carefully connect rubber to glass. Support long lengths of glass tubing while

they are being inserted into rubber. Fire polish the ends, and use a lubricant (water,

glycerine, or a water-soluble lubricating jelly). Never use grease or oil to lubricateglass-to-rubber joints.

3. Wear gloves or use a towel when making a glass-to-rubber connection. Hold

the tubing close to the end being inserted, to prevent bending or breaking. Never forcea glass tube into a rubber stopper hole that is too small, as the glass may splinter andcause severe injury.

4. Clamp connections of rubber tubing to glass; reinforce the tubing at kinkpoints, or protect it with wire spirals.

5. Use a wired or shatterproof glass shield with all glass equipment when

there is danger of collapse or explosion. Even though a shield is used, the operatorand other persons in the area should wear safety glasses.

6. Do not heat by flame flasks and beakers larger than 1 L. Heat suchequipment in a water or steam bath or by an electric mantle or hot plate.

7. Empty and rinse all glassware before setting it aside for cleaning. If thecontainer has held particularly toxic or corrosive materials, the chemist should clean

it before washing. Never use strong oxidizing agents for removing organic residues.(See Table 16-1 for a partial list of hazardous chemicals, and see Handling Chemical

Reagents in this section for mention of some strong oxidizing agents.)

Using Pressure Equipment1. Because all pressure equipment is potentially dangerous, test it regularly,

and never use it for other than its prescribed use without the laboratory supervisor’sapproval.

2. When desiccators are used for vacuum work, enclose them in wire or metal

baskets.3. Use solid desiccants in desiccators. If concentrated sulfuric acid must be

used, reduce the splash hazard by putting glass wool or diatomaceous earth into thedesiccator well.

Using Heating Equipment1. Materials that may liberate flammable vapors when heated should be dried

in steam-heated ovens.2. Air baths are adequate for many purposes for which oil or metal baths are

commonly used. When solid oil, salt, or metal baths are used for high-temperatureheating, prevent water or organic materials from falling into the bath. A fire mayresult or bath materials may be scattered about and cause serious burns. Regardlessof the bath materials, wear heat-resistant gloves, a laboratory coat or apron, andsafety glasses.

3. Whenever applying heat to an apparatus for a long time, use steam orelectricity instead of flame.





Table 16-1 Partial List of Incompatible Chemicals

Chemical Prevent Contact With:

Acetic acid

Acetylene

Alkaline metals (suchas powdered aluminum

or magnesium, sodium,

and potassium)

Ammonia, anhydrous

Ammonium nitrate

Aniline

Bromine

Carbon, activated

Chlorates

Chlorine

Chlorine dioxide

Chromic acid

CopperCumene hydroperoxide

Flammable liquids

Fluorine

Hydrocarbons (such

as butane, propane,benzene, gasoline,

and turpentine)

Hydrocyanic acid

Hydrofluoric acid,

anhydrous

Hydrogen peroxide

Hydrogen sulfide fuming nitric acid and oxidizing gases

Iodine acetylene, hydrogen, and ammonia (aqueous or anhydrous)

Mercury acetylene, fulminic acid, and ammonia

chromic acid, nitric acid, hydroxyl compounds, ethylene glycol,

perchloric acid, peroxides, and permanganates

chlorine, bromine, fluorine, copper, silver, and mercury

carbon tetrachloride or other chlorinated hydrocarbons, carbondioxide, or halogens; do not add water to sodium or potassium

mercury (such as in manometers), chlorine calcium hypochlorite,

iodine, bromine, and hydrofluoric acid (anydrous or aqueous)

acids, metal powders, flammable liquids, chlorinates, nitrates,

sulfur, and finely divided organic or combustible materials

nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide

ammonia, acetylene, butadiene, butane, methane, propane

(or other petroleum gases), hydrogen, sodium carbide,turpentine, benezene, and finely divided metals

calcium hypochlorite and all oxidizing agents

ammonium salts, acids, metal powders, sulfur, and finelydivided organic or combustible materials

ammonia, acetylene, butadiene, butane, methane, propane

(or other petroleum gases), hydrogen, sodium carbide,

turpentine, benzene, and finely divided metals

ammonia, methane, phosphine, and hydrogen sulfide

acetic acid, naphthalene, camphor, glycerine, turpentine, alcohol, andflammable liquids in general

acetylene and hydrogen peroxide

organic or inorganic acids

ammonium nitrate, chromic acid, hydrogen peroxide, nitric acid,sodium peroxide, halogens, and oxidizers

everything except special containers

fluorine, chlorine, bromine, chromic acid, and sodium peroxide

nitric acid and alkalies

ammonia (aqueous or anhydrous)

copper, chromium, iron, most other metals and their salts,alcohols, acetone, organic materials, aniline, nitromethane,

flammable liquids, combustible materials, powdered carbon,

or fuel dust

Table continues next page.





Table 16-1 Partial List of Incompatible Chemicals, continued

Chemical Prevent Contact With:

Nitric acid, concentrated

Oxalic acid

Ozone

Perchloric acid

Potassium

Potassium chlorate

Potassium perchlorate

Potassium permanganate

Silver

Sodium

Sodium peroxide

Sulfuric acid

acetic acid, aniline, chromic acid, hydrocyanic acid, hydrogensulfide, flammable liquids and gases, and hydrochloric acidunless called for, then use appropriate caution

silver and mercury

all oxidizable materials, both organic and inorganic

acetic anhydride, bismuth and its alloys, alcohol, paper, wood,and hydrochloric acid

carbon tetrachloride, carbon dioxide, and water

sulfuric and other acids (see also chlorates)

sulfuric and other acids (see also chlorates)

glycerine, ethylene glycol, benzaldehyde, sulfuric acid, andcombustible dust

acetylene, oxalic acid, tartaric acid, fulminic acid, andammonium compounds

carbon tetrachloride, carbon dioxide, and water

ethyl or methyl alcohol, glacial acetic acid, acetic anhydride,

benzaldehyde, carbon disulfide, glycerine, ethylene glycol,ethyl acetate, methyl

potassium chlorate, potassium perchlorate, and potassiumpermanganate (or similar compounds of such other light

metals, sodium and lithium), and hydrochloric acid

Adapted from the “Dangerous Chemicals Code,” Bureau of Fire Prevention, Los Angeles, Calif. (1951).

Using Electric Equipment1. Cords to all electric apparatus should have acid-proof and waterproof

insulation. Frequently inspect the cords for deterioration, loose contacts, or shockhazards.

2. Special power-driven equipment, such as ball mills and vacuum pumps, mayaccumulate static electricity; install static eliminators on all such equipment.

3. Provide belts, drive shafts, gear trains, and other exposed moving parts of laboratory machinery with safety guards.

4. Install all electric equipment in accordance with current codes. Electriccircuits should be of sufficient size and capacity to permit maximum delivery from alloutlets simultaneously Overloaded circuits have seriously injured workers andequipment.

5. Equip electric outlets and conduits with a separate grounding wire or

connection so that all equipment can be grounded. Provide vapor-proof or explosion-proof switches and fixtures in all hoods and rooms where corrosive fumes are presentor flammable gases and solvents are used.

6. Use adequate lighting for all laboratory work, particularly where a hazardis involved.

7. Wear heat-resistant gloves with gauntlets when handling hot materials

from ovens and sterilizers. Handle sterilizers carefully to avoid strain or damage tothe temperature-sensitive units and to prevent the contents from spilling out whenthe door is reopened.





8. Shut off electric sterilizers and let them cool for 45 min before removing thecontents. Use a cart to transport hot materials in wire baskets or heavier containers.

9. Do not leave electric equipment at night while turned on unless it isequipped with a reliable temperature control and is located in a completelyfire-resistant section of the room. Do leave on a pH meter to prolong the life of the

electrodes and instruments. Turn off the switches on the electric sterilizers anddrying ovens at the end of each day.

10. Avoid the possibility of serious burns by labeling hot materials “HOT”immediately after removing them from ovens or sterilizers.

Storage Apparatus1. Properly store all apparatus when not in use.2. Keep heavy equipment on lower shelves or pallets. Store containers of

chemicals below eye level.3. Store glass tubing horizontally with its ends protected. Do not allow other

glass equipment to project beyond the supporting shelves. All shelves that hold smallapparatus or equipment likely to roll should be fitted with retaining lips or bars.

4. Label as defective any damaged equipment that is stored until it can berepaired or destroyed, and keep it away from items in good condition.

SPECIFIC APPARATUS PRECAUTIONS Adopt the following safety procedures to minimize or eliminate hazards:

Using Autoclaves1. Permit workers to use autoclaves only after they are trained how to safely

operate them.2. Frequently maintain autoclaves. Because many components of an autoclave

are subjected to superheated steam under extreme pressure during each use,

accelerated corrosion and wear of certain parts is likely.3. Load the autoclave according to the space needed for the material to be

sterilized and so that hot material will not fall out or spill when the door is reopened.4. Because steam leaking from around worn or cracked door gaskets and valve

stems can burn and scald, ensure that door gaskets are smooth and without cracks,and replace leaking valve stems immediately.

5. Avoid many corrosion problems by using demineralized or deionizedfeedwater. Whenever possible, place an autoclavable tray underneath flasks or vessels that contain liquid that might boil over and thus cause corrosion.

6. Close the autoclave door snugly, and turn the wheel to tighten the lugsfirmly to prevent steam pressure from escaping out the door gasket.

7. Before turning on steam, tightly close the waste valve and widely open the

exhaust valve.8. When sterilization is complete, always close the steam supply valve first,

and then drop the pressure to zero before opening the autoclave door.9. When opening the autoclave, slowly turn the wheel to loosen the door lugs

completely A “tight” wheel may indicate the presence of steam pressure. Wait1–2 min before trying the wheel again, open the door slightly, and stay out of danger

while the steam vapors dissipate. Then open the door completely, and let theapparatus cool for a few minutes. Mount a steam pressure gauge on the autoclave tohelp indicate the presence of steam pressure.





10. To avoid burns, wear heat-resistant gloves when closing the exhaust valve,

opening the autoclave, and unloading the contents of the autoclave, and handling thehot materials. Wear a protective apron so that droplets or spilled materials will notcause injury.

11. Do not place liquid-filled vessels that have just been autoclaved onto hard

countertop surfaces so that a sharp impact causes the hot liquids to “bump” and boilover. This is especially important when handling test tubes or flasks with narrownecks because a sudden boilover can cause the hot liquid to be forcefully ejected. Donot point the open mouths of these containers toward people, and gently place themon an impact-absorbing surface such as paper towels or a rubber mat.

12. Exposed steam supply or exhaust lines should be insulated to prevent burnsfrom accidental contact.

13. Do not leave the autoclave door ajar after use because it remains hot for

a while and can present a hazardous obstacle to the workplace and walkways.

Using Pipette Cleaners1. Always wear a rubber apron, rubber gloves, and safety goggles or a face

shield when operating a pipette washer unit; the soaking jar contains corrosive acid.2. When transferring pipettes from the acid jar to the rinsing unit, drain the

pipette completely over the acid jar or hold an agateware or plastic vessel under thepipette container while moving it.

3. Always place the pipette container into a rinsing unit that has beencompletely drained of rinse water; placing the pipette into a rinser that alreadycontains water can propel droplets of acid, which remain in the pipette tips, forseveral feet. Immediately rinse the dipper with large amounts of water.

4. Avoid dripping or spilling the acid. Immediately clean up all acid that has

come in contact with protective clothing or the countertop.5. If acid from the unit touches skin or clothing, immediately wash the area

with large amounts of water and notify the person in charge.

Using Water Stills1. Before any operation, always turn on the water entering the unit, and

regulate it for proper flow control. Fill the still with water before turning on the

heating unit. If the boiling unit is not filled with water to the proper level, the heating coils will burn out unless the still is equipped with a low-water control. This control

also makes the unit reasonably safe to operate since the electric circuit is completeonly when the water supply is adequate. A two-valve system is recommended, inwhich one valve regulates the flow and is left stationary and the other valve is usedto turn the water supply off and on. Accidental water loss on an unprotected still candestroy the water chamber. For these reasons, a low-water control is highly

recommended for any water still. Never leave an unprotected still unattended.

2. If the still is operating improperly or is not distilling water, always turn off the electric circuit before investigating. Plug electrically operated water stills into areceptacle equipped with a GFI (ground fault interrupter). The heating unit may beburned out or shorted. An open circuit could electrocute a person who touches the stillif it is not properly grounded.

Using Flame Spectrophotometers1. Some flame spectrophotometers use a 6-V, wet-cell, automobile-type battery,

which contains sulfuric acid. When inspecting the battery, avoid getting acid on





hands, clothing, or equipment. Never check the specific gravity while the charger is inservice, as acid may spatter from the cells during the charging period.

2. Be absolutely certain that the charger leads are connected to the batterycorrectly before the charger is attached to the 110-V circuit. A wrong connection willburn out fuses and may ruin the charger.

3. The flame spectrophotometer uses an oxygen, air, and gas mixture toproduce an open flame; follow the detailed instructions in their proper sequence.Improper mixtures of oxygen and other gases may explode and backfire.

4. Turn on the cooling water for the chimney before lighting the flame.5. To avoid explosions, always start the flame either with the automatic

igniter, or, on older units, with a gas light, and immediately check that the

oxidant/fuel mixture is burning at the proper rate.6. Many spectrophotometers have a waste drain tube that directs excess

aspirated sample into a waste collection vessel. It is important that the drain tubealways remain below the surface of the waste liquid in the container, or the lack of abackpressure in that tube may allow the oxidant/fuel mixture to fill the wastecontainer, which can pose a serious explosion hazard. When necessary to empty the

waste container, shut down the spectrophotometer, and do not restart it until thedrain tube has once again been placed below the surface of some water in thecontainer.

7. During operation, a layer of carbon may build up on the burner head and,

occasionally, a glowing carbon ember will dislodge and travel. Keep all flammablesubstances out of any area where the embers might land.

8. Because oxygen gas is dangerous in confined spaces, observe the following rules in its handling and use:

Never store oxygen cylinders near other compressed gases or combustiblematerial.

Frequently check connections and equipment using the soap bubble test to locateleaks.

Never use oil or grease to lubricate valves or connections, as these substancesmay explode. Be sure that the leads from the oxygen cylinder valves to theinstrument in use are safe and will withstand a pressure of at least 50 psi

(340 kPa). Do not use rubber tubing for conducting oxygen because these twomaterials may ignite.

Never allow the pressure-reducing valve to deliver oxygen at a pressureexceeding 35 psi (240 kPa).

When stopping the equipment, first close the main valve on the oxygen cylinderand allow oxygen to bleed through the flame burner until the gauge indicatesthat there is no pressure, then shut off the fuel supply and close thepressure-reducing valve. During this procedure, occasionally check if either

pressure gauge on the oxygen tank shows a reading. If pressure is noted, thecylinder valve is not closed tightly. A leaking cylinder valve can create sufficient

pressure to blow out the safety disc in the pressure-reducing valve and allowescaping gas to accumulate in the room, possibly producing a fire hazard.

Using Hot Plates1. Never use a bare hand to determine if a hot plate is turned on; always

assume it is hot until determined otherwise.

2. Always turn off hot plates when they are not in use.





3. Use hot plates under a hood where fumes or released gases or vapors can bedrawn off to avoid contaminating the air.

4. Never place cool flasks or containers directly on a hot plate. Follow

procedures and make sure that the laboratory test can be safely done on a hot plate.5. To avoid serious burns, always use tight-fitting heat-resistant gloves or

tongs for handling materials from the hot plate.6. Always wear a face shield, a rubber apron, and heat-resistant or rubber

gloves when removing spattering acid or caustic containers from the hot plate.7. Prohibit smoking and open flames near the hot plate when combustible

gases or vapors are being produced on it. Never allow smoking in the laboratory.

Using Muffle Furnaces1. Muffle furnaces normally operate at high temperatures. When putting in or

removing hot materials, wear heat-resistant gloves, and use long-handled furnacetongs to protect against burns.

2. Firmly grip the tongs on the hot materials when transferring them from thefurnace to the desiccator or other container.

3. Set the furnace for the proper temperature before putting in any materials.Turn off the furnace when it is not in use.

4. Never burn volatile substances that may explode in the furnace; the insideof a furnace is a confined area.

5. Never burn materials that will produce acid or alkali vapors in the furnace.

Such materials will corrode the heating elements and eventually burn them out.

Using Instruments for Testing Radioactivity1. Instruments for testing radioactivity are similar to television sets in that

both operate at high voltages. Shut off the instrument, and disconnect all electricpower connections before repairs or adjustments are made inside the cabinet.

2. Thoroughly instruct laboratory personnel in the proper sequence of

operation before allowing them to use these instruments and/or operate theinstruments’ controls. (The delicate instruments can be easily thrown out of adjustment by turning the wrong knob.)

3. Use proper precautions in handling radioactive materials. Post warning and“Hands Off” signs to protect other personnel. Strictly follow laboratory instructionsfor storing and disposing of radioactive substances.

Using Centrifuges1. Because the centrifuge is high-speed equipment, always ensure that it is

properly balanced before using it. Match all vials placed inside the centrifuge in size,shape, material, and volume of sample. All vial holders should swivel freely.

2. Securely anchor the centrifuge to a countertop. Rubber suction cups or

mounting on a rubber mat usually will prevent the unit from “walking” off thecountertop. Ensure that glassware or other apparatus on wall shelving will not fall off due to vibration during centrifuge operation.

3. Always set the centrifuge for the proper speed for the material andcontainer being used.

4. Before placing glass containers in the centrifuge, check them for chips orcracks. A cracked vial or bottle may fly apart at high speeds, throw the instrument off balance, create a serious hazard, and ruin the centrifuge.





5. Excessive vibration during centrifuge operation indicates that something iswrong. Do not expect the vibration to go away as the rpms increase. Increasing speedmay temporarily dampen severe vibration, but the danger of an unbalanced condition

also increases with the speed of the centrifuge. Stop the centrifuge immediately, andinvestigate the problem. Most centrifuge accidents occur because of balance problems

such as a frozen swivel, lack of ballast, or mismatched vials.6. Always close the cover when the centrifuge is in motion; completely stop the

rotor before lifting the cover.

HANDLING CHEMICAL REAGENTS1. Minimize the supply of all reagents kept in the laboratory workroom.

Return to the storeroom all reagents not actually being used.2. Clearly label all containers with identity of the contents, date received at

the laboratory, date opened, and any appropriate warning (flammable, corrosive, etc.).Label reagents made up in the laboratory with the concentration, date made, and thename of the technician who made the solution.

3. Have the laboratory safety officer promptly and appropriately dispose of unlabeled chemicals and solutions.

4. Obtain MSDS for each chemical in the laboratory inventory.

5. Do not smell or taste chemicals.6. Never mouth pipette chemical reagents. Always use a suction bulb.7. Store reagents out of direct sunlight, and use explosion-proof lighting

fixtures.8. Keep shelves low and uncrowded. Store chemicals according to class, not

alphabetically. Reagents likely to react together should be stored apart from oneanother.

9. Store and handle strong oxidizing agents, such as nitrates, nitric acid,permanganates, peroxides, perchlorates, chlorates, and perchloric acid so as to avoid

mixing them with easily oxidized materials, such as sulfur, sulfides, and glycerine. If pressure-sensitive materials, such as perchlorates, must be kept in the laboratoryworkrooms, store only small quantities in wide-mouthed bottles filled with loose,soft-rubber stoppers. Isolate large amounts of perchloric acid in storage outside the

laboratory. Store ammonia away from halogens.10. Store containers of flammable or caustic materials in crocks or lead trays

large enough to confine spills or leaks.

11. Keep metallic sodium and potassium in stone or glass containers underkerosene; keep phosphorus pentoxide containers tightly closed; supply anhydrousaluminum chloride in small quantities, and, once opened, do not store it longer than

three weeks.12. Cautiously handle and store finely divided magnesium or zirconium,

dimethylamine, triethyl bismuth, bromates, nitrogen halides, Grignard reagents, and

organic zinc compounds.13. When powdered, the alkaline metals (magnesium, sodium potassium, and

aluminum) will react with carbon dioxide; therefore, never use carbon dioxideextinguishers on burning alkaline metals.

14. Minimize the quantity of ordinary flammable chemicals kept in a laboratory

workroom. Limit it to a one-day supply. Even if flammable solvents are often used, donot use workroom containers that hold more than 5 gal (19 L). Usually, 1-gal (4-L)

containers will be large enough. Use safety-type containers listed by the UnderwritersLaboratories, the Factory Mutual Companies, or other such testing organizations.





15. Conduct operations involving volatile flammables under exhaust hoods andwithin troughs or large trays with raised edges. If a fire starts, it will be easier tocontrol if the burning material can be confined. Never use flame to heat a flammablecompound.

16. Forbid smoking in laboratory workrooms, storage rooms, and wherever a

fire or explosion is possible. Designate smoking areas, and keep them clean andcomfortable.

17. Use extreme care when storing ethers to prevent the formation of explosiveperoxides. Use activated charcoal or aluminum oxide in ether storage cabinets toabsorb the peroxide. Specific inhibitors can be used with some ethers to prevent theformation of explosive peroxides. Reducing volume to below 10 percent when distilling ether may cause a peroxide explosion. Never underestimate the serious explosionhazard involved in distilling or refluxing ethers.

Using Toxic Chemicals1. Treat all laboratory reagents as toxic material. To minimize exposure, use

protective equipment and apparel and proper technique. In laboratories where highly

toxic material is handled, policy may require a shower and complete change of clothing at the end of each workday and recommend periodic medical examinations.

Use the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) to become familiar with eachcompound’s toxicity and other hazards.

2. The toxic effect of many chemicals is underestimated. Following are a fewexamples of the serious effects of some chemicals:

Hydrogen sulfide in concentrations greater than 20 ppm is toxic and producesrespiratory paralysis. Do not depend on the intense, characteristic, rotten-egg odor of this gas to function as a warning because the nose may lose sensitivity tothe odor after a very short exposure. Mixtures of air with this gas (in the rangeof 4–46 percent by volume) are explosive.

Under normal conditions, an exposed surface of mercury can produce a toxicconcentration in a small workroom after a few minutes. Therefore, use mercuryonly in well-ventilated rooms. If the exposed surface is large, as when severalmanometers are used, constantly monitor the work area.

The effects of exposure to the oxides of nitrogen are sometimes not manifestedfor 48–72 h. A single cough when exposure occurs may be the only warning of asituation that may result in serious lung edema and death.

3. Handle mercury over trays with raised edges to completely recover spills.Sprinkling powdered sulfur over a contaminated surface converts the mercury to

mercuric sulfide. This prevents the mercury from vaporizing and facilitates cleanup. A high speed aspirator fitted with a trap and fine nozzle is useful in recovering mercury caught in small cracks. Commercially prepared absorbent sponges and spill

kits are also available. A HEPA-filtered vacuum cleaner is preferred for larger spills.

Using Corrosives1. Wear chemical goggles and face shields, tight-fitting gloves, and aprons

whenever transporting or transferring acids or alkalies. Wherever these materials are

used, keep large quantities of bicarbonate of soda. Immediately neutralize and cleanup spilled acids and alkalies.

2. Use polyethylene and plastic-coated glass reagent bottles to greatly reducespillage and splashing from accidental breakage. Use bottle carriers for transporting acids and bases.





3. Segregate acids from caustics and from active metals such as sodium,magnesium, and potassium, and from chemicals that can generate toxic gases such aspotassium cyanide and iron sulfide. Keep oxidizing acids separate from organic acidsand flammable materials.

Using Compressed Gases1. Store compressed gases according to local fire codes and manufacturer’s

recommendations. Secure all cylinders upright by chain or clamp to avoid possibleupset. When gas cylinders are not in use, securely fasten the cylinder cap to protectthe valve stem and valve. Always ground flammable gas containers.

2. Do not store flammable gases near oxygen cylinders. Store flammable or

toxic gases at or above ground level, never in basements. Isolate gas storage areasfrom laboratory workrooms and other storage areas. Limit the number of cylinders in

the laboratory to those currently in use.3. If cylinders are stored outside, shade the tanks or provide some other means

of cooling (water spray) to keep the cylinders’ internal pressure within safe limits.4. Use a cylinder cart to move compressed gas cylinders. Do not roll on end.

5. Do not use reduction valves, gauges, and other fittings designed for oxygencylinders on other cylinders. The threading on cylinder fittings usually prevents theirinterchange, but it is quite possible to exchange fittings on homemade installationsand small cylinders with clamp-on adapters. Prevent this from being done. Keepfittings for oxygen cylinders free from oil and grease.

6. Buy and store extremely corrosive gases, such as chlorine and hydrogen

bromide, in small quantities only, unless they are to be used quickly. Valves oncorrosive-gas cylinders deteriorate rapidly. Instruct employees what to do when a

valve fails. Include an emergency plan, including emergency repairs, evacuation, anddecontamination in the laboratory’s chemical hygiene plan.

Maintenance and Personnel

1. Establish a regular safety inspection and maintenance schedule for alllaboratory equipment. Have a trained team conduct and record inspections using aprepared checklist. Consult the supervisor whenever doubt arises about procedure or

equipment safety or when equipment deficiencies are found.2. Instruct all laboratory personnel of all procedures that are performed in the

laboratory and the subsequent hazards present in the laboratory. Maintain anongoing training program to keep personnel abreast of state-of-the-art changes.

3. Thoroughly explain the use and the hazards of new or unusual equipment.4. Properly instruct new workers in the use of personal protective equipment

and fire-fighting apparatus. A thorough first-aid course is essential, even though thelaboratory policy may require that a physician treat all injuries. Train all laboratory

personnel to apply artificial respiration and CPR.




AWWA MANUAL

Chapter 17

Fire Protection and

Handling Emergencies

GENERAL SAFETY RULES1. A neat, well-ordered plant represents good safety policy. Promptly dispose of

all empty crates, cartons, packing materials, papers, and other debris. Convenientlylocate suitable containers for discarded, soiled wiping cloths. The personnel on dutyshould be responsible for eliminating obvious fire hazards.

2. Analyze each plant area to determine what possible types of fires couldresult. Use this analysis to choose fire extinguishers of the appropriate size and type(see Table 17-1).

3. Conspicuously locate fire extinguishers in hallways near workroom door-ways. If several extinguishers are needed in a particular workroom, have them easily

accessible from all parts of the room. Use lights, signs, and arrows to indicate thelocation of the extinguishers.

4. Inspect portable fire extinguishers monthly, and maintain them according tothe National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Standard for Portable FireExtinguishers or applicable state or provincial laws. Tag each extinguisher with thedate of the last inspection or recharge.

5. Recharge extinguishers after every use.

6. Consult the fire-prevention service of the local fire department and/or fireinsurance underwriters for advice on how to choose and use equipment.

7. Conspicuously post the telephone numbers of the fire department and policedepartment at every telephone station for quick reference in an emergency.

8. Provide several exits so that personnel will not get trapped in case of fire.Consult the local fire department.

9. Distinctly mark all exits, and light them with reliable fixtures. Open alldoors in hazardous locations outward, and provide them with “panic bars.”

10. Store flammable materials in isolated structures if possible. If circum-stances compel storage of such items in the plant, keep them in rooms built with

139





Table 17-1 Fire Extinguisher Selection Chart




FIRE PROTECTION 141

Table 17-1 Fire Extinguisher Selection Chart, continued





noncombustible materials and equipped with fire doors, alarms, and automatic

extinguishers. Supplement the automatic extinguishers with other equipment thatcan be operated from outside the fire door.

11. In larger plants, connect alarms from the various installations into a central

panel, and monitor this panel 24 h a day.

12. Use explosionproof lights and other electrical fixtures in flammable storageareas, and, if necessary, ground the floor and use only spark-proof tools.

13. Prohibit welding and smoking in flammable storage areas.14. When transferring flammable liquids from one container to another, bond

the two containers by using a bonding jumper and/or by having the spout inmetal-to-metal contact. Plastic containers need not be bonded but can be, if desired.

15. Mark flammable storage areas with distinctive signs. During the night,

illuminate signs at all entrances.16. Instruct all employees in the proper use of the different types of fire

extinguishers and in the general rules of fire fighting. Ask the local fire departmentfor help.

17. Conduct fire drills periodically, and assign employees responsibilities should

a fire occur. Train all new employees immediately.18. Have the local chapter of the American Red Cross instruct all employees in

first aid, including artificial respiration, treatment for shock, and control of severebleeding. Training in CPR is also recommended.

EMERGENCY PROCEDURESFires are not the only emergencies that occur in our industry. Two other types of

emergencies commonly occur: man-made emergencies, such as release of hazardousmaterials, fire, bomb threats, and intrusions; and, natural emergencies, such asfloods, earthquakes, tornadoes, or hurricanes.

To plan and prepare for such emergencies, follow these rules:1. Establish a policy that details the plan of action for any given emergency.

Develop the plan with the help of local fire and police departments.2. Post emergency phone numbers and procedures in every work area.3. Training is critical. Conduct monthly drills to help sharpen emergency skills

and reduce panic should a real emergency occur.4. Identify facilities that would be affected by specific emergencies (i.e., raw

water supply—contamination by accidental spill).5. Assign one employee as the emergency coordinator. Use a member of top

management to ensure that he or she has the authority to put personnel andequipment into action.

6. Prepare evacuation plans for both in-plant and the surrounding locations.Specify the duties of each department/section as well as employees involved. Addresshow to shut down operations in case of emergency and how to use emergency

equipment, such as lighting, communications system, and portable generators.Employees should know where to find food, water, clothing, and sandbags.




Chapter 18

AWWA MANUAL

Office Worker Safety

Office workers can avoid injury by being careful and using their judgment while doing their daily jobs. Adopt the following safety procedures to minimize or eliminatehazards:

1. All video display terminal work stations should be ergonomically designedto reduce stress and repetive motion injuries.

2. Desks and cabinet drawers are potential tripping, collision, and stumbling hazards. Keep them closed and out of the way. Be careful not to pinch fingers whenclosing drawers.

3. Never tilt a chair backward; persons have been injured by chairs that

slipped or broke under the added strain of tilting.4. Use clips instead of ordinary pins to fasten papers together to avoidscratched and pricked fingers. If necessary to use pins, handle them carefully.

5. Be careful when handling paper because it may cause painful cuts. Do not

lick envelopes, as their edges may cut the tongue; use a sponge or water wheel.6. Carefully handle pencils, pens, and other pointed instruments to avoid

puncture wounds. Point pencils downward when in the pocket. Do not carry thembetween fingers with the points in the palm or extended toward others.

7. Report defective chairs and desks to the supervisor, as these may injureemployees.

8. To prevent tripping and falling, place cords from telephones or electricallyoperated office machines along the wall or in flat metal housings.

9. Keep doors totally closed or opened to prevent workers from colliding withthem.

10. Practice good housekeeping; keep desks clean and orderly.11. Sharp-pointed, vertical paper files on desks are dangerous; bend such points

horizontally.

12. Prohibit horseplay and skylarking (including shooting paper wads, paperclips, and rubber bands).

13. Take care when using standard four-drawer correspondence file, as it mayupset and cause injury if an overloaded top drawer is pulled out.

14. Because electric fans can seriously injure hands, keep fans off desks and outof reach. Use specially designed fans for the floor.

143





15. Do not rush from rooms into corridors. Keep to the right, especially atcorners.

16. Do not keep combustible materials closer than 6 in. (150 mm) from steam

pipes or radiators.

17. Do not heat stoppered bottles on radiators or steam pipes, as the heat may

cause the containers to explode.18. Never hurry when using stairways. High heels are particularly dangerous.

Always hold onto handrails.19. Never place articles on window sills, filing cabinets, lockers, and other

elevated positions from which they may fall and injure someone.20. Keep hands out of the way when opening or closing windows, doors, and

gates.21. Do not leave knives and razor blades in desk drawers with their cutting

edges exposed.22. Have qualified helpers move heavy objects; improperly lifting or shifting

equipment and supplies can cause hernias, sprains, strains, and splinters.24. Never put oily cloths, photographic film, glass, and razor blades in

wastebaskets, because such objects can injure maintenance workers. Place hazardousmaterials in receptacles used solely for that purpose.

24. Be careful when using broken porcelain faucet handles and when walking on slippery, waxy, or wet floors and loose materials.

25. Observe “No Smoking” signs.26. Be sure electrical receptacles are grounded, and equip electric office

equipment with ground plugs. Inspect receptacles and equipment for faulty groundsat least once a year.

27. Use stepladders when placing or removing objects beyond normal reach.Inspect ladders regularly and keep them in first-class condition.

28. Keep paper cutters in good condition, and use them carefully. Leave the

blade down when not in use.29.

Do not adjust or clean machines while power is on. If a machine jams during use, turn off the power before removing the obstruction.30. Report all injuries to the supervisor.




Appendix A

AWWA MANUAL

AWWA Award Programs

A primary function of the AWWA safety program is to collect, analyze, and report

statistical data on accidents and their causes. Reports of annual accident-and-severityfrequency figures are solicited from water utilities throughout the United States andCanada. These statistics are compiled and form the basis for determining accidentrates in the water utility industry.

To encourage utilities to participate in the compilation and collection of thesesafety statistics, the AWWA Accident Prevention Subcommittee administers, through

AWWA section safety committees, a safety award program. Several awards arepresented by the sections on an annual basis to utilities within their geographicalregion. The award program, established in 1956, encourages water utilities to

establish safety programs where none exist, keeps established safety programsoperating at high efficiency, and gives recognition to utilities having good safetyrecords or showing substantial improvement.

Award Criteria In order for the criteria for granting awards to be in line with those used by otherorganizations, such as the National Safety Council, the accumulation of a specific

number of consecutive employee-hours without a disabling injury is the prime basisfor consideration. In the past, awards were granted solely on the basis of recordsattained in a calendar year. This resulted in many inequities, especially among utilities with fewer than 100 employees. It logically follows that the greater thenumber of employee-hours of exposure to the work environment, the greater is theaccident potential. Also, in the case of small utilities, usually the more hazardousoperations, such as construction, are performed by outside contractors and theemployees are not exposed to the same accident potential as are employees of large

utilities.To minimize these inequities, the award plan was revised in 1988.

Two-Part Award PlanThe award plan is divided into two parts: one related to the AWWA sections and the

second to the parent association. Awards at the section level are given to all utilitiesthat earn them on an annual basis. AWWA awards are also given annually, but thenumber is limited to four.





Award plan for sections. The safety award plan for sections is based on fourawards: (1) certificate of commendation, (2) award of merit, (3) award of honor, and(4) award of excellence.

The merit, honor, and excellence awards consist of 8½ 11-in. certificatesappropriately designated and signed by the section chairman, section secretary, and

section safety chairman. The certificate of commendation is signed by the executivedirector of AWWA. These awards are based on accident rates as compared to thenational average. If a utility falls into a specific accident rate parameter, an award isissued through the appropriate AWWA section. The awards are based on accident rate

statistics reported by the utility to AWWA. AWWA award plan. Four awards per year are available at the parent-associa-

tion level—one for each class size of utility. The four class sizes are: I—utilities

employing fewer than 10 people; II—utilities employing 10 to 100 people; III—utilitiesemploying 101 to 500 people; IV—utilities employing over 500 people.

These awards were established in honor of Wendell R. LaDue and are grantedfor outstanding accomplishment in safety. The winners are selected by the AWWA Accident Prevention Subcommittee from nominations submitted by various sections.Only section nominees are eligible for the AWWA awards, and only one nominee fromeach class size may be submitted by a section. When submitting nominees on theforms provided, sufficient supporting information should be attached to assist thecommittee in selecting winners.




Accident review board, 4--5 Accidents causes, 28

costs, 16 handling, 26, 28 report, 6, 10

Acetylene, 46--47 Activated carbon, 102--104 Air hoist, 52--53 Air-purifying respirator, 35 Alum and ferrous sulfate, 104--105 American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), 100

American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 14

American Water Works Association (AWWA) award programs, 145--46

Loss Control Committee, vii--viii Ammonium sulfate, 110 Anhydrous ammonia, 107--110 Arc welding equipment and welding circuits, 47

Atmosphere-supplying respirator, 35--36 Autoclaves, 132--33 Axes and hatchets, 40

Barricades and warning signs, 76Blasting, 74

Carbon dioxide, 110--11Caulking, 82Centrifuges, 135--36Chain binders, 64

Chemicals activated carbon, 102--104 alum and ferrous sulfate, 104--105 ammonium sulfate, 110 anhydrous ammonia, 107--110 carbon dioxide, 110--11 chlorine, 111--13, 115--20 fluorides, 120--21 lime, 121--22 ozone, 122 potassium permanganate, 123 reagents, 136--38 right to know, 100--101 soda ash, 123 sodium chlorite, 124--25

toxic, 137Chisels and punches, 40Chlorination, 119--20Chlorine, 111--13, 115--20Compensation See Worker’s compensationCompressed gases, 138Compressed oxygen, 45--46Compressors and blowers, 110Concrete mixers, 52Confined spaces, 65--66, 69

Construction, 65--76Corrosives, 137--38

Diesel and gasoline engines, 59--61Disabling-injury frequency rate, 15Disabling-injury severity rate, 15--16Drums, 98

Education and training, 17, 19--20Electric equipment, 131--32Electric-switch panels, 85Elevated tanks, 88--90Elevators, 95Employees duty status, 28 insurance and compensation, 28--29 new, 25--26 office workers, 143--44 orientation, 26

recognition, 21, 24 rehabilitation, 28 responsibility, 3 right to know, 100--101Energized water meters, 79--80Equipment See Names of different types of equipmentExcavations, 69--71, 74--76Explosives, 74--76

Files, 40--41Fires, 103--104, 139, 142First aid, 36 for alum and ferrous sulfate, 105

for anhydrous ammonia, 109--110 for chlorine, 118--19 for fluorides, 121 for lime, 122 for ozone, 122 for soda ash, 123 for sodium chlorite, 125Flame spectrophotometers, 133--34Fleet safety, viiFloor cleaning, 93--94Fluorides, 120--21

Gas and arc welders, 45--48Grease pits and hoists, 62--63Grinding wheels, 45

Hammers, 41Hand digging, 69--70Hand tools, 39--42Hand trucks, 48Heating equipment, 129Hot plates, 134--35Housekeeping, 96

Incidence rate, 15Inspections, 20--21Insurance, 28--29

Index

147




Jacks, 63--64Job safety analysis (JSA), 17

Laboratory, 126--28 apparatus, 129, 131--36 chemical reagents, 136--38Ladders, 49--50Leaded joints, 80, 82

Leaks anhydrous ammonia, 107--108 chlorine, 113, 115--16Lime, 121--22

Machine guards, 50, 85Management committee, 3--4 responsibility, 2Material safety data sheet (MSDS), 100--101Melting compounds, 82Metalizing and sandblasting, 44--45Method of Recording and Measuring Work Injury Experience, 14--15

Mobile cranes, 53Motor vehicles See VehiclesMuffle furnaces, 135

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), 34National Toxicology Program (NTP), 101

Occupational-injury report, 6--7, 10Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 15, 100 incidence rate, 15Organizational safety, viiOverhead traveling crane, 53--54, 56Ozone, 122

Painting, 94--95Particulate-filtering respirator, 35Personal protective equipment, 31 arc welding equipment and welding circuits, 47--48 body, 33 face and eye, 31--32 foot, 32--33 for activated carbon, 104 for anhydrous ammonia, 108--109 for ozone, 122 hand, 33 head, 33 safety belts, 33Picks, 41

Pipe, 77--80Pipette cleaners, 133Pneumatic and hydraulic tools, 44Portable electric hand tools, 43--44Portable power tools, 43--45Potassium permanganate, 123Power boats, 92Power shovels and draglines, 51--52Pressure equipment, 129Public injury report, 10Public safety, vii

Pumping stations, 83--85

Radioactivity testing instruments, 135Records and reports, 6--7, 10 uses of, 13--14Reservoirs and lakes, 91--92Respiratory equipment, 34--35 air-purifying respirator, 35

atmosphere-supplying respirator, 35--36 for chlorine leaks, 116--17Right to know, 100--101

Safe work attitude, 25--26Safety definition, vii measuring, 14--16 types, viiSafety belts, 33Safety department responsibility, 2Safety manual, 17, 19Safety meetings, 19Safety newsletter, 24

Safety officer, 2Safety posters, 20Safety practices and procedures before beginning job, 30--31 buildings, 93--95 chemicals, 100--105, 107--13, 115--25 construction, 65--76 elevated tanks, 88--90 general, 37--38 laboratory, 126--29, 131--38 large tools and equipment, 51--54, 56 leaded joints, 80, 82 pipe, 77--80 pumping stations, 83--85 reservoirs and lakes, 91--92 small tools and equipment, 39--50 storerooms and stockrooms, 96, 98--99 structural, 38 transformer stations, 85--87 wells, 87--88Safety programs committees, 3--5 education and training, 17, 19--20 employee recognition, 21, 24 inspections, 20--21 organizing, 1--3 policy, 3Safety suggestions, 24Safety talks, 19--20Saws, 41--42Scaffolds, 48--49

Screwdrivers, 42Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), 36Shoring, 71, 74Shovels and spades, 42Soda ash, 123Sodium carbonate See Soda ashSodium chlorite, 124--25Soldering irons, 45Solvents, 84





Statistics uses of, 13--14Steam and wash racks, 63Storage, 96, 98Supervisor responsibility, 2--3Supplied-air respirator, 35--36

Tires, 64Toxics, 137Transformer stations, 85--87Trenching machines, 71

Vapor-removing respirator, 35 Vehicles accident report, 10 diesel and gasoline engines, 59--61 equipment, 61--64 operation, 57--58 power trucks and forklifts, 98--99

Water stills, 133Wells, 87--88Wheelbarrows, 48Window cleaning, 93Worker’s compensation, 29Working committee, 4Wrenches, 42

INDEX 149

manual de la norma awwa m03

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