manufacturing engineering and technolog

7/29/2019 Manufacturing Engineering and Technolog

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Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-1

Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006

Manufacturing engineering and

technology machining

Department of Mechanical and electrical

Shazhou institute of technology, Zhangjiagang, Rep. Of China

Sep. 2006



Preface()



1 This is the 4th

edition of the text book.2 Characteristics in the previous edition:

In the emphasis on balanced coverage of relevant fundamental and real-ward practice.

3 what is new in the 4th edition:

New Examples and case studies;

New questions and problems;

Summaries were Completely rewritten and Expanded;

Bibliographies updated

more Cross-references

New or expanded topics are shown in table at the top of page XVIII

I Edition information



1 Use extensive schematic diagram() and flowchart to present every topic of themanufacturing engineering technology(MET);

2 Emphasis on uses of the concepts and information presented;

3 Analogies, discussions and problems designed to stimulate() the studentscuriosity() about consumer and industrial products and how they are manufactured;

4 Extensive reference material include tables,Illustrations,Graphs, and Bibliographies;

5 Numerous Examples and case studies to highlight() important concepts and techniques;

6 Tables comparing advantages and limitations of manufacturing processes

7 A summary, list of key terms, and concise description of current trends at the end of eachchapter.

II Study aids



Audience or readers suitable for this text and course include thestudents in the majors of :

III Suitable audience

Mechanical

Manufacturing

Industrial

Aerospace

Metallurgical() and materials engineering



IV About the authors

Prof. Serope Kalpakjian:

Teach in the Illinois institute of technology

Graduated from Robert college, Harvard universityand the Massachusetts institute of technology

He was a research supervisor in charge of advanced metal-forming processes.

published numerous papers

one of the authors of several encyclopedias

editor of several journals

wrote three manufacturing books(two of which obtained the M. engene merchant award)

life fellow() of ASME

fellow and life member of ASM international

fellow of the SME

full member of the CIRP

one of the founding members and past president of the north Americanmanufacturing

research institution

He received: The best paper .

Excellence in teaching award

Education award



IV About the authors

1 Dr. Steven R. Schmid is:

an associate professor in universityof N otroDame

Director of the manufacturing tribology() Lab. At university of NotroDame.

He received bachelor degree in the Illinois institute of technology(with honors)

Master and Ph. D. degree in Northwestern university

numerous awards: the John T. yoursonsaward

the nevkirkaward for ASME

a national science foundation(NSF) careers award

ALCOA foundation award.He published over thirtypapers

edited three conference proceeding

And he

has held officer positions in the s ociety of manufacturing engineers and the

societyof tribology and lubrication engineers.

is a registered professional engineer and a certified manufacturingengineer.



Part IV: Material-removal processes and machines

1 1 previous manufacturing processes:

Casting produces a part by means of feeding the fluid metal into a castingcavityand freezing into the shape as the cavity.

Formingproduces a part by means of squeezing the hot metal to be a specificshape.

Shaping () produces a part by means ofvarious methods to force the cold metal to be a specific shape.

Figure 1 Schematic illustrationof asandmold, showingvarious features

Figure 2(a) Solidcylindrical billet upset betweentwo flat dies.(b) Uniformdeformation of the billetwithout friction.(c) Deformation withfriction.

(a)

(b)

Figure 3. Bending process



Part IV: Why need the material-removal processes

Reason: In many engineering applications, parts must be interchangeable tofunction properly and reliable during their expected service lives. However, none ofthe processes described above can produce a part with such accuracy.

material-removal processes are desirable for:

dimensional accuracy geometric features

finishing operation surface characteristics

economical waste materials unless carried out properly, material-removal processes can have adverse

effects on the surface qualityand properties of the product


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CHAPTER 23

Machining Processes Used to ProduceVarious Shapes



Examples of Parts Produced Using theMachining Processes in the Chapter

Figure 23.1 Typical parts and shapes produced with the machining processes described in thischapter.



Examples of Milling Cutters and Operations

Figure 23.2 So me of the basic types of milling cutters and milling operations.



Example of Part Produced on a CNC MillingMachine

Figure 23.3 A typical part that can beproduced on a milling machine equippedwith computer controls. Such parts canbe made efficientlyand repetitively oncomputer numerical control (CNC)machines, without the need forrefixturingor reclampingthe part.



Conventional and Climb Milling

Figure 23.4 (a) Schematic illustration of conventional milling and climb milling. (b) Slab milling operation,showing depth of cut, d, feed per tooth, f, chip depth of cut, tc, and workpiece speed, v. (c) Schematicillustration of cutter travel distance lc to reach full depth of cut.



Summary of Milling Parameters and Formulas

TABLE 23.1

N = Rotational speed of the milling cutter, rpmf = Feed, mm/tooth or in./tooth

D = Cutter diameter, mm or in.n = Number of teeth on cutter

v = Linear speed of the workpiece or feed rate, mm/min or in./minV = Surface speed of cutter, m/min or ft/min

=D N

f = Feed per tooth, mm/tooth or in/tooth

=v /N n

l = Length of cut, mm or in.

t = Cutting time, s or min

=( l+lc) v , where l

c=extent of the cutters first contact with workpiece

MRR = mm3

/min or in.3

/min

=w d v , where w is the width of cut

T orque = N-m o r lb -f t( Fc ) (D/2)

P ow er = k W o r h p

= (Torque) (), where = 2Nradians/min

Note: The units given are those that are commonly used; however, appropriate units must

be used in the formulas.



Face Milling

Figure 23.5 F ace-milling operation showing (a)action of an insert in face milling; (b) climbmilling; (c) conventional milling; (d) dimensions inface milling. The width of cut, w, is not necessarilythe same as the cutter radius. Source: IngersollCutting Tool Company.

Figure 23.6 A face-milling cutterwith indexable inserts. Source :Courtesyof Ingersoll CuttingTool Company.



Effects of Insert Shapes

Figure 23.7 Schematic illustration of the effect of insert shape on feed marks on a face-milledsurface: (a) small corner radius, (b) corner flat on insert, and(c) wiper, consisting of a small radiusfollowed bya large radius which leaves smoother feed marks. Source: Kennametal Inc. (d) Feedmarks due to various insert shapes.



Face-Milling Cutter

Figure 23.8 Terminology for a face-milling cutter.


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Effect of Lead Angle

Figure 23.9 The effect of lead angle on the undeformed chip thickness in facemilling. Note that as the lead angle increase, the chip thickness decreases, but thelength of contact (i.e., chip width) increases. The insert in (a) must be sufficientlylarge to accommodate the contact length increase.



Cutter and Insert Position in Face Milling

Figure 23.10 (a) Relative position

of the cutter and insert as it firstengages the workpiece in facemilling, (b) insert positionstowards the end of the cut, and (c)examples of exit angles of insert,showing desirable (positive ornegative angle) and undesirable(zero angle) positions. In allfigures, the cutter spindle isperpendicular to the page.



Cutters for Different Types of Milling

Figure 23.11 Cutters for (a) straddle

milling, (b) form milling, (c) slotting,and (d) slitting with a milling cutter.



Other Milling Operations and Cutters

Figure 23.12 (a) T-slot cuttingwith a milling cutter. (b) Ashell mill.



Arbors

Figure 23.13 Mounting a

milling cutter on an arbor foruse on a horizontal millingmachine.



Capacities and Maximum WorkpieceDimensions for Machine Tools

TABLE 23.2 Typical Capacities and Maximum Workpiece Dimensions for

Some Machine Tools

Machine tool

Maximum dimension

m (ft)

Power

(kW)

Maximum

speed

Milling machines (table travel)

Knee-and-column 1.4 (4.6) 20 4000 rpm

Bed 4.3 (14)

Numerical control 5 (16.5)

Planers (table travel) 10 (33) 100 1.7

Broaching machines (length) 2 (6.5) 0.9 MNGe ar cu tt ing (g ear dia me te r) 5 (16 .5)

Note: Larger capacities are available for special applications.



ApproximateCost of

Selected Toolsfor Machining

TABLE 23.3 Approximate Cost of Selected Tools for Machining*Tools Size (in.) Cost ($)

Drills, HSS, straight shank 1/4 1.002.00

1/2 3.006.00

Coated (TiN) 1/4 2.603.00

1/2 1015

Tapered shank 1/4 2.507.00

1 1545

2 8085

3 250

4 950

Reamers, HSS, hand 1/4 1015

1/2 1015

Chucking 1/2 510

1 2025

1 1/2 4055

End mills, HSS 1/2 1015

1 1530

Carbide-tipped 1/2 3035

1 4560

Solid carbide 1/2 3070

1 180

Burs, carbide 1/2 1020

1 5060

M il li ng c ut te rs , H SS , s ta gg er ed t oo th , w id e 4 3 5 75

8 130260

Collets (5 core) 1 1020

*Cost depends on the particular type of material and shape of tool, its quality,

and the amount purchased.



GeneralRecommendations

for MillingOperations

TABLE 23.4General-purpose starting

c on dit io ns R an ge o fc on dit io ns

Workpiece

m at er ia l C ut ti ng t oo l

Feed

mm/tooth

(in./tooth)

Speed

m/min

(ft/min)

Feed

mm/tooth

(in./tooth)

Speed

m/min

(ft/min)

Low-Candfree-

machiningsteels

Uncoatedcarbide,

coatedcarbide,

cermets

0.130.20

(0.0050.008)

120180

(400600)

0.0850.38

(0.0030.015)

90425

(3001400)

Alloysteels

S of t Un co at ed ,c oa te d,

cermets

0.100.18

(0.0040.007)

90170

(300550)

0.080.30

(0.0030.012)

60370

(2001200)

Hard Cermet s, PCBN 0.100.15

(0.0040.006)

180210

(600700)

0.080.25

(0.0030.010)

75460

(2501500)

Cast iron,gray

S of t Un co at ed ,c oa te d,

cermets,SiN

0.1010.20

(0.0040.008)

120760

(4002500)

0.080.38

(0.0030.015)

901370

(3004500)

Hard Cermet s, Si N,

PCBN

0.100.20

(0.0040.008)

120210

(400700)

0.080.38

(0.0030.015)

90460

(3001500)

Stainless steel,

austenitic

Uncoated,coated,

cermets

0.130.18

(0.0050.007)

120370

(4001200)

0.080.38

(0.0030.015)

90500

(3001800)

High-temperature

alloys, nickelbase

Uncoated,coated,

cermets,SiN,

PCBN

0.100.18

(0.0040.007)

30370

(1001200)

0.080.38

(0.0030.015)

30550

(901800)

Titanium alloys Uncoated,coated,

cermets

0.130.15

(0.0050.006)

5060

(175200)

0.080.38

(0.0030.015)

40140

(125450)

Aluminumalloys

Free machining Uncoated,coated,

PCD

0.130.23

(0.0050.009)

610900

(20003000)

0.080.46

(0.0030.018)

3003000

(100010,000)

High silicon PCD 0.13

(0.005)

610

(2000)

0.080.38

(0.0030015)

370910

(12003000)

Co pp e r a l lo ys Un co a te d , co a te d ,

PCD

0.130.23

(0.0050.009)

300760

(10002500)

0.080.46

(0.0030.018)

901070

(3003500)

Thermoplastics and

thermosets

Uncoated,coated,

PCD

0.130.23

(0.0050.009)

270460

(9001500)

0.080.46

(0.0030.018)

901370

(3004500)

Source:Based ondatafrom KennametalInc.

Note:Depths of cut, d,usuallyare in the range of 18 mm(0.040.3in.).PCBN: polycrystalline cubic boronnitride;

PCD: polycrystalline diamond.

Note:See alsoTable 22.2for range of cutting speeds within toolmaterial groups.



General Troubleshooting Guide for MillingOperations

TABLE 23.5Problem Probable causes

Tool breakage Tool material lacks toughness; improper tool angles; cut ting

parameters too high.

Tool wear excessive Cutting parameters too high; improper tool material; improper tool

angles; improper cutting fluid.

Rough surface finish Feed too high; spindle speed too low; too few teeth on cutter; tool

chipped or worn; built-up edge; vibration and chatter.

Tolerances too broad Lack of spindle stiffness; excessive temperature rise; dull tool; chips

clogging cutter.

Workpiece surface

burnished

Dull tool; depth of cut too low; radial relief angle too small.

Back striking Dull cutt ing tools; cut ter spindle t il t ; negative tool angles.

Chatter marks Insufficient stiffness of system; external vibrations; feed, depth, and

width of cut too large.

Burr formation Dull cutting edges or too much honing; incorrect angle of entry or

exit; feed and depth of cut too high; incorrect insert geometry.

Breakout Lead angle too low; incorrect cutt ing edge geometry; incorrect angle

of entry or exit; feed and depth of cut too high.


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Surface Features and Corner Defects

Figure 23.14 Surface features and corner defects in face milling operations; see also Fig. 23.7. Fortroubleshooting, see Table 23.5. Source: Kennametal Inc.



Horizontal- and Vertical-Spindle Column-and-Knee Type Milling Machines

Figure 23.15 S chematic illustration of a horizontal-

spindle column-and-knee type milling machine. Source:G. Boothroyd.

Figure 23.16 Schematic illustration of a vertical-spindlecolumn-and-knee type milling machine (also called a kneemiller). Source: G. Boothroyd.



Bed-Type Milling Machine

Figure 23.17 Schematicillustration of a bed-typemilling machine. Note thesingle vertical-spindle cutterand two horizontal spindlecutters. Source: ASMInternational.



Additional Milling Machines

Figure 23.18 A computer numerical control,vertical-spindle milling machine. Thismachine is one of the most versatile machinetools. Source: Courtesyof BridgeportMachines Division, Textron Inc.

Figure 23.19Schematicillustration of afive-axisprofile millingmachine. Notethat there arethree principallinear and two

angularmovements ofmachinecomponents



Examples of Parts Made on a Planer and byBroaching

Figure 23.20 Typical parts that can bemade on a planer.

Figure 23.21 (a) Typical parts made byinternalbroaching. (b) Parts made by surface broaching. Heavylines indicate broached surfaces. Source: GeneralBroach and Engineering Company.



Broaches

Figure 23.22 (a) Cutting action of a broach, showing various features. (b) Terminology for a broach.



Chipbreakers and a Broaching Machine

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 23.23 Chipbreaker features on (a) a flat broach and (b) a round broach. (c) Verticalbroaching machine. Source: TyMiles, Inc.



Internal Broach and Turn Broaching

Figure 23.24 Terminology for a pull-type internal broachused for enlarging long holes.

Figure 23.25 Turn broaching of a crankshaft. The crankshaftrotates while the broaches pass tangentiallyacross thecrankshafts bearing surfaces. Source: Courtesyof IngersollCutting Tool Company.



Broaching Internal Splines

Figure 23.26


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Sawing Operations

Figure 23.27 Examplesof various sawingoperations. Source:DoALL Company.



Types of Saw Teeth

Figure 23.28 (a) Terminologyfor saw teeth. (b) Types of toothset on saw teeth, staggered toprovide clearance for the saw blade to prevent binding during sawing.



Saw Teeth and Burs

Figure 23.29 (a) H igh-speed-steel teeth welded on steel blade. (b) Carbide inserts brazed

to blade teeth.

Figure 23.30 Types of burs. Source:The Copper Group.



Spur Gear

Figure 23.31 Nomenclature for an involute spur gear.



Gear Generating

Figure 23.32(a) Producinggear teeth on ablank byfromcutting. (b)Schematicillustration ofgear generatingwith a pinion-shaped gearcutter. (c)Schematicillustration ofgear generatingin a gear shaperusing a pinion-shaped cutter.Note that the

cutterreciprocatesvertically. (d)Gear generatingwith rack-shaped cutter.



Gear Cutting With a Hob

Figure 23.33 Schematicillustration of three views of gearcutting with a hob. Source: AfterE. P. DeGarmo and SocietyofManufacturing Engineers



Cutting Bevel Gears

Figure 23.34 (a) Cutting a straight bevel-gear blank with two cutters. (b) Cutting aspiral bevel gear with a single cutter. Source: ASM International.



Gear Grinding

Figure 23.25 F inishing gears bygrinding: (a) form grinding with shaped grinding wheels;(b) grinding bygenerating with two wheels.



Economics of Gear Production

Figure 23.36 Gearmanufacturing cost as afunction of gear quality.The numbers along thevertical lines indicatetolerances. Source:Societyof ManufacturingEngineers.


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CHAPTER 24

Machining and Turning Centers,Machine-Tool Structures, and Machining

Economics



Examples of Parts Machined on MachiningCenters

Figure 24.1 Examples of parts that can be machined on machining centers, using various processessuch as turning, facing, milling, drilling, boring, reaming, and threading. Such parts wouldordinarilyrequire a varietyof machine tools. Source: Toyoda Machinery.



Horizontal-Spindle Machining Center

Figure 24.2 A horizontal-spindlemachining center, equipped with anautomatic tool changes. Toolmagazines can store 200 cuttingtools. Source: Courtesy ofCincinnati Milacron, Inc.



Five-Axis Machining Center

Figure 24.3 Schematicillustration of a five-axismachining center. Note that inaddition to the three linearmovements, the pallet can beswiveled (rotated) along two axes,allowing the machining ofcomplex shapes such as thoseshown in Fig. 24.1. Source:Toyoda Machinery.



Pallets

Figure 24.4 (a) Schematic illustration of the top view of a horizontal-spindle

machining center showing the pallet pool, set-up station for a p allet, pallet carrier,and an active pallet in operation (shown directly below the spindle of the machine).(b) Schematic illustration of two machining centers with a common pallet pool.Various other arrangements are possible in such systems. Source: Hitachi SeikiCo., Ltd.



Swing-Around Tool Changer

Figure 24.5 Swing-around tool changer on a horizontal-spindle machiningcenter. Source: Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.



Touch Probes

Figure 24.6 Touch probes used inmachining centers for determiningworkpieceand tool positions andsurfaces relative to the machine table orcolumn. (a) Touch probe determiningthe X-Y (horizontal) position of aworkpiece, (b) determining the heightof a horizontal surface, (c) determiningthe planar position of the surface of acutter (for instance, for cutter-diametercompensation), and (d) determining thelength of a tool for tool-length offset.Source: Hitachi Seiki Co., Ltd.



Vertical-Spindle Machining Center

Figure 24.7 A vertical-spindlemachining center. The toolmagazine is on the left of themachine. The control panel onthe right can be swiveled bytheoperator. Source: Courtesy ofCincinnati Milacron, Inc.



CNC Turning Center

Figure 24.8 Schematicillustration of a three-turret,two-spindle computernumerical controlled turningcenter. Source: HitachiSeiki Co., Ltd.


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Chip-Collecting System

Figure 24.9 Schematic illustration of achip-collecting system in a horizontal-spindle machining center. The chipsthat fall bygravityare collected bythetwo horizontal conveyors at the bottomof the troughs. Source: OkumaMachineryWorks Ltd.



Machining Outer Bearing Races on aTurning Center

Figure 24.10



Machine-Tool Structure and Guideways

Figure 24.11 An

example of a machine-tool structure. The box-type, one-piece designwith internal diagonalribs significantlyimproves the stiffness ofthe machine. Source:Okuma MachineryWorks Ltd.

Figure 24.12 Steel guidewaysintegrally-cast on top of the cast-ironbed of a machining center. Becauseof its higher elastic modulus, the steelprovides higher stiffness than castiron. Source: Hitachi Seiki Co., Ltd.



Chatter

Figure 24.13 Chatter marks (right ofcenter of photograph) on the surfaceof a turned part. Source: GeneralElectric Company.



Internal Damping of Structural Materials

Figure 24.14 The relative damping capacityof (a) graycast iron and (b) epoxy-granite composite material. The vertical scale is the amplitudeof vibration and thehorizontal scale is time. Source: Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.



J oints in Machine-Tool Structures

Figure 24.15 The damping of vibrations as a function of the number of components on alathe. Joints dissipate energy; the greater the number of joints, the higher the dampingcapacityof the machine. Source: J. Peters.



MachiningEconomics

Figure 24.16 Graphsshowing (a) cost perpiece and (b) time perpiece in machining.Note the optimumspeeds for both costand time. The rangebetween the two isknown as the high-efficiency machiningrange.



CHAPTER 25

Abrasive Machining and FinishingOperations



Examples of Bonded Abrasives

Figure 25.1 A varietyof bondedabrasives used in abrasive machiningprocesses. Source: Courtesyof NortonCompany.


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General Characteristics of Abrasive MachiningProcesses and Machines

TABLE 25.1

Process CharacteristicsMaximum dimension

(m)*

Surface Flat surfaces on most materials; production rate depends on table size and

automation; labor skill depends on part; production rateis high on

vertical-spindle rotary-table type.

Reciprocating table L : 6

Rotary table D : 3

Cylindrical Round workpieces with stepped diameters; low production rateunless

automated; labor skill depends on part shape.

Workpiece D : 0.8

Roll grinders D : 1.8

Universal grinders D : 2.5

Centerless Round workpieces; high production rate; low to medium labor skill. Workpiece D : 0.8

Internal Bores in workpiece; low production ra te ; low to medium labor skill . Hole D : 2

Honing Bores and holes in workpiece; low production rate ; low labor skill . SpindleD : 1.2

L app in g F lat su rf ace s; hi gh pr od uc ti on rat e; low lab or sk il l. T ab le D : 3. 7

Ultrasonic

machining

Holes and cavities of various shapes, particularly in hard and brittle

nonconducting materials.

*Larger capacities are available for special applications. L=length; D=diameter.



Workpiece Geometries

Figure 25.2 The types ofw orkpiecesand operations typical of grinding: (a) cylindrical surfaces,(b) conical surfaces, (c) fillets on a shaft, (d) helical profiles, (e) concave shape, (f) cutting off orslotting with thin wheels, and (g) internal grinding. See also the illustrations in Section 25.6.



Knoop Hardness for Various Materials and

AbrasivesTABLE 25.2

Common glass 350500 Titanium nitride 2000

Flint, quartz 8001100 Titanium carbide 18003200

Zirconium oxide 1000 Silicon carbide 21003000

Hardened steels 7001300 Boron carbide 2800

Tu ng ste n ca rbi de 18 00 24 00 C ub ic b or on ni tr id e 4 00 0 50 00

Aluminum oxide 20003000 Diamond 70008000



Grinding Wheel

Figure 25.3 Schematicillustration of a physical model ofa grinding wheel, showing itsstructure and wear and fracturepatterns.



Common Grinding Wheels

Figure 25.4 Common types ofgrinding wheels made withconventional abrasives. Note thateach wheel has a specific grindingface; grinding on other surfaces isimproper and unsafe.



Superabrasive Wheel Configurations

Figure 25.5 Examples of superabrasive wheel configurations. The annular regions (rim) aresuperabrasive grinding surfaces, and the wheel itself (core) is generallymadeof metal orcomposites. The bonding materials for the superabrasives are (a), (d), and (e) resinoid, metal, orvitrified, (b) metal, (c) vitrified, and (f) resinoid.



Marking System for Aluminum-Oxide andSilicon-Carbide Bonded Abrasives

Figure 25.6 Standardmarking system foraluminum-oxide andsilicon-carbide bondedabrasives.



Standard Marking System for Cubic BoronNitride and Diamond Bonded Abrasives

Figure 25.7Standard markingsystem for cubicboron nitride anddiamond bondedabrasives.



Grinding Chips

Figure 25.8 (a) Grinding chip being produced bya single abrasive grain. (A) chip, (B) workpiece, (C)abrasive grain. Note the large negative rake angle of the grain. The inscribed circle is 0.065 mm (0.0025 in.)in diameter. Source: M. E. Merchant. (b) Schematic illustration of chip formation by an abrasive grain witha wear flat. Note the negative rake angle of the grain and the small shear angle.

(a) (b)


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Grinding Wheel Surface

Figure 25.9 The surface of agrinding wheel (A46-J8V)showing abrasive grains, wheelporosity, wear flats on grains, andmetal chips from theworkpieceadhering to the grians. Note therandom distribution and shape ofabrasive grains. Magnification:50X. Source: S. Kalpakjian.



Surface Grinding and Plowing

Figure 25.10 Schematic illustration of the surface

grinding process, showing various processvariables. The figure depicts conventional (up)grinding.

Figure 25.11 Chip formation and plowing of theworkpiecesurface byan abrasive grain. This action is similar to abrasivewear. (See Fig. 32.6).



Approximate Specific Energy Requirementsfor Surface Grinding

TABLE 25.3

Specific energy

W or kp ie ce m at er ia l H ar dn es s W-s/mm3

hp-min/in.3

Aluminum 150 HB 727 2.510

Cast iron (class 40) 215 HB 1260 4.522

Low-carbon steel (1020) 110 HB 1468 525

Titanium alloy 300 HB 1655 620

Tool steel (T15) 67 HRC 1882 6.530



Shaping Using Computer Control

Figure 25.12 Shaping the grinding face ofa wheel bydressing it w ith computercontrol. Note that the diamond dressingtool is normal to the surface at point ofcontact with the wheel. Source: OkumaMachineryWorks Ltd.



Speed and Feed Ranges and Grinding WheelRecommendations

TABLE 25.4 Typical Range of Speeds and Feeds for Abrasive Processes

Process variable

Conventional

grinding

Creep-feed

grinding Buffing Polishing

W he el s pe ed ( m/ mi n) 1 50 0 30 00 1 50 0 30 00 1 80 0 36 00 1 50 0 24 00

Work speed (m/min) 1060 0.11

Feed (mm/pass) 0.010.05 16

TABLE 25.5 Typical Recommendations for Grinding

Wheels for Use with Various Materials

Material Type of grinding wheel

Aluminum

Brass

Bronze

Cast iron

Carbides

Ceramics

Copper

Nicke l alloys

Nylon

Steels

Titanium

Tool steels ( > 50 HRC)

C46K6V

C46K6V

A54K6V

C60L6V, A60M6V

C60I9V, D150R75B

D150N50M

C60J8V

B150H100V

A36L8V

A60M6V

A60K8V

B120WB

Note: T hese r ecomm endat ions v ary sig nifican tly, d epend ing

on material composition, the particular grinding op eration,

and grinding fluids used.


Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006

Surface Grinding Operations

Figure 25.13 Schematic illustrations of various surface grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding witha horizontal-spindle surface grinder. (b) Plunge grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface grinder,producing a groove in thew orkpiece. (c) A vertical-spindle rotary-table grinder (also known as theBlanchardtype).



Surface Grinding

Figure 25.14 S chematic illustration of ahorizontal-spindle surface grinder.

Figure 25.15 (a) Rough grinding of steel balls ona vertical-spindle grinder; the balls are guided by aspecial rotaryfixture. (b) Finish grinding of ballsin a multiple-groove fixture. The balls are groundto within 0.013 mm (0.0005 in.) of their final size.Source:American Machinist.



Cylindrical Grinding Operations

Figure 25.16 Examples of various cylindrical grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding, (b) plungegrinding, and (c) profile grinding. Source: Okuma MachineryWorks Ltd.



Plunge and NoncylindricalGrinding

Figure 25.17 Plunge grinding of aworkpieceon acylindrical grinder with the wheel dressed to a steppedshape. See also Fig. 25.12.

Figure 25.18 Schematic illustration ofgrinding a noncylindrical part on a cylindricalgrinder with computer controls to produce theshape. The part rotation and the distancexbetween centers is varied and synchronized togrind the particularworkpiece shape.


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Thread and Internal Grinding

Figure 25.19 Thread grinding by(a) traverse, and (b) plungegrinding.

Figure 25.21 Schematic illustrations of internal grinding operations.



Cycle Patterns in Cylindrical Grinding

Figure 25.20



Centerless Grinding

(c) Figure 25.22 Schematic illustrations of centerless grindingoperations: (a) through feed grinding. (b) Plunge grinding.(c) A computer numerical control cylindrical grindingmachine. Source: Courtesyof Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.



Creep-Feed Grinding

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 25.23 (a) Schematic illustration of the creep-feed grinding process. Note the large wheel depth of cut,d. (b) A shaped groove produced on a flat surface bycreep-feed grinding in one pass. Groove depth istypicallyon the order of a few mm. (c) An example of creep-feed grinding with a shaped wheel. Thisoperation can also be performed bysome of the processes described in Chapter 26. Source: Courtesy ofBlohm, Inc., andManufacturing Engineering Magazine, Societyof Manufacturing Engineers.



General Recommendations for Grinding Fluids

TABLE 25.6Material Grinding fluid

Aluminum

Copper

Magnesium

Nickel

Refractory metals

Steels

Titanium

E, EP

CSN, E, MO FO

D, MO

CSN, EP

EP

CSN, E

CSN, E

D: dry; E: emulsion; EP: Extreme

pressure; CSN: chemicals and synthetics;

MO: mineral oil; FO: fatty oil.



Ultrasonic Machining and Coated Abrasives

Figure 25.24 (a) Schematic illustration of the ultrasonic machining process. (b) and (c) Types of parts madeby this process. Note the small size of holes produced.

Figure 25.25 Schematic illustration ofthe structure of a coated abrasive.

Sandpaper, developed in the 16thcentury, and emerycloth are commonexamples of coated abrasives.



Belt Grinding

Figure 25.26 Example:Belt Grinding of TurbineNozzle Vanes.



Honing and Superfinishing

Figure 25.27 Schematic illustration of a honingtool used to improve the surface finish of bored orground holes.

Figure 25.28 Schematicillustrations of thesuperfinishing process fora cylindrical part. (a)Cylindrical mircohoning,(b) Centerlessmicrohoning.



Lapping

Figure 25.29 (a) Schematic illustration of the lapping process. (b) Production lapping on flatsurfaces. (c) Production lapping on cylindrical surfaces.


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Polishing Using Magnetic Fields

Figure 25.30 Schematic illustration of polishing of balls and rollers using magnetic fields.(a) Magnetic float polishing of ceramic balls. (b) Magnetic-field-assisted polishing ofrollers. Source: R. Komanduri, M. Doc, and M. Fox.



Abrasive-Flow Machining

Figure 25.31 Schematic illustration ofabrasive flow machining to deburr aturbine impeller. The arrows indicatemovement of the abrasive media. Notethe special fixture, which is usuallydifferent for each part design. Source:Extrude Hone Corp.



Robotic Deburring

Figure 25.32 A deburring operationon a robot-held die-cast part for anoutboard motor housing, using agrinding wheel. Abrasive belts (Fig.25.26) or flexible abrasive radial-wheel brushes can also be used forsuch operations. Source: Courtesyof Acme Manufacturing CompanyandManufacturing EngineeringMagazine, Societyof ManufacturingEngineers.



Economics of Grinding and FinishingOperations

Figure 25.33 Increase in the cost of

machining and finishing a part as afunction of the surface finish required.This is the main reason that the surfacefinish specified on parts should not be anyfiner than necessaryfor the part to functionproperly.



CHAPTER 26

Advanced Machining Processes andNanofabrication



Examples of Parts Made by AdvancedMachining P rocesses

Figure 26.1 Examples of parts made by advanced machining processes. These parts are made byadvanced machining processes and would be difficult or uneconomical to manufacture by conventionalprocesses. (a) Cutting sheet metal with a laser beam. Courtesy of Rofin-Sinar, Inc., and ManufacturingEngineering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers. (b) Microscopic gear with a diameter onthe order of 100 m, made bya sp ecial etching process. Courtesy of Wisconsin Center for AppliedMicroelectronics, University of Wisconsin-Madison.

(a) (b)



GeneralCharacteristicsof AdvancedMachiningProcesses

TABLE 26.1

Process Characteristics

Processparameters andtypical materialremoval

rateorcuttingspeed

Chemical machining (CM) Shallowremoval (up to 12mm) on largeflat or

curved surfaces; blanking of thinsheets; lowtooling

andcost; suitable for lowproduction runs.

0.00250.1 mm/min.

Electrochemical machining

(ECM)

Complexshapes withdeep cavities; highest rateof

material removal among nontraditional processes;

expensivetooling andequipment; high power

consumption; mediumtohighproduction quantity.

V: 525dc; A: 1.58 A/mm2

;

2.512 mm/min, depending

oncurrent density.

Electrochemical grinding

(ECG)

Cuttingoff andsharpening hardmaterials,such as

tungsten-carbide tools; alsoused as ahoning process;

higher removalrate than grinding.

A: 13A/mm2

; Typically25

mm3

/sper 1000A.

Electrical-discharge

machining (EDM)

Shapingand cuttingcomplex partsmade ofhard

materials;some surface damage may result; alsoused

asa gr inding and cutting process; expensive tooling

andequipment.

V: 50380; A: 0.1500;

Typically 300mm3

/min.

W ir e ED M C on to ur c u tt in g of f l at o r cu r ve d su r fa ce s; e xp en si ve

equipment.

Varies withmaterial and

thickness.

Laser-beammachining

(LBM)

Cuttingand holemaking onthin materials; heat-

affected zone; does not require avacuum; expensive

equipment; consumesmuch energy.

0.507.5m/min.

Electron-beammachining

(EBM)

Cuttingand holemaking onthin materials; verysmall

holes and slots; heat-affectedzone; requires avacuum;

expensiveequipment.

12mm3

/min.

Water-jet machining(WJM) Cuttingall types of nonmetallicmaterials to 25mm

andgreater inthickness; suitablefor contourcutting

of flexible materials; no thermaldamage;noisy.

Varies considerablywith

material.

Abrasive water-jet machining

(AWJM)

Single or multilayercuttingof metallicand

nonmetallicmaterials.

Upto 7.5 m/min.

Abrasive-jetmachining

(AJM)

Cutting, slotting, deburring, deflashing, etching, and

cleaningof metallicand nonmetallic materials;

manuallycontrolled; tends to round offsharp edges;

hazardous.

Varies considerablywith

material.



Chemical Milling

Figure 26.2 (a) Missile skin-panel section contoured bychemical milling to improve the stiffness-to-weight ratio of the part. (b) Weight reduction of space launch vehicles by chemical millingaluminum-alloyplates. These panels are chemicallymilled after the plates have first been formedinto shape byprocesses such as roll forming or stretch forming. The design of the chemicallymachined rib patterns can be modified readilyat minimal cost. Source:Advanced Materials andProcesses, December 1990. ASM International.



Chemical Machining

Figure 26.3 (a) Schematic illustration of the chemical machining process. Note that no forcesor machine tools are involved in this process. (b) Stages in producing a profiled cavity bychemical machining; note the undercut.


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Range of Surface Roughnesses andTolerances

Figure 26.4 Surfaceroughness andtolerances obtainedin various machiningprocesses. Note thewide range withineach process (seealso Fig. 22.13).Source:MachiningData Handbook, 3rded. Copyright1980. Used bypermission ofMetcut ResearchAssociates, Inc.



Chemical Blanking and ElectrochemicalMachining

Figure 26.6 Schematic illustration of the electrochemical-machining process. This process is the reverse ofelectroplating, described in Section 33.8.

Figure 26.5 Various parts made by chemical blanking.Note the fine detail. Source: Courtesyof Buckbee-MearsSt. Paul.



Examples of Parts Made by ElectrochemicalMachining

Figure 26.7 Typical partsmade byelectrochemicalmachining. (a) Turbineblade made of a nickelalloy, 360 HB; note theshape of the electrode onthe right. Source: ASMInternational. (b) Thinslots on a 4340-steelroller-bearing cage. (c)Integral airfoils on acompressor disk.



Biomedical Implant

(a) (b)

Figure 26.8 (a) Two total knee replacement systems showing metal implants (top pieces) with an ultrahighmolecular weight polyethylene insert (bottom pieces). (b) Cross- section of the ECM process as applied to themetal implant. Source: Biomet, Inc.



Electrochemical Grinding

Figure 26.9 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrochemical-grinding process. (b) Thin slot producedon a round nickel-alloy tube bythis process.



Electrical-Discharge Machining

(a) (b)

Figure 26.10 (a) S chematic illustration of the electrical-discharge machining process. This is oneof the most widelyused machining processes, particularlyfor die-sinking operations. (b)Examples of cavities produced by the electrical-discharge machining process, using shapedelectrodes. Two round parts (rear) are the set of dies for extruding the aluminum piece shown infront (see also Fig. 15.9b). Source: Courtesyof AGIE USA Ltd. (c) A spiral cavityproduced byEDM using a slowly rotating electrode, similar to a screw thread. Source:American Machinist.

(c)



Examples of EDM

Figure 26.11 S tepped cavities produced with a square electrode by theEDM process. The workpiece moves in the two principal horizontaldirections (x-y), and its motion is synchronized with the downwardmovement of the electrode to produce these cavities. Also shown is around electrode capable of producing round or elliptical cavities.Source: Courtesyof AGIE USA Ltd.

Figure 26.12 Schematicillustration of producing aninner cavityby EDM, using aspeciallydesigned electrodewith a hinged tip, which isslowlyopened and rotated toproduce the large cavity.Source: Luziesa France.



Wire EDM

Figure 26.13 (a) Schematicillustration of the wireEDM process. As much as50 hours of machining canbe performed with one reelof wire, which is thendiscarded. (b) Cutting athick plate with wire EDM.(c) A computer-controlledwire EDM machine.Source: Courtesyof AGIEUSA Ltd.

(a)

(b) (c)



Laser-Beam Machining

Figure 26.14 (a) Schematic illustration of the laser-beam machining process. (b) and (c) Examplesof holes produced in nonmetallic parts byLBM.


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General Applications of Lasers in Manufacturing

TABLE 26.2

Application Laser type

Cutting

Metals PCO2 , CWCO2 , Nd : YAG, ruby

Plastics CWCO2

Ceramics PCO2

Drilling

Metals PCO2 , Nd : YAG, Nd : glass, ruby

Plastics Excimer

Marking

Metals PCO2 , Nd : YAG

Plastics Excimer

Ceramics Excimer

Surface treatment, metals CWCO2

W el di ng , m et al s P CO 2 , CW CO 2 , N d : YA G, N d : gl as s, r ub y

Note: P pulsed, CW continuous wave.



Electron-Beam Machining

Figure 26.15 Schematic illustration of the electron-beam machiningprocess. Unlike LBM, this process requires a vacuum, so workpiecesize is limited to the size of the vacuum chamber.



Water-J et Machining

Figure 26.16 (a) Schematic illustration of water-jet machining.(b) A computer-controlled, water-jet cutting machine cutting agranite plate. (c) Examples of various nonmetallic parts producedby the water-jet cutting process. Source: Courtesyof PossisCorporation.

(c)

(a) (b)



Abrasive-J et Machining

Figure 26.17 Schematic illustration of the abrasive-jet machining process.



Nanofabrication

(a) (b)

Figure 26.18 (a) A scanning electron microscope view of a diamond-tipped

(triangular piece at the right) cantilever used with the atomic force microscope.The diamond tip is attached to the end of the cantilever with anadhesive. (b )Scratches produced on a surface bythe diamond tip under different forces. Notethe extremelysmall size of the scratches.



CHAPTER 27

Fusion-Welding Processes



General Characteristics of Fusion WeldingProcesses

TABLE 27.1

J oi ni ng p ro ce ss O pe ra ti on A dv an ta ge

Skilllevel

required

Welding

position

Current

t yp e D is to rt io n*Costof

equipment

S hi el de d me ta l- ar c M an ua l P or ta bl e an d

flexible

High All ac, dc 1 to 2 Low

Submerged arc A utomati c Hi gh

deposition

Low to

medium

Flatand

horizontal

ac, dc 1 to 2 Medium

G a s me ta l -a rc S em i au to ma ti c

orautomatic

M os t m et al s L ow t o

high

All dc 2 to 3 Medium to

high

Gas tungs ten-a rc Manualor

automatic

M os t m et al s L ow t o

high

All ac, dc 2 to 3 Medium

F l ux -c or ed a rc S em i au to ma ti c

orautomatic

High

deposition

Low to

high

All dc 1 to 3 Medium

Oxyfuel Manual Portable and

flexible

High All 2 to 4 Low

Electron-beam,

Laser-beam

Semiautomatic

orautomatic

M os t m et al s M ed iu m

to high

All 3 to 5 High

*1, highest;5,lowest.



Oxyacetylene Flames Used in Welding

Figure 27.1 Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cuttingoperations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing, flame. The gasmixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene.



Torch Used in Oxyacetylene Welding

Figure 27.2 (a) General view of and(b) cross-section of a torch used inoxyacetylene welding. The acetylenevalve is opened first; the gas is litwith a spark lighter or a pilot light;then the oxygen valve is opened andthe flame adjusted. (c) Basicequipment used in oxyfuel-gaswelding. To ensure correctconnections, all threads on acetylenefittings are left-handed, whereas thosefor oxygen are right-handed. Oxygenregulators are usuallypainted green,acetylene regulators red.


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Pressure-Gas Welding

Figure 27.3 Schematic illustration of the pressure-gas welding process.



Shielded Metal-Arc Welding

Figure 27.4 S chematic illustration of the shieldedmetal-arc welding process. About 50% of alllarge-scale industrial welding operations use thisprocess.

Figure 27.5 Schematic illustration of the shieldedmetal-arc welding operations (also known as stickwelding, because the electrode is in the shape of astick).



Multiple Pass Deep Weld

Figure 27.6 A deep weld showingthe buildup sequence of individualweld beads.



Submerged-Arc Welding

Figure 27.7 Schematic illustration of the submerged-arc welding process andequipment. The unfused flux is recovered and reused. Source: American WeldingSociety.



Gas Metal-Arc Welding

Figure 27.8 Schematicillustration of the gas metal-arcwelding process, formerlyknown as MIG (for metal inertgas) welding.



Equipment Used in Gas Metal-Arc Welding

Figure 27.9 Basic equipmentused in gas metal-arc weldingoperations. Source: AmericanWelding Society.



Flux-Cored Arc-Welding

Figure 27.10 Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc-welding process. This operationis similar to gas metal-arc welding, showing in Fig. 27.8.



Electrogas Welding

Figure 27.11 Schematic illustration of theelectrogas welding process. Source: AmericanWelding Society.



Equipment for Electroslag Welding

Figure 27.12 Equipment used forelectroslag welding operations.Source: American Welding Society.


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Designations for Mild Steel Coated Electrodes

TABLE 27.2

The prefix E designates arc welding electrode.

The first two digits of four-digit numbers and the first three digits of five-digit numbersindicate minimum tensile strength:

E 60XX 60 ,000 psi mi ni mum t ensi le st re ng th

E 70XX 70 ,000 psi mi ni mum t ensi le st re ng th

E110XX 110,000 psi minimum tensi le st rength

The next-to-last digit indicates position:

EXX1X All positions

EX X2 X F la t po sit io n a nd ho ri zo nt al f il le ts

The last two digits together indicatethe type of covering and the current to be used.

The suffix (Example: EXXXX-A1) indicates the approximatealloy in the weld deposit:

A1 0.5% Mo

B1 0.5% Cr, 0.5% Mo

B2 1.25% Cr, 0.5% Mo

B3 2.25% Cr, 1% Mo

B4 2% Cr, 0.5% Mo

B5 0.5% Cr, 1% Mo

C1 2.5% Ni

C2 3.25% Ni

C3 1% Ni, 0.35% Mo, 0.15% Cr

D1 and D2 0.250.45% Mo, 1.75% Mn

G 0.5% min. Ni, 0.3% min. Cr, 0.2% min. Mo, 0.1%min. V,

1% min. Mn (only one element required)



Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding

Figure 27.13 The gas tungsten-arc welding process,

formerlyknown as TIG (for tungsten inert gas) welding.

Figure 27.14 Equipment for gas tungsten-arcwelding operations. Source: AmericanWelding Society.



Plasma-Arc Welding

Figure 27.15 Two types of plasma-arc welding processes: (a)transferred, (b) nontransferred. Deep and narrow welds can be madeby this process at high welding speeds.



Comparison of Laser-Beam and Tungsten-ArcWelding

Figure 27.16Comparison of thesize of weld beads in(a) electron-beam orlaser-beam welding tothat in (b)conventional(tungsten-arc)welding. Source:American WeldingSociety, WeldingHandbook(8th ed.),1991.



Example of Laser Welding

Figure 27.17 Laser welding of razorblades.



Flame Cutting and Drag Lines

Figure 27.18 (a) F lame cutting of steel plate with an oxyacetylene torch, and a cross-section of the torch nozzle. (b) Cross-section of a flame-cut plate showing drag lines.



CHAPTER 28

Solid-State Welding Processes



Roll Bonding

Figure 28.1 Schematic illustration ofthe roll bonding, or cladding, process



Ultrasonic Welding

(a) (b)

Figure 28.2 (a) Components of an ultrasonic welding machine forlap welds. The lateralvibrations of the tool tip cause plastic deformation and bonding at the interface of theworkpieces. (b) Ultrasonic seam welding using a roller. (c) An ultrasonicallywelded part.


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Friction Welding

Figure 28.3 (a) Sequence of operations in the friction welding process: (1) Left-handcomponent is rotated at high speed. (2) Right-hand component is brought into contact under anaxial force. (3) Axial force is increased; flash begins to form. (4) Left-hand component stopsrotating; weld is completed. The flash can subsequently be removed bymachining or grinding.(b) Shape of fusion zone in friction welding, as a function of the force applied and the rotationalspeed.

(a)

(b)



Friction Stir Welding

Figure 28.4 The principleof the friction stir weldingprocess. Aluminum-alloyplates up to 75 mm (3 in.)thick have been welded bythis process. Source: TWI,Cambridge, U.K.



Resistance Spot Welding

Figure 28.5 (a) Sequencein resistance spot welding.

(b) Cross-section of a spotweld, showing the weldnugget and the indentationof the electrode on thesheet surfaces. This is oneof the most commonlyused process in sheet-metal fabrication and inautomotive-bodyassembly.



WeldingMachineDesign

Figure 28.6 (a)Schematic illustrationof an air-operatedrocker-arm spot-welding machine.Source: AmericanWelding Society. (b)and (c) Electrodedesigns for easyaccessinto components to bewelded.



Examples of Spot Welding

(c)

(a) (b)

Figure 28.7 (a) and (b) Spot-welded cookware and muffler.(c) An automated spot-welding machine with aprogrammable robot; thewelding tip can move in threeprincipal directions. Sheets aslarge as 2.2 m X 0.55 m (88in. X 22 in.) can beaccommodated in thismachine. Source: Courtesy ofTaylor-Winfield Corporation.



Spot Welding Example

Figure 28.8 Robots equipped with spot-welding guns and operated bycomputer controls, in amass-production line for automotive bodies. Source: Courtesyof Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.



Resistance Seam Welding

Figure 28.9 (a) Seam-welding process inwhich rotating rolls actas electrodes. (b)Overlapping spots in aseam weld. (c) Rollspot welds. (d)Resistance-weldedgasoline tank.



High-Frequency Butt Welding

Figure 28.10 Two methods of high-frequencybutt welding of tubes.



Resistance Projection Welding

Figure 28.11 (a) Schematic illustrationof resistance projection welding. (b) Awelded bracket. (c) and (d) Projectionwelding of nuts or threaded bosses andstuds. Source: American WeldingSociety. (e) Resistance-projection-welded grills.


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Flash Welding

Figure 28.12 (a) Flash-welding process for end-to-end welding of solid rods or tubular parts. (b)and (c) Typical parts made byflash welding. (d) Design Guidelines for flash welding.



Stud Welding

Figure 28.13 The sequence of operations in stud welding, which is used for welding bars, threaded rods,and various fasteners onto metal plates.



Comparison of Conventional and Laser-BeamWelding

Figure 28.14 The relative sizes of theweld beads obtained byconventional(tungsten arc) and byelectron-beam orlaser-beam welding.



Explosion Welding

Figure 28.15 Schematicillustration of the explosionwelding process: (a) constantinterface clearance gap and(b) angular interface clearancegap. (c) and (d) Cross-

sections of explosion-weldedjoints. (c) titanium (top piece)on low-carbon steel (bottom).(d) Incoloy800 (an iron-nickel-based alloy) on low-carbon steel. Source:Courtesyof E. I. Du Pont deNemours & Co.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)



Diffusion Bonding Applications

Figure 28.16



Diffusion Bonding/Superplastic Forming

Figure 28.17 The sequence of operations in thefabrication of various structures bydiffusion bondingand then superplastic forming of (originally) flatsheets. Sources: (a) After D. Stephen and S.J.Swadling. (b) and (c) Rockwell International Corp.

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