map 5 relevant geographic region - basic portal

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Map 5 Relevant Geographic Region

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92 Elizabeth Avenue, Rosebud West. Residential Village and Developments - CHMP 13320

Topographic map used for Location Plan: 1:30,000 Number T7821-2-4-2, T7821-2-1-3, T7821-2-2-4, T7821-2-3-1

Zone 55

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Activity Area Boundary29.9 hectares (approx)

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Archaeology At Tardis

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VAHR 7821-xxxxArtefact Scatter

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92 Elizabeth Avenue, Rosebud West. Residential Village and Developments – CHMP 13320

Archaeology At Tardis cultural heritage advisors 17

5. 3 Aboriginal Places in the Geographic Region

Evidence of pre and post-Contact Aboriginal occupation may be found throughout the

Victorian landscape in a variety of different forms and condition. What remains of this

evidence comprises archaeological sites or Aboriginal cultural heritage places. These sites

have been classified into different ‘types’ usually based on a set of consistent

characteristics. These characteristics can relate to: the type of artefact found at the site

(i.e. stone artefact), what function the site itself may have served (i.e. quarry site) or they

may be utilitarian (i.e. rock-well) or ceremonial in nature (i.e. stone arrangement). Most

sites represent evidence or the remains of the exploitation of a particular resource

therefore they are often associated with the surrounding environment and landform. The

association between environment/landform and site type is used to create predictive

models to assess the likelihood of a particular landform to contain specific site types or

Aboriginal cultural heritage.

Number of Places

There are nineteen places registered in the geographic region. Site types which have been

previously found throughout the geographic region are: stone artefact scatters (n=13

(68%)), shell middens (n=4 (21%)) and two object collections (n=2 (11%))

Landform

A significant proportion of these places were located on low lying dunes (n=12 (63%)),

however occasional places have been located in swamp (n=4 (21%)), coastal plains and

flats (n=3 (16%)).

Vertical Distribution

No surface finds have been recorded in the geographic region. The majority of stone

artefact scatters have been recorded at depths between 200mm and 680mm below

current ground surface. One exception to this is a stone axe recorded at 1100mm below

ground surface. This was recovered during uncontrolled mechanical excavation.

Contents

Stone artefact scatters and low density artefact distributions are dominated by isolated

stone artefacts (n=5 (38%)). Distributions of two to five artefacts accounted for three

places (23%), while more populous scatters are extremely rare. Artefact totals was

unrecorded for two places (14%).

Raw Material Types

The dominant raw material types found within the geographic region are silcrete and

marine flint. Silcrete appears at eight of the thirteen stone artefact scatters (62%) and

accounts for twenty-seven artefacts (24% of the total artefact assemblage), while coastal

flint appears in five places (38%) and accounts for 50 stone artefacts (45% of the total

artefact assemblage). Minor components of quartz, quartzite and have been found at

places within the geographic region.



Artefact Types

Stone artefact analysis within the geographic region has been only broadly discussed.

Flakes are the predominant artefact type within the geographic region, and are present in

8 places (62%). Minor components of cores, angular fragments, and one anvil, hand axe,

mill stone and pestle are also recorded. In general, insufficient data has been collected to

carry out any meaningful quantitative analysis across the geographic region.

Shell Middens

There are four shell middens in the geographic region. These are all located on the dune

landform on the former margins of Tootgarook Swamp, and range between surface and

680mm below ground surface. Three of the middens contained a combination of rocky

and sandy shore shellfish species, and one contained rocky shore species only. No

distinct patterning in shellfish species is observable, and common species include

Subninella, Cabestana, Abalone, Brachidontes, Dicathais, Chiton, Limpet, Nerita, Mytilus,

Donax, and Ostrea. This demonstrates that Aboriginal people were harvesting shellfish

from coastal rock platforms and returning with them to the Tootgarook Swamp for

consumption.

Quarry

There are no quarries registered in the geographic region.

Scarred Trees

There are no scarred trees registered in the geographic region. The majority of native

vegetation on the Mornington Peninsula was cleared during the lime burning industry

period (1840-90s), meaning that the potential for culturally scarred trees to have survived

is extremely low.

Burials

There are no arborial or subsurface burials recorded in the geographic region. Burials will

likely be present within dunes adjacent to swamps and waterways. As the majority of

native vegetation on the Mornington Peninsula was cleared during the lime burning

industry period (1840-90s), the probability of arborial burials being present will be

extremely low to none. Internments within dune landforms remain a possibility.

Notable Dated sites within Mornington Peninsula

A range of sites have been subject to formal dating on the Mornington Peninsula,

including East Swan Lake 4/1 (Wk-2001) at 6560±60 BP, Pickering Point (Gak-2856) at

6850±150 BP, and Nobles Rocks 3/2 (Wk-1141) at 6870±70 BP (Godfrey et al. 1996: 39).

One of the oldest sites along the Victorian coastline being 7121-0237 (VAHR) at Cape

Bridgewater 3/1, being 9850±70 (Wk-3649) (Godfrey et al. 1996: 42). However, the age

for site 7821-0755 (VAHR) is quite anomalous compared to the majority of midden sites

located within the Mornington Peninsula region. The majority of the midden sites dated

around this area are much earlier, and range from present day to around 2000 BP (Davey



Point 1, 230±50 BP (Beta-88049), The Sisters 3, 340±70 BP (SUA-2036), The Sisters 3,

1940±60 BP (Beta-05818)(Godfrey et al. 1996: 35; Porch, 1996: 9).

The closest archaeological place that has been subject to formal dating are approximately

1km to the east of the activity area in Boneo. Murphy & Thomson 2008 & 2013 carried out

radiometric dating on charcoal and burnt shell from VAHR7821-0755 and obtained dates

of 6288±55 BP (Wk-37127) and 6622±87 BP (Wk-22925). This correlates with the set of

the Holocene Climatic Optimum (8/5ka BP), when high precipitation and increased sea

level likely resulted in the formation of a large open water body where Tootgarook Swamp

is currently located. Saline water invaded the landscape, providing a habitat for marine

mollusc communities of Katelysia ryhtiphora, Mytilus edulis planulatus, Austromytilus

rostratus, Mactra sp and Anadara trapezia (Geological Survey of Victoria 1967; Murphy &

Thomson 2008). Increased water levels within the area would have created small ‘islands’

out of the remnant sandy rises and hillocks, providing high points in the landscape that

were close to water and food sources, and provided attractive dry and resource rick

campsite locations. Place VAHR 7821-0755 is in a comparable landform to the dunes

located in the north of the activity area.

5. 4 Previous Work in the Geographic Region

Regional Investigations

In a very early archaeological investigation by a geologist, Keble (1928) provides a

descriptive account of Aboriginal occupation of the Mornington Peninsula. Keble

suggested that sand country of the Peninsula was the preferred campsite location. He was

also able to demonstrate that the large social networks and distribution systems may have

operated prior to European settlement. Such extensive trade and social network systems

have since been clearly demonstrated (McBryde 1984). Keble considered that the ocean

shoreline between Portsea and Rye would contain the highest density of sites in the area.

Keble suggested that the hinterland of this coastline was once grassland regions rich in

native fauna. He also suggested that after harvesting shellfish from the coast, Aboriginals

would then travel to a known water supply (1928: 153). One of the recorded

archaeological sites near to the study area, Blacks Camp (7821-0014) was first noted by

Keble during his field excursions. Keble's study is important as it highlights the rate of

archaeological loss that has occurred in the region over the past eighty years in terms of

site density and content. Spillane (1974, 1971) also noted large campsites on the

Peninsula including Black’s Camp.

Although the activity area has been included within a previous regional study (Sullivan

1981), it was not subject to specific survey coverage. A high density of coastal sites, many

of which were found to be situated along the cliff line were recorded (see Table 2 & Figure

10). These sites are comprised of surface scatters of rock platform shellfish midden, often

with a small lithic component and mostly in poor state of preservation. The present activity

area is adjacent to Sullivan’s Coastal Unit 5, and was found to have a minimum site

density of one site in every 240m (Sullivan 1981: 66, Table 9) of coastline. Sullivan noted

that this coastal unit, whilst containing some large rock platforms, was mostly sandy; yet

has a high site density.

During Sullivan’s survey the vast majority of known Aboriginal sites were recorded along

the Port Phillip Bay and Bass Strait coastline. A total of 289 new sites were recorded



during her study with nearly 90% identified within 100 metres of the shoreline. Sullivan

considers that the proportionally low number of inland sites recorded during her study may

be a function of low ground surface visibility in these areas rather than an accurate

indication of site distribution. The majority of sites recorded are middens and

midden/surface scatter sites. Less frequently located were surface scatter sites. The

dominant shellfish species exploited at these midden sites were Turbo (Subninella

undulata) and Limpets (Cellana tramoerica), both rock platform species. The dominant

stone materials utilised within these sites were Tertiary silcrete, Palaeozoic chert and

marine chert (Sullivan 1981: 82).

From the conclusion presented in Sullivan's study (1981: 95), general predictive

statements can be made about Aboriginal site distribution and site contents on the

Mornington Peninsula. These predictive statements are of particular interest to the present

study.

Archaeological sites will occur on all prominent landforms on the Peninsula, including

cliffs, dune swales, hind-dunes, bluffs and escarpments.

The greatest concentration of sites occurs on the Bass Strait coastline.

Shell midden sites on the Peninsula represent specific exploitation of the rock platform

species Mytilus. There is evidence that these sites were linked with hinterland base

camps located in the western foothills of the central spine of the Peninsula.

The stone artefact assemblage associated with these sites is primarily a flake and

blade industry that dates these sites to the last 4,000 years.

The archaeology of the Peninsula must be interpreted as representing a single element

that is part of a wide ranging and complex exploitation strategy used by the Bunurong

people prior to European contact.

Sullivan considers it unlikely that the Peninsula would have been exploited on a single

seasonal basis, but with several trips made by small groups to areas of the Peninsula

each year.

Goulding (1988) undertook an investigation of the Melbourne Area, District 2 for Aboriginal

occupation. The research for this assessment was literature based and no ground surface

survey was undertaken. The aims of this study were to detail Aboriginal society pre- and

post-European settlement and provide information on known Aboriginal archaeological

places within public land. In a summary of the archaeology of the area, Goulding believes

the area to have been extensively investigated and surveyed, which has shown that the

entire region has been occupied by Aboriginal people at some time during the past.

However, even given this information, Goulding states that “we still know very little about

the activities of Aborigines across the diverse landscape” (Goulding 1988: 61-62).

ACHRIS shows there are twenty-four approved CHMPs in the geographic region (Hislop

2014, Beaton 2014, Walker 2013, Murphy & Thomson 2013, Barker & Barker, 2013, Brown

et al. 2013, Falvey et al.. 2013, Murphy & Owen 2011, St George 2011, Howes 2011,

Barker 2011, Dugay-Grist & Cowled 2011, Robb 2011, Whincop & Howell-Meurs 2011,

Hislop 2011, Barker 2010 a & b, Murphy et al. 2010, Stevens et al. 2009, Hobbs et al.



2009, Barker 2009 & Mitchell 2009). None of these has included the current activity area.

The approved CHMPs have the following characteristics:

1. The approved CHMPs comprise two desktop assessments, one standard

assessment and twenty-one complex assessments.

2. The majority of CHMPs have investigated land within the low lying dune formations.

3. Aboriginal cultural heritage has been found only during complex assessments.

4. Seven of twenty-one complex assessments found sixteen new Aboriginal cultural

heritage places, comprising fourteen low density stone artefact scatters and two

shell middens.

5. Seventeen of the assessments found no Aboriginal cultural heritage.

6. Complex assessments have excavated approximately 361.31m2 and located eighty

stone artefacts.

7. Two of the CHMPs conducted radiometric dating. Murphy & Thomson 2008 & 2013

carried out radiometric dating on charcoal and burnt shell from VAHR7821-0755

and obtained dates of 6288±87 and 6622±87.

8. No CHMPs have demonstrated Pleistocene Aboriginal places are present in the

geographic region.

9. CHMPs typically identify elevated dunes adjacent to creeks and swamps as areas

of cultural heritage sensitivity for stone artefact scatters, shell middens and burials.

Activity Area Specific Investigations

Murphy (2006) carried out a cultural heritage assessment, including ground surface survey

of the activity area. The ground surface survey was constrained by very poor ground

surface visibility, and only 10% of the activity was inspected in detail, and effective survey

coverage was less than 1%. The survey identified the small elevated sections of land in the

north of the activity as having moderate to high archaeological potential. The southern low

lying flat ground was identified as the Tootgarook Swamp, which would have been

inundated until its draining in the 1890s, and therefore would be unlikely to contain

Aboriginal cultural heritage.

Summary

The activity area has been subject to previous ground surface survey;

There are no previously registered Aboriginal heritage places within the activity

area, or within 50m of the activity area boundaries;

There is one previously registered Aboriginal cultural heritage place within 200m of

the activity area boundary (stone artefact scatter VAHR7821-0854). There are no

other Aboriginal cultural heritage places within 500m of the activity area boundary.

No correlation between site identification and the probable pre-Contact banks of

Chinaman’s Creek has been demonstrated;

The activity area has been subject to previous ground surface disturbance through

vegetation clearance and repeated ploughing and grazing;



The majority of previously registered Aboriginal heritage places within the

geographic region have been low density surface stone artefact scatters with small

spatial extents.

5. 5 Historical and Ethno-Historical Accounts in the Geographic Region

The information used to establish pre-settlement Aboriginal spatial organisation is mostly

based on observations made by Europeans during the initial period of contact and

subsequent settlement of the activity area region. Early historical accounts of Aboriginal

land use within and surrounding the activity area are scant, with information provided by

Bunce (1858), Smyth (1878), Gellibrand (1836), Jamieson (1853), Haydon (1846), G

McCrae (1911) and H McCrae (1966). Each of these people recorded some details about

the Peninsula's Bunurong people such as language, traditions and customs. However, the

majority of information is derived from papers and Journals of the Assistant Protector of

Aborigines, William Thomas and Chief Protector George Augustus Robinson.

The activity area lies within the traditional lands of the Bunurong tribe. The Bunurong

(Western Port) tribes belonged to the inter-marriage network and language ties group

known as the Kulin that inhabited areas around Melbourne. At the time of contact the Kulin

nation was made up of the Bunurong, Woiworung, Jajowrong, Taunguong and

Wathaurong (Presland 1994: 40). The Bunurong clan whose estate included the activity

area were the Bun wurrung balug (Map 6 – clan 1) meaning ‘Bun’ speaking people (Clark

1990: 366) and their territory is thought to have been around Point Nepean and Cape

Schanck (Barwick 1984: 177). Their clan leader at the time of European settlement is

thought to have been Bobbinary (c. 1799-1849), a famed healer and sorcerer reputed to

be able to charm away rain (Clark 1990: 366).

One of the first to mention local Aboriginals was Captain Matthew Flinders when in 1802

he climbed ‘Bluff Mountain’ (Arthur’s Seat), noting: “There were many marks of natives,

such as deserted fire places and heaps of oyster shells; and upon the peninsula which

forms the south side of the port a smoke was rising, but we did not see any of the people”.

European contact with the Bunurong around the Peninsula was initially made by sealers

and whalers frequenting Bass Strait from the late 1790’s.

Early Aboriginal population numbers made by observers are, at best, estimates. An 1839

census of the Bunurong by Thomas suggested that at the time of colonisation, this tribe

comprised of approximately 500 persons or ‘six square miles per person’ (Thomas ML 9:

47).

Thomas was appointed Assistant Protector in 1839, in charge of the welfare of Aboriginal

people in the Western Port and Gippsland districts. From 1839 to 1841 Thomas worked

from a hut near Arthur's Seat. Thomas saw the demise of Aboriginals once they moved to

Melbourne and made concerted efforts to encourage them to settle in agricultural areas.

However, this attempt to keep Aboriginals out of Melbourne was a failure, and by 1843

Thomas was totally preoccupied with keeping order in the Aboriginal camps around

Melbourne and visiting Aboriginals in jail. In 1850, the Protectorate system was abolished

(Sullivan 1981: 15).



Map 6 East Kulin Language Areas & Clans (from Clark 1990: 364)

The journals Thomas kept during his period at Arthur's Seat are of particular interest as the

Aboriginals in this area were then still practising aspects of their traditional lifestyle. In

1839, European settlement had already severely affected the Aboriginal population as

Thomas counted only 83 members of the Bunurong tribe remaining (Sullivan 1981: 17). As

a result of granting grazing licenses, Aboriginals became dispossessed of their land and

were forced to rely on handouts of food from Thomas and other settlers.

The Bunurong was one of the first groups of Aboriginals to feel the full impact of European

settlement. Aboriginal population numbers decreased rapidly after European settlement of

the Mornington Peninsula due to dispossession of land and associated resources, and the

spread of diseases brought into the area by European settlers. Thomas notes that their

N Approximate location of activity area



mortality rates were dramatic, with numbers declining to 28 in 1850 (Sullivan 1981: 18).

The major causes of this high death rate were venereal disease, intemperance, murder,

executions, shooting by the authorities and death in jail. Several hostilities occurred during

the early period of European contact and contributed to the decline in Bunurong

population. The Bunurong were last seen on the southern Peninsula in 1856 (Byrne 1932:

183). The remaining mainland members then moved to a small reserve at Mordialloc. By

1856, the remaining Bunurong lived mostly at ‘Moody Yallock’ (Mordialloc), exploiting the

resources of the swamp and adjacent coastline.

Intermarriage and exchange of goods between the Kulin tribes is known to have occurred

(Sullivan 1981: 36). Kulin people often met for inter-clan gatherings. The Bunurong held

meetings every three months and corroborees were held at full and new moons (Thomas

ML 21: 97). Notices of planned gatherings were distributed to neighbours via message

sticks and during these inter-tribal gatherings marriages were arranged and disputes

settled.

Thomas and early settlers in the Western Port region have recorded aspects of the

seasonal movements by the Bunurong through their territory. Gaughwin (1981: 75)

considers that the Bunurong continued their seasonal exploitation in a circular pattern from

Melbourne to the Mornington Peninsula. This trip was thought to take about one month

with an average stay of one to two nights at each campsite while the resources within a 10

kilometre radius were exploited (Sullivan 1981: 37). It can be seen from Map 7 that there

are at least three routes observed of Aboriginal movements in ethno-historical literature in

close proximity to the activity area. It appears from Thomas’ descriptions that larger base

camps utilised during this route were located roughly 5 kilometres inland, suggesting that

coastal, wetland and hinterland forest could be readily exploited from these base camps.

Base camps consisted of six to eight huts made from a lean-to of bark sheets.



Map 7 Routes of Movement and Site Locations (Sullivan 1981: 120)

Robert Jamieson wrote in 1853 that there were about 300 Aborigines on his Cape

Schanck Run in 1838. During his seven years in the bush, Jamieson testified that he spent

a great deal of time with them and invariably found them quiet, inoffensive and willing in

their way to be helpful (Hollinshed 1982: 29).

A resident who owned Manton’s Creek Station just north of Flinders, Mr Tuck, also makes

several interesting comments regarding Bunurong people:

‘In the early days a tribe of about thirty Aborigines wandered about the Peninsula.

They travelled about three miles per day, living on possums, which they roasted

whole, unskinned and uncleaned. The possum was left in the fire until it burst from

the pressure of the steam. The lubra got what the blackfellow threw to her over his

shoulder, while she in turn threw her leavings to the dogs. The aborigines could be

got to do any sort of service for a piece of damper or bulgonna (beef). Mr. Barker

(at Cape Schanck) employed them very often at skinning cattle for his boiling down

works, giving the carcase as payment. The blacks were expert in climbing trees by

cutting notches in the bark. They could knit fine baskets of reeds. They were

generally very peaceable. Only one charge is to be laid to them – they are accused

of killing the child of Mrs. W. Willoughby’ (Moorhead 1971: 36).

Members of the Kulin were known to both bury their dead, as well as place them in tree

hollows that were often burnt. Based on this scant information, burial sites, although a

rarity within the region, may still exist in undisturbed sandy locations. Currently, there are



few locations within Bunurong land where Aboriginal burials are known to exist and these

are within sandy fore dunes.

There is historical evidence that Bunurong burial sites were both common and

conspicuous. Besides the location near Tooradin noted by Clow, there were others along

the coast. Thomas saw a burial location near the Lang Lang Creek in 1840:

'wood was pulled up to the height of 3 feet & the ground burnt all around, this was of

long standing as the woods were literally decayed & dirt over them, I suppose there

were 50 sticks all laid horizontal thus. At the end was a large dead trunk and hollow

burnt in it rather as if not done by chance' (Gunson 1974: 10).

The ethnohistorical information provides evidence that the Bunurong tribe occupied the

Mornington Peninsula in an organised manner. Clans generally had areas where they

spent much of their time and that provided the basis for all their needs. There is evidence

for scatters of stone tools and middens along many coast sections and inland of Western

Port, Port Phillip Bay and Bass Strait.

Today, the members of the Bunurong/ Boon wurrung communities actively participate in

management of cultural heritage sites within this former clan's estate.

Apart from the above information, there is no readily available ethnographic information

that relates specifically to the activity area. The Traditional Owners Groups did not provide

any additional historic, traditional or contemporary information specific to the activity area.

5. 6 Landforms, Geomorphology and Geology (Map 8)

Landform and Geomorphology

The activity area lies on the downthrown southern edge of the Nepean Peninsula,

approximately 2km from the postulated Selwyn Fault (Vandenberg 1997). The region is

part of the greater Port Phillip Sunklands geomorphic region in Victoria (Joyce et al 2003).

The peninsula is a moderately elevated, sedimentary ridge of dune calcarenite topped by

unconsolidated dunes (Hills 1975; Abele 1977). Topography of the peninsula is variable

and due mostly to the variation in dune structures present, with the younger calcarenite

having the most pronounced relief in the form of irregular blowouts and ridges, locally

termed ‘The Cups’ (Geological Survey of Victoria 1967). There is a sharp break in relief

where The Cups landform changes to the Tootgarook Swamp, where relief is subdued

and broken only by sandy rises between 2-5m high, particularly towards the eastern edges

of the swamp (Geological Survey of Victoria 1967). Bordering the swamp to the east are

subdued inland aeolianite dune deposits of siliceous and calcareous content (Geological

Survey of Victoria 1967).

The drainage pattern follows the topography, and is almost absent from the dune sands to

the east and west of the swamp due to the high permeability in the sands (Jenkin 1974).

Within the swamp, Chinaman’s Creek flows from south to north, a re-cut channel that lies

to the east of the old, natural channel (SPIFFA 2011). To the north of the activity area, the

swamp contains permanent fresh water, as it lies on a base of peat and mud instead of

porous calcarenite (SPIFFA 2011). Small swamps are only slightly more common, and

form ponded swamps with peaty bases, and were probably created during sea level



regressive events that stranded various bodies of water (Cupper et al 2003). Smaller

streams flow into the swamp, and are likely ephemeral, flowing only during periods of

higher precipitation.

Geology

The activity area lies on Quaternary-age dune deposits surrounded by Late Pleistocene-

Holocene swamp deposits (Geological Survey of Victoria 1967). The swamp deposits are

comprised mostly of peat, calcareous mud, clay & silt with some shell beds and middens,

and lie in the lower parts of the landscape as part of Tootgarook Swamp (Keble 1946;

Jenkin 1976). Calcareous nodules are commonly found interspersed in the soil,

particularly the lower horizons, resulting from mobilisation of carbonate from the

surrounding and underlying calcareous dune systems (Abele 1977; Geological Survey of

Victoria 1971). Grey cracking clays dominate the soils of the swamp sediments, and

contain a thin layer of peaty-silt at the surface before grading sharply into cracking clay

(Joyce et al 2003). Interspersed in the local area with the swamp sediments are small

sandy rises, which are remnant surficial expressions of the underlying calcareous sand

dunes (Geological Survey of Victoria 1967). The sand dunes contain fine- to medium-

grained calcareous grey and brown soils up to 1m deep, with fragments of calcarenite

beginning at approximately 0.5m deep in the profile (Figures 1 & 2) (Geological Survey of

Victoria 1967; Zhou et al 1994).

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Landscape Evolution

To the west of the Selwyn Fault, the landscape is part of the Port Phillip Sunklands, a

landscape that is considered a failed arm of the Otway Basin which began to form as a rift

basin in the Jurassic (161-146 Ma BP) (Duddy 2003). The rifting was a consequence of the

tectonic splitting of Antarctica and the southern coast of Australia, a process that broke

Gondwana apart and lasted until the Tertiary (Duddy 2003; Ollier 1995). In response to

crustal extension, rapid subsidence occurred under the weight of over 105

km3

of

deposited volcanic and fluviatile sediments that washed into the basin during the period

from flanking terrestrial surfaces (Duddy 2003; Jenkin 1974). Substantial tectonic

reorganisation continued in the Mid-Late Cretaceous during the initial separation of the

two continents, and included folding, faulting and uplifting of the landscape (Duddy 2003;

Hills 1975). The Mornington Peninsula was formed in the Mid-Cretaceous during tectonic

reorganisation as part of the southwest-trending Mornington Peninsula-King Island High

which separated the Gippsland and Otway Basins (Duddy 2003). In response to rapid

uplift, stripping of sediment occurred along the Mornington surface, exposing the

Palaeozoic rock strata (Duddy 2003).

The Older Volcanics were erupted onto this landscape intermittently over sedimentary rock

across the Mornington Peninsula and most of Western Port Basin, with the largest volume

erupting to the east of the activity area in the Mid-Eocene (48-42 Ma BP) (Holdgate &

Gallagher 2003; Wellman 1974). This basalt field, named the Flinders Flow Field, was one

of the most voluminous, up to 600m thick in places and containing at least 1000km2

of

material, spread as far south as the King Island Ridge (Holdgate & Gallagher 2003; Abele

1976; Day 1989). Outcrops of the flow field are visible along coastal cliffs east of the

Selwyn Fault where they have been gradually uplifted over time. Shortly after extrusion of

these flows, the sea level rose and flooded many parts of the southern coastlines of

Victoria (Abele 1976). Sequences of marine and marginal marine sediments were

deposited unconformably over the basalt from the Oligocene (~32Ma BP) onwards;

however most of the sedimentation was restricted to the northern parts of the Mornington

Peninsula in the form of the Brighton Group (Holdgate & Gallagher 2003; Keble 1950).

Sea level retreated from the landscape in the Late Miocene in response to glacial

expansion in Antarctica, revealing much of the current land surfaces by the end of the

Pliocene and the beginning of the Early Pleistocene (White & Mitchell 2003; Holdgate &

Gallagher 2003). Erosion increased in response to the decrease in base level, and was

compounded by a tectonic event that dropped the landscape surface elevations on the

adjacent basins in the Pliocene (Holdgate & Gallagher 2003; Abele 1976; Jenkin 1974).

Tectonic movement culminated in the Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene, with high

magnitude movement becoming more localised and less intense in the Mid-Late

Pleistocene (Lawrence et al 1976). Throughout the Quaternary, movement along the

Selwyn Fault occurred, and to a lesser extent, along the Flinders Fault to the south, and in

conjunction with sea level fluctuations, caused periods of erosion and sedimentation of

the landscape. The greatest amount of tectonic activity along these structures was centred

in the Late Pliocene and Pleistocene (Jenkin 1974). This movement was in part

responsible for the removal of thick layers of regolith from the slopes, exposing the

Palaeozoic geology (Hill 1999).



Sea level continued to fluctuate during the Early Quaternary, and by the beginning of the

Last Interglacial (~125ka BP) sea levels reached a height of 6-7m above present levels.

These higher sea levels created a seaway that ran from south to north along the

Tootgarook Swamp, connecting the bay with the Bass Strait (Keble 1950; Jenkin 1974).

This period of higher sea level was short, and by 120ka BP, sea levels were receding

apace with cooling and drying temperatures (Webb 1999; White & Mitchell 2003). Dune

movement quickly covered the path of the seaway across the peninsula, as evidenced by

offshore bathymetry (Keble 1950; Jenkin 1974). By the Early-Mid Pleistocene, global sea

levels began an overall gradual retreat up until the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) when sea

levels were approximately 120 metres lower than present (Webb 1999).

The Late Pleistocene was a period of rapid change in the Victorian coastal landscape, a

pattern that can be observed in the several depositional patterns of the aeolianite on the

Nepean Peninsula (Zhou et al 1994). After the climatic optimum and sea level highstand of

6-7m above current levels of the Last Interglacial (~125ka BP), temperatures and available

moisture levels dropped, with several periods of aeolianite dune building occurring from

~118ka BP to the peak of the Last Glacial Maximum at 22-16ka BP (Zhou et al 1994).

These dune building episodes were interspersed with short periods of climatic

amelioration, leaving thin palaeosols interbedded with the aeolianite (Zhou et al 1994). In

the past, the aeolianite deposits may have extended across the mouth of Port Phillip Bay,

blocking flow between the bay and Bass Strait during periods of lower sea level (Cupper et

al 2003; Holdgate et al 2011).

After the LGM, climates warmed, and at approximately 10ka BP, Westernport Bay and Port

Phillip Bay were flooded by waters from the Bass Strait, with water eventually able to break

through the cemented barrier of the aeolianite (Wallbrink & Hancock 2003). During the

Mid-Holocene (Holocene Climatic Optimum), sea level rose to approximately 2-2.5 metres

above the present level, and was accompanied by deposition of beach ridges, dune

fields, cliff-top dunes and swamp deposition within Tootgarook Swamp (Bryant 1992;

Jenkin 1974; Zhou et al 1994). The swamp probably formed in response to the blocking of

Chinaman’s Creek by beach foredunes to the north along Port Phillip Bay, allowing water

to build up behind the blockage. During the latter half of the Holocene, climates stabilised

to those seen today, while streams began to cut down and deposit large amounts of

alluvium to the north of the region as sea levels dropped (Jenkin 1974).

European arrival heralded a series of landscape changes, the most dramatic of which was

the draining of the landscape and the modification of stream channels. To drain the area,

Chinaman’s Creek was modified, with a straight channel cut to the east of the original

stream (SPIFFA 2011). This cut allowed excess flood waters to flow into Port Phillip Bay,

reducing the original size of the swamp from ~800 hectares to 450 hectares (Condina

1997). Clearing was widespread, freeing up land for agriculture, particularly market

gardens on adjacent calcareous sandy landscapes.



Geomorphological History

Table 2 Landscape Evolution

Time period Geological event/

Environmental conditions

Effect

Mid-Late Cretaceous

(100-90 Ma)

- Australia & Antarctica

begin to separate

Widespread uplifting and erosion remove thick

sequences of pre-Cretaceous regolith from

landscape

Late Cretaceous –

Present (66 Ma –

Present)

- Substantial tectonic

reorganisation

Mornington Peninsula-King Island High

established, separating Gippsland & Otway

Basins

Mid-Eocene (48-42

Ma BP)

- Widespread volcanism Older Volcanics Flinders Flow Field extruded

onto landscape, covering at least 1000km2

Oligocene-Miocene

(34-23 Ma BP)

- High sea level covers

coastal landscapes (~3-

4m above present levels)

Older sequences of Brighton Group sediments

deposited in marginal marine and marine

conditions along Mornington Peninsula

Miocene – Pliocene

(23-2.6 Ma BP)

- Sea level retreats from

the Miocene high

Erosion increases as base-level decreases.

Coastal areas exposed to terrestrial processes

Pliocene-Early

Pleistocene (4.6-0.78

Ma BP)

- Tectonic activity peaks in

Late Pliocene

High magnitude, high frequency tectonic

movement along fault lines peaks in the Late

Pliocene & Early Pleistocene, becoming less

intense and more localised by the Mid-Late

Pleistocene

Mid-Late Pleistocene

(125-120ka BP)

- Last Interglacial Higher sea levels create the Tootgarook

Seaway across the Peninsula where Tootgarook

Swamp exists at present. Port Phillip Bay

connects to the Bass Strait through this seaway

Late Pleistocene (30-

15ka BP)

- Last Glacial Period Climates become cool & dry. Vegetation cover

decreases, allowing for increased river

discharge and erosion. Sea level ~120m lower

than present. Aeolianite and associated

palaeosols deposited intermittently over

Nepean Peninsula, probably blocking the

mouth of Port Phillip Bay

Holocene (9ka BP –

Pre-Contact)

- Holocene Climatic

Optimum (HCO)

Sea levels increase to 2-2.5m above present

levels, breaking through Nepean aeolianite

barrier. Climates become warmer and wetter

than present. Deposition of beach ridges, dune

fields, cliff-top dunes & Tootgarook Swamp

deposits across landscape. After HCO, sea

level dropped & climates cooled. Exposure of

wave-cut platforms along coastline as sea level

dropped

Late Holocene

(200yrs BP-Present)

-European arrival Widespread clearing & drainage modification

occur to create land for agriculture. Tootgarook

Swamp is reduced in size in response to

channel modification of Chinamans Creek



Stone Sources

There are no known stone sources within the geographic region.

Stone sources for the broader region include sources of silcrete, coastal flint, chert and

quartz. The flint is likely to be sourced along the coastline, having been washed onshore

from offshore outcrops of limestone (Scott-Virtue 1982).

Silcrete boulders in southeastern Australia are typically sub-basaltic silcrete, and are

associated with basalt flows of the Older Volcanic group along the Mornington Peninsula,

French Island and Phillip Island. Erosion of the basalt can promote subsequent erosion of

the underlying silcrete deposits, and these boulders can form aprons along slopes and

stream courses (Webb 1995).

Chert and quartz can be sourced from the Silurian and Ordovician marine sediments

along the Mornington Peninsula, with the quartz occurring in hydrothermal veins that have

been weathered and exposed to the surface over time

Though each of these raw materials was available within the lands of the Bunurong, and

commonly appears in stone assemblages of the geographic region, no quarry sites have

been previously recorded within the Nepean or Mornington Peninsula.

Bioturbation of Sediments

Most sediment on the surface of the earth has undergone some form of disturbance.

Forms of syndepositional and post-depositional disturbance can range from macroscale

such as earthquakes and bushfires, to the mesoscale such as slope failure, and to the

microscale such as bioturbation of sediments by fauna (Morin 2006). These processes

can alter the horizontal and vertical placement and internal structure of artefacts in an

assemblage (Morin 2006). Bioturbation is an important factor in nutrient mixing and

redistribution in the soil, as well as in the observed arrangement of artefacts in the soil

profile, and if not understood properly, can cause a lowering of archaeological importance

assigned to artefacts (Peacock & Fant 2002; Pillans et al. 2002; Eggleton & Taylor 2008).

Bioturbation is defined as “The churning and stirring of sediment and regolith by animals

and plants” by Eggleton (2001:10), and can be classified into faunalturbation (disturbance

attributed to animals) and floralturbation (disturbance attributed to plants) depending on

the origin of the disturbance (Wood & Johnson 1978). Faunalturbation by displacing and

mixing soil particles through mounding and burrowing usually occurs through the actions

of soil biota such as earthworms and ants (Balek 2002). Rates of bioturbation differ

according to the climate, landscape, and sediment at each site, with bioturbation rates

higher in tropical climates than in temperate climates, and rates can be higher in sand

than in clay sediments (Eggleton & Taylor 2008; Peacock & Fant 2002). In sandy

sediments, artefacts have been found to have moved over 1 metre down the soil profile,

indicating bioturbation processes in sandy sediments can affect artefact placement to a

high degree (Cahen & Moeyersons 1977). For example, Pillans et al. (2002) identified an

accumulation rate of sediment to be approximately 0.018-0.025mm per year from the

erosion of termite mounds in northern Australia.



Bioturbation results in a redistribution of the superposed layers of sediment, and the

artefacts associated with each horizon (Cahen & Moeyersons 1977). Movement of

artefacts can occur either upwards or downwards, even laterally, through the soil profile,

with smaller objects generally moving up and larger objects moving down the profile

(Wood & Johnson 1978; Balek 2002; Johnson & Johnson 2010). Uprooting by tree-fall can

cause artefacts in the upper soil horizons to be displaced laterally as well as upward in the

profile (Eggleton & Taylor 2008; Wood & Johnson 1978). Artefacts can be sorted by size

and temporally mixed once buried in the sediment due to soil biota creating voids through

which artefacts fall into (Balek 2002).

Sea Level During the Last 9,000 Years

Since the Middle Holocene (5ka BP), sea level has fluctuated in Port Phillip Bay from the

highstand during the Holocene Climatic Optimum (HCO) (9-5ka BP) when sea levels were

approximately 1 to 2m above current levels, to the hypothesized drying up of the Bay

between 2.8 to 1ka BP (White & Mitchell 2003; Holdgate et al 2011). During the recovery of

sea level since the lowstand of the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene, sea levels

increased steadily before hitting a threshold at approximately 9ka BP where recovery was

very rapid, with levels reaching +1-2m above present sea levels between approximately

7ka to 5.5ka BP (Sloss et al 2007; Holdgate et al 2011). These higher levels set the

benchmark for the Holocene sea level highstand before a period of consistent decline

from about 4.5ka BP onwards (Holdgate et al 2011).

Evidence of a trend toward hypersalinity at approximately 3.9ka BP is supported by

channelling and low foraminifera percentages in the lowest parts of the bay, a state that

heralded a period of low bay levels up until approximately 1ka BP (Holdgate et al 2011).

Lower sea levels after 3.9ka BP could have occurred concurrent with cooler, drier

temperatures, allowing the Nepean Peninsula dunes to mobilise, creating a blockage

across the bay, bisecting Mud Island, in the form of the Nepean Bay Bar (Holdgate et al

2011). There is evidence of a period of dune building along the Nepean Peninsula at the

end of the HCO, indicating climates were dry enough to facilitate dune movement, and

these conditions probably persisted up until the Late Holocene (Holdgate et al 2001; White

& Mitchell 2003; Zhou et al 1994).

The lowest bay levels were reached in the Late Holocene at approximately 2.8ka BP, as

shown by a cessation of marine deposition and the beginning of a period of subaerial

erosion (Holdgate et al 2011). Bay levels dropped to -22m below current levels, creating

Lake Phillip, a saline lake that lay approximately 15km northeast of Sorrento (Holdgate et

al 2011). Bass Strait sea levels during this period were at present levels, indicating the

presence of the Nepean Bay Bar that prevented the two bodies of water from converging

as seen at present (Holdgate et al 2011; Holdgate et al 2001). Breakthrough was achieved

around 1ka BP when the entrance to the bay was unblocked, allowing modern bay levels

to be reached shortly thereafter (Holdgate et al 2011).

The sea level changes can be summarised as follows:

1. Early Holocene (9-7.5ka BP): Sea levels were increasing from the Last Glacial

Maximum lowstand.

2. Early-Middle Holocene (7.5-5ka BP): Peak sea levels reached 1-2m above modern

levels in Port Phillip Bay.*



3. Middle Holocene (5-4ka BP): Sea level begins to retreat after Middle-Holocene

highstand. High bay salinity levels indicate low water levels.

4. Late Holocene (4-2.8ka BP): Low water levels and climatic aridity allow sand

movement and consolidation of the Nepean Bay Bar.

5. Late Holocene (2.8-1ka BP): Lake Phillip established on northerly side of Nepean

Bay Bar. Water levels in lake are 22m lower than modern levels at 1ka BP.

6. Late Holocene (2.8-1ka BP): South Channel and Bass Strait contained present sea

levels, but blocked from interacting with northern section of Port Phillip Bay by

Nepean Bay Bar.

7. Late Holocene (1ka-Present): Breakthrough of sea water through Nepean Bay Bar.

Northern sections of Port Phillip Bay floods. Modern-day sea level equivalent was

achieved quickly. Sea level still-stand exists up until present.

5. 7 Strategic Values

Ecological Vegetation Classes (EVC) (Map 9)

Prior to 1750 the activity area was comprised entirely of Wetland Formation (EVC 74) (Map

9). This EVC can consist of herbland, sedgeland and rushland elements and is

characterised by the lack of woody plants (shrubs and trees). In close proximity were large

pockets of Coast Banksia Woodland (EVC 2) to the north, Coastal Alkaline Scrub (EVC 1)

to the west, and Damp Sands Herb-rich Woodland (EVC 3) to the east. These late

Holocene EVCs are characterised by a woodland overstorey of Banksia and Eucalyptus to

15m, and a range of herbs, shrubs and grasses.

Aboriginal groups generally would have chosen long-term campsites close to the richest

and most diverse resources outside the activity area and in close proximity to permanent

potable water such as large waterholes along watercourses, permanent springs, swamps

and lakes. The closest sources of potable water occur outside of the activity area was

Tootgarook Swamp in the south of the activity area, and the original course of Chinaman’s

Creek, situated approximately 0.5 km west of the activity area.

The activity area region would have been one of high strategic value for Aboriginal people.

Areas of high strategic value are those which have several (3) Ecological Vegetation

Classes within close proximity (Map 9).

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Resource Structure and Availability within the Nepean Peninsula

Historical and ethno-historical references can provide insight into the range of plant and

animal resources exploited by Aboriginal people in the past, however, the detail provided

by these accounts is often limited with minimal reference made to the importance or

abundance of particular resource sets. A limited list of resources available on the Nepean

Peninsula is provided below in order to gain a better understanding of what resources may

have been exploited near the activity area for the past 6,000 years. It is beyond the scope

of this study to reconstruct the resource structure at a local scale or during the early

Holocene. However, an extensive list of food resources of the Nepean Peninsula is

provided in Sullivan (1981: 22-29 & Appendix 2).

Flora

Plants, trees and roots were exploited for food resources, weapons and implements. Table

3 provides a list of the different species of plants used as food resources.

Table 3 Plant Food Resources Obtained From Historical Sources. Reproduced from (Sullivan 1981: 26).

Plant Foods Historic Observation Reference

Wattle gum ‘Great luzury and support to the black, eaten

raw or dissolved in water’

Thomas ML9: 72

Roots Women and children subsist principally on

roots which during the summer and autumn

ripen in succession, myrnyong and yam

obtained in great abundance. Also roots of

rushes and flage

Thomas LT n. d.: 93

Thistle Young stalks Thomas LT n. d.: 93

Grass tree cactus Pulp inside Thomas ML3: 53

Blossoms Box and honeysuckle, pound in water to

make sweet drink

Haydon 1846: 85

Kangaroo apple Frequently eaten Haydon 1846: 85

Grass tree Collected as a resinous gum Haydon 1846: 85

The fern Pulp of stem immediately beneath crown of

leaves

Haydon 1846: 85-87

Common mushroom,

several other fungi

Made is of at certain seasons Haydon 1846: 85-87

Plant and tree materials were also utilised for weapons and other utilitarian purposes.

Thomas (n.d: ML21: 249) states that a typical wooden assemblage for a traditional

Aboriginal man included five spears (two of which were barbed), waddy, bludgeon,

throwing stick (for fighting or for hunting birds), boomerang and two shields (one for close

and one for far combat). Women required digging sticks and a variety of drinking and

water-carrying vessels (Thomas n.d: ML21: 89).



Fauna

The pre-European settlement faunal inhabitants of the Nepean Peninsula would have been

wide-ranging and varied. The dominant native animals associated with this region are

small marsupials such as wallabies, possums, bandicoots, koala, mice, rats as well as the

larger grey kangaroo. Bird species for the area are extensive, with 271 species listed

including ducks, terns, gulls, cormorants, pelicans, ibis, black swan and herons (Sullivan

1981: 151, Appendix 2). The majority of these bird species inhabited the region on a year

round basis and would have congregated around and within the Tootgarook Swamp

(situated to the east of the activity area). Elsewhere in Victoria (East Gippsland Lakes

Systems) extensive wetlands similar to Tootgarook Swamp have been cited as enabling

semi-permanent occupation by Aboriginal people due to the richness of local resources.

There is no specific data relating to the abundance of the fauna; however, early explorers'

and settlers' reports indicate a rich environment. Early land owners in the region, Jamieson

and McCrae, state that all the country from Pt Nepean to the Cape was home to large

numbers of kangaroo, emu and native dog, the first of these running literally in large herds

(Jamieson 1853: 89-90; Daley 1940: 63). Tuckey (1974: 162) also notes large numbers of

kangaroos in the neighbourhood of the Sorrento settlement along with “native dog,

opossum, flying squirrel and field rat”. Horace Wheelwright, a professional hunter on the

Mornington Peninsula between 1853 and 1857, provides detailed descriptions of fauna

(Wheelwright 1862, cited in LCC 1991: 107-109). Wheelwright describes how:

‘the eastern grey kangaroo was abundant…..and seems as if they could never be

shot out; although as the country becomes more peopled, their numbers must

decrease…the potaroo was excellent eating and common throughout the whole

bush’. ‘…pied goose and brolga generally frequent the open swamps and wet

plains in small companies, black cockatoos, which fed on the seeds of the

drooping she-oak, ducks and ground parrots, which were common in the long

grass in the plains, on the heather and often in low tea-tree scrub’.

Littoral and Coastal Resources

Fishing appears to have been a dominant activity (Thomas ML 8, 1840), and was most

often undertaken by women who would catch them at night. The capture of the fish was

achieved by driving the fish into a wall of people who would then either spear or enclose

them in a net. Collecting shellfish receives little attention in archival documents.

Sullivan (1981: 144) lists the following shellfish species available along the coast of Port

Phillip Bay and Bass Strait: Common Blue Mussel (Mytilus planulatus), Turbo (Subninella

undulata), Limpets (Cellana tramoserica, Hipponyx conicus, Patella peroni, Patelloida),

Inter-Tidal Snail (Austrocochlea), Dog Winkles (Dicathais textilosa), Mussel (Brachidontes

rostratus), Mud Oyster (Ostrea angasi), Clam (Katelysia rhytiphora), Nerita (Melanerita

melanotragus), Seagrave’s Cone (Conus segravei), Chiton (Poneroplax costata), Elephant

Fish (Scutus antipodes), Tritons (Cabestana spengleri).



Resource Structure and Availability within the Geographic Region

The activity area was an area of high strategic value at Contact. Within the broader

peninsula, resources available for Aboriginal subsistence in the past would have been rich.

The geographic region contains a variety of productive ecological zones that would have

been attractive for hunter-gathers, in particular the Tootgarook Swamp.

It is likely that areas associated with water bodies were the focus of exploitation, with

drainage systems forming transport routes and temporary campsites. Within each of the

above-mentioned ecological zones, there would have been variations in staple species

diversity and abundance, and this in turn would have influenced site location (Walsh

1987). It is possible that the activity area could have been occupied on a regular or semi-

permanent basis as groups utilised the Tootgarook Swamp and surrounding areas for a

range of flora and fauna.

Summary

In summary the resources potentially available to Aboriginal people in the geographic

region included the following:

Prior to clearance of the Peninsula, a range of native eucalypt species occurring

within low-lying floodplain areas: utilised for manufacture of wooden implements

also non-utilitarian purposes;

Tootgarook Swamp and associated drainage lines: potential exploitation of many

different flora and fauna species with potential for semi-permanent occupation

around swamp areas;

Eels and fish in swamps and creeks;

Local raw material sources: chert, flint, silcrete, quartz and basalt; and,

Littoral resources such as fish, shellfish and kelp

The exploitation of these resources may have left the following archaeological remains

within the activity area:

Low to moderate (1-60/m2

) density stone artefact scatters situated on coastal

plains and especially on elevated landforms (dunes) overlooking resource rich

areas.

Shell middens

5. 8 Land Use History of the Activity Area

The most significant historical change to have occurred to the Peninsula is the extensive

clearing during the lime burning industry period (1840-90s). This would have resulted in

many dunes becoming exposed and liable to erosion. Tea-tree (Leptospermum

langigerum) quickly established itself in areas previously cleared by the lime burners and

was found to be highly suitable for baker's ovens. Its demand as fuel peaked during the



1850s and 1860s. By 1870-1880, the vast majority of the Tea-tree had been removed,

paving the way for rabbits to infest the area in plague proportions. Tea-tree needs regular

burning to prevent seeding, a practise not undertaken by many absent landowners during

this period, and by 1890 thick tea-tree rendered approximately 15,000 acres on the

Mornington Peninsula as useless. Prior to this, the region was being utilised as stock runs.

Early historic features such as wattle and daub houses were abandoned in the Tea-tree

scrub (Hollinshed 1982: 36).

Up to the 1850’s, not much attempt had been made to intensively farm on the Peninsula

where economic development relied on “cheap land, hard work, rugged self sufficiency in

family groups and makeshift” (Hollinshed 1982: 35). This was due to the isolated nature of

the area and the relatively slow development of roads and rail to the area. The first to see

the potential of the soils to be utilised for farming was JL Brown who cleared 200 acres of

tea-tree by bullock in Rye to sow two tons of King Island lucrene seed in c. 1909. From

Brown’s success, news spread and early settlers went to the region to farm or make lime

in scattered locations (Hollinshed 1982: 34, 36).

The activity area has been used for grazing and crop farming. Plates 1 to 3 show the

activity area at 1957, 1972 and 2009. In all of these photos, parallel plough lines can be

seen in various locations throughout the activity area. Past land-use activities are

considered to have disturbed much of the surface and some sub-surface Aboriginal

cultural material that may have existed within the activity area. Only limited areas will have

remnant and relatively intact landforms. However, due to the nature of past vegetation

clearance and its effect on relatively unstable sand dune formations, all of the activity area

is considered to have suffered some degree of ground surface disturbance since

European occupation. As a result, any potential Aboriginal sites located within the activity

area will have also suffered disturbance, subsequently diminishing their scientific

significance.

Activities that have occurred within the activity area and acted to degrade archaeological

resources are:

Land clearing;

Repeated ploughing; and

Agricultural and farming activities.

The impact on Aboriginal places within the activity area is considered high including:

The removal of potential scarred trees;

Surface archaeological sites have been heavily modified or destroyed;

Only stone artefact scatters and disturbed midden material are likely to remain on

the current land surface;

Only deeply buried stone artefact scatters and/or middens are likely to remain

relatively intact.; and,

Aboriginal burials may be found in deep sandy profiles that have incurred limited

disturbance/erosion.



Plate 1 1962 Aerial Photograph of the Activity Area Project M 7S 539, Run 36, Film 1529, Photo 71

Activity Area Boundary

Proposed Development Envelope



Plate 2 1972 Aerial Photograph of the Activity Area Project M39S 985, Run 77, Film 2603, Photo 44





Plate 3 2009 Google Earth Image of the Activity Area 5. 9 Conclusions from the Desktop Assessment

The activity area has been subject to previous ground surface survey (Murphy

2006);

The activity area comprises areas of cultural heritage sensitivity as defined in the

Aboriginal Heritage Regulations 2007 (Regulation 23 – land within 200m of a

named waterway (Chinaman’s Creek Drain), Regulation 37 – dunes, and





Regulation 38 – sand sheets), and the activity is a high impact activity (Regulation

46 (1) – Subdivision of land).

There are no previously registered Aboriginal heritage places within the activity

area, and no Aboriginal cultural heritage places within 50m of the activity area

boundaries.

There is one previously registered Aboriginal cultural heritage place within 200m of

the activity area boundary (stone artefact scatter VAHR7821-0854). There are no

other Aboriginal cultural heritage places within 500m of the activity area boundary.

There are nineteen previously registered Aboriginal heritage places within the

geographic region (Appendix 2).

Site types which have been previously found throughout the geographic region are:

stone artefact scatters (n=13 (68%)), shell middens (n=4 (21%)) and two object

collections (n=2 (11%))

Soil profiles within the activity area will likely be composed of deep sands in dunes,

and shallow silts and overlying clay deposits in the swamp;

The most likely place type within the activity area will be low density stone artefact

scatters in a sub-surface context, and will likely be composed of quartz, silcrete

and quartzite, basalt or marine flint;

Due to historic vegetation removal, there is no possibility for Aboriginal scarred

trees to exist within the activity area;

The activity area has suffered disturbance via historic clearing of trees, repeated

ploughing and cropping, grazing and erosion, therefore the integrity of any

archaeological material within the activity area will be poor.

The following model predicts the likely Aboriginal cultural heritage values within the activity

area are presented below. The relevant information for the model is presented in Table 4:

1. The dunes in the north are considered to have low to moderate potential for

Aboriginal cultural heritage, primarily stone artefact scatters and shell middens.

2. The flat and low lying Tootgarook Swamp, which comprises the southern two-thirds

(approx.) of the activity area is unlikely to contain Aboriginal cultural heritage.

3. Place-types unlikely to be present include earth features, quarries, rock art and

stone features.

4. Stone artefact scatters

Extremely low density stone artefact scatters are most likely to occur in

association with middens on dunes, rises, undulations and sand sheets,

although they can also be found on the plain.

Artefact scatters are typically dominated by flakes and angular fragments.

Artefact raw materials are dominated by chert/ flint, silcrete, basalt and

quartz.



Artefacts have been found to a maximum depth of 60cm in sandy profiles

(typically residuals from bioturbation) with the majority being located

between 20 – 40cm in depth.

Due to the nature of disturbance no high integrity occupation deposits are

expected.

Stone artefact scatters likely date to the Middle -Late Holocene to Contact.

5. Shell Middens

Shell middens are most likely to occur on sandy profiles on dunes, rises,

undulations and sand sheets, although they can also be found on the plain.

The most common species of shellfish likely to be found will be rocky shore

species Mytilus, Subninella, Chiton & Limpet and sandy shore species

Katelysia & Donax.

Due to the impact of bioturbation and the nature of past historic disturbance

within the activity area no high integrity occupation deposits are expected.

VAHR 7821-0755 charcoal sample dated to 6622 +/- 87 BP (Wk-22925).

Shell middens will likely date to the Middle -Late Holocene.

6. Scarred Trees

Due to historic vegetation removal, there is no possibility for Aboriginal

scarred trees to exist within the activity area;

7. The activity area has been subject to ground disturbance via vegetation clearance,

ploughing, long term grazing and stock trampling.

8. Ground disturbance reduces the spatial and temporal integrity of stone artefact

scatters and shell middens, and consequently reduces their scientific significance.

9. It is unlikely that any places above moderate scientific significance are present.

10. Human Remains

There is a potential for human burials to occur in any sandy

environment.

Arboreal burials will not be possible given the level of historical

vegetation clearance.

Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Prediction Model for the Activity Area and Implications for this Investigation

The results of the desktop assessment have been used to assess the likelihood of the

activity area to contain Aboriginal cultural heritage. The most likely place types to occur

within the activity area are stone artefact scatters. Table 4 assesses the potential of the

activity area to contain Aboriginal cultural heritage.

Table 4 Site Prediction Model for the Activity Area

Place Types Landform / Land Use Sensitivity

Shell midden

Elevated Dunes Likely (Moderate)

Isolated stone artefacts /

Stone artefact scatters

Elevated Dunes Likely (Moderate)



Place Types Landform / Land Use Sensitivity

Human remains (Burial &

Arboreal) Elevated Dunes Unlikely

Earth features, stone quarries,

rock art, stone features, &

scarred trees

Entire activity area None



6 STANDARD ASSESSMENT

The desktop assessment (Section 5) has shown that it is reasonably possible that

Aboriginal cultural heritage is present in the activity area, and therefore a standard

assessment is required.

The activity area was subject to ground surface survey in accordance with proper

archaeological practice (Burke & Smith 2004).

6. 1 Standard Assessment Methodology

The standard assessment was conducted on 11th

November, 2014 by Andrew Morris

(Project Archaeologist and Supervisor, Archaeology At Tardis Pty Ltd), Karen Kapteinis

(Geomorphologist, Archaeology At Tardis Pty Ltd) and Aaron Dalla-Vecchia

(Archaeologist, Archaeology At Tardis Pty Ltd) and Marbee Williams (field representative,

BWFL).

Ground surface survey was restricted to areas which will be subject to impact associated

with the activity (ie northern portion (Maps 2-4 & 10).

Linear pedestrian transects were carried out at 2.0m spacings, and surveyed areas which

will be subject to impact associated with the activity (Map 11a & b). No mature trees

capable of bearing cultural scars were present within the activity area. Detailed notes were

taken including description of landform elements, ground surface visibility, ground surface

disturbance, geology, geomorphology, vegetation, water sources and potential Aboriginal

cultural heritage sensitivity (Burke & Smith 2004: 69-80). Photographs were taken using a

standard scale with 20cm divisions.

There are no previously registered Aboriginal heritage places within the activity area, and

no Aboriginal cultural heritage places within 50m of the activity area boundaries.

map 5 relevant geographic region - basic portal

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