Martin Heidegger, making a veiled criticism of certain philosophers in the German hermeneutic and neo-Kantian traditions, began his lectures on Aristotle in 1922 with the observation that:

“Of the personality of a philosopher it is only of interest to note that he was born at such a time, he worked and died.”

“er war dann un dann geboren, er arbeitete und starb.”

Aristotle 384-322 BC

Born in Stagira, Macedonia

• Aristotle Moved to Athens in 367 to study with Plato at his Academy.

• Remained at the academy for nearly twenty years, not leaving until after Plato's death in 347 BC.

• Moves to the court of Hermias at Atarneus, and then to Assos.

• Moves to Mytilene on Lesbos where he conducts his biological and zoological researches

• Phillip of Macedon invites Aristotle to Mieza to tutor his son Alexander (the great). 343.

• 335 Aristotle returns to Athens and begins to teach in the Lyceum.

• 323 Alexander dies.

• 322 Aristotle goes to Chalcis in self-imposed exile.

• Aristotle makes a fundamental contribution are these:

• (1) Logic. Aristotle’s Prior Analytics constitutes the first attempt to formulate a system of deductive formal logic, based on the theory of the ‘syllogism’. ‘Logic’, as Aristotle conceives it, also includes the study of language, meaning and their relation to non- linguistic reality; hence it includes many topics that might now be assigned to philosophy of language or philosophical logic (Categories, De Interpretatione, Topics).

• (2) The study of nature. About a quarter of the corpus (see especially the History of Animals, Parts of Animals, and Generation of Animals; also Movement of Animals, Progression of Animals) consists of works concerned with biology. Some of these contain collections of detailed observations. (The Meteorology contains a similar collection on inanimate nature.) Others try to explain these observations in the light of the explanatory scheme that Aristotle defends in his more theoretical reflections on the study of nature. These reflections (especially in the Physics and in Generation and Corruption) develop an account of nature, form, matter, cause and change that expresses Aristotle’s views about the understanding and explanation of natural organisms and their behaviour. Natural philosophy and cosmology are combined in On the Heavens .

• Telos – final end, purpose.

• Ergon – function, what a thing is for.

• Teleology – theory of final ends or purposes.

• (3) Metaphysics. In his reflections on the foundations and presuppositions of other disciplines, Aristotle describes a universal ‘science of being qua being’, the concern of the Metaphysics . Part of this universal science examines the foundations of inquiry into nature. Aristotle formulates his doctrine of substance, which he explains through the connected contrasts between form and matter, and between potentiality and actuality. One of his aims is to describe the distinctive and irreducible character of living organisms. Another aim of the universal science is to use his examination of substance to give an account of divine substance, the ultimate principle of the cosmic order.

• (4) Philosophy of mind. The doctrine of form and matter is used to explain the relation of soul and body, and the different types of soul found in different types of living creatures. In Aristotle’s view, the soul is the form of a living body. He examines the different aspects of this form in plants, non-rational animals and human beings, by describing nutrition, perception, thought and desire. His discussion (in On the Soul, and also in the Parva Naturalia ) ranges over topics in philosophy of mind, psychology, physiology, epistemology and theory of action.

• 5) Ethics and politics (Nicomachean Ethics, Eudemian Ethics, Magna Moralia). In Aristotle’s view, the understanding of the natural and essential aims of human agents is the right basis for a grasp of principles guiding moral and political practice. These principles are expressed in his account of human wellbeing, and of the different virtues that constitute a good person and promote wellbeing.

• ethos – custom or character

• The description of a society that embodies these virtues in individual and social life is a task for the Politics , which also examines the virtues and vices of actual states and societies, measuring them against the principles derived from ethical theory.

• polis

• ta politika

• Barely a 5th of Aristotle’s writings have survived.

• Aristotle’s approach – Empiricism or Observation• “All animals…have an innate capacity to make discriminations,

which is called perception: and if perception is present in them, in some animals retention of the percept comes about, there is no knowledge outside perceiving (either none at all, or none with regard to that of which there is no retention); but for some perceivers, it is possible to grasp it in their minds. Ad when many things have come about there is a further difference, and some animals, form the retention of such things, come to possess a general account, while others do not. Thus from perception there comes memory as we call it; and from memory (when it occurs often in connection with the same thing) experience. – for memories that are many in number form a single experience; and from experience, or from the whole universal that has come to rest in the mind…there comes a principle of skill and of knowledge.” 99b37ff.

• Metaphysics Aristotle speculates on the origin of the practice of philosophy

• “it is through wonder [thaumazein] that men now begin and originally began to philosophize” (982b12). Aristotle thinks that human beings are astonished, or amazed [thambeo], initially at things that were puzzling or perpexing. “obvious perplexities [aporon],” and then at greater matters like the nature of the stars and the cosmos.

• “Now he who wonders and is perplexed [aporon kai thaumazon] feels that he is ignorant…therefore if it was to escape ignorance that men studied philosophy, it is obvious that they pursued science

• [epistasthai] for the sake of knowledge and not for any practical end. (982b18)

• Philosophy begins in wonder but ends in “something which is the opposite of our original inquiries” namely knowledge of universal and necessary truths, or first principles.

• Though the Greek “science [episteme]” differs from our modern conception.

• Essentialism – • De re necessity – • First philosophy –