master thesis
TRANSCRIPT
DESTINATION BRANDING
AND
SPOTLIGHT CULTURAL EVENTS
Media narratives of Eurovision and Finland
Chrysoula Skodra
DESTINATION BRANDING
AND
SPOTLIGHT CULTURAL EVENTS
Media narratives of Eurovision and Finland
Master’s Thesis
Arts Management
Chrysoula Skodra Spring 2010
ABSTRACT
r Thesis
1 Written work
Title Number of pages Destination branding and spotlight events 124
Author Semester Chrysoula Skodra Spring 2010
Degree programme Programme option Arts Management Arts Management
Abstract
Place branding and cultural tourism are not new phenomena. Nations have always branded themselves
through their mythology, anthems, symbols, currency, and names. Places have always competed for
spectacular infrastructure and eye-catching buildings. In today’s Experience Economy, due to a global shift on
immaterial, experiential satisfaction, the role of spotlight cultural events is central to destination branding.
My research interests are threefold: first, to discover how spotlight cultural events contribute to place
branding; second, how event brand image benefits destination brand image; third, how media contribute to
the co-branding of destination and event brand images through storytelling. Spotlight events act: a) as
branding and image-making tools, b) as travel motivators and c) as a media strategy to battle an image crisis.
The theoretical framework consists of theories from the fields of place branding, cultural tourism, cognitive
psychology, and media and communication studies. Associative network memory theory and co-branding
theory explain how destination and event brand images are linked in order to enhance or change image. Also,
the role of media in shaping urban reputation and influencing public opinion and behaviour is vital.
Following a qualitative approach in the case study of the Eurovision Song Contest in Helsinki, I discover how
media narratives portray event and destination images and stereotypes and how they act as catalysts for
image transfer between events and destinations. Storytelling offers a creative way of how branding should be
done in practice. Keeping the spotlight on cities requires a holistic, interdisciplinary and creative approach to
destination branding with spotlight cultural events as the focal point.
Keywords
Destination branding; spotlight events; cultural tourism; media narratives; Fairy-tale Model; Eurovision Song
Contest; Finland; Helsinki; image transfer; co-branding; experience economy, creative city
Additional information
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IV
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Setting the scene: Description of the research field 3
1.2 Main research questions, purpose and objectives 4
1.3 Positioning of this research 5 1.3.1 Previous research on the topic 7 1.3.2 Contribution to the arts management field 7
1.4 Definition of key terms 9
1.5 Theoretical background 12
1.6 Structure of the report 14
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 16
2.1 Place branding 16 2.1.1 Place branding: the historic context 16 2.1.2 Why place branding has a bad brand? 17 2.1.3 Why places need branding? 19 2.1.4 Place branding terminology 19 2.1.5 Brand image and image transfer 21 2.1.6 Destination branding – a new role for culture 26
2.2 Spotlight events and destination branding 29 2.2.1 Defining spotlight events 30 2.2.2 The power of spotlight events 31 2.2.3 Spotlight events as a motivator for travel behaviour 33 2.2.4 Spotlight events as a branding tool and image-makers 36 2.2.5 Spotlight events as a media strategy 38
2.3 Media, spotlight events and destination branding 42 2.3.1 The role of media in place image 42 2.3.2 Media images and public image of place 44 2.3.3 Media narratives and place 47
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3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 50
3.1 Scientific orientation of the study 50
3.2 Research approach and methods 50
3.3 Appropriateness of the chosen methods 52
3.4 Research process of the study 56 3.4.1 Selection of case study 56 3.4.2 Collection of the data 57 3.4.3 Analysis and interpretation of the data 58
4. THE GRAND MEDIA NARRATIVE OF EUROVISION, HELSINKI AND FINLAND 60
4.1 Eurovision narratives: From national shame to national pride 60 4.1.1 True Fantasy: The fairytale of Finland’s victory 62 4.1.2 Eurovision and National Music Representations 72 4.1.3 Eurovision and National Identity 73 4.1.4 Eurovision and European Identity: Centre and Periphery 75
4.2 Place narratives: National identity and image 80 4.2.1 Images of Finland 81 4.2.2 Finland and music representations 84 4.2.3 Images and Stereotypes of Finns 89 4.2.4 Images of Helsinki 91
4.3 Discussion of Finland’s past, present and future 97
5. CONCLUSION 102
5.1 Summary of the study 102
5.2 Key contribution of the thesis 102
5.3 Managerial implications 103
5.4 Recommendations 104
5.5 Limitations and suggestions for future research 106
BIBLIOGRAPHY 110
APPENDIX A 123
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Positioning of this research 6
Figure 2. A graphic representation of an association set or mental map 23
Figure 3. Image transfer between events and destinations 26
Figure 4. The multi-purpose use of spotlight events 33
Figure 5. The Fairy-tale Model 64
Figure 6. Finland’s Eurovision Song Contest Fairy-tale 66
Figure 7. The Story Model 71
Figure 8. Friendship blocs in the Eurovision Song Contest 77
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Springer Science+Business Media for their kind permission to
reuse the illustrations shown in Figure 5 and Figure 7.
Special thanks to Johanna Korhonen from Greater Helsinki Promotions Ltd. for
allowing me to use the folder with the precious news material collected from
around the world covering the Eurovision Song Contest in Helsinki. Also, a warm
thank you to Antti Pelkonen for allowing me access to his article for the ‘Twelve
Points’ book.
I am grateful to the City of Helsinki and researcher Vesa Keskinen for allowing
me to use the photographs on the covers of this thesis. All rights remain to the
City of Helsinki. Also, I would like to thank Anja Hämäläinen for her help with
the graphics shown in Figures 1, 3, 4 of this study.
Finally, I express my appreciation to Timo Cantell and Tanja Vilén for their
helpful comments on earlier versions of this study.
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“National image is like starlight which, by the time it reaches us on Earth, is only
the distant echo of an event that started and finished long before.”
Simon Anholt
1
1. INTRODUCTION
Place branding is not a new phenomenon. Many cities have managed to build a
reputation for themselves and make a lasting impact on public perception as
cultural and tourist destinations for years. Just as in everyone’s mind Rome is the
Eternal City and Paris the City of Lights.
During ancient times, travellers visited the Parthenon, the Great Pyramids and
were spectators at the Olympic Games, religious festivities or theatre festivals. In
the late 16th century, the Grand Tour served as an educational rite of passage for
Europe’s aristocratic youth, who travelled in order to discover the cultural legacy
of classical antiquity and the Renaissance.
Historically, compelling architectural structures had a particular symbolic value of
national identity and played a vital role as image signifiers of places. Indeed,
signature buildings such as the Eiffel Tower, the Parthenon and the Great
Pyramids are inherent parts of how we understand and think of the countries and
cities they are situated in. But, in the so-called ‘experience economy’ we are
living in, the increased importance of intangible elements of places is growingly
fuelling destination branding. Along with the marvelous masterpieces of
architecture, cities are associated with headline catching events such as the
Olympic Games, the European Capital of Culture and the Eurovision Song
Contest.
Therefore, ‘headline catching events’ act as important communication devices for
destinations in the same way ‘eye-catching buildings’ assist in turning a place
with a contradictory, weak or negative image into an internationally recognized
centre for culture and the arts. Contemporary cities have been relying to signature
buildings such as the Frank Gehry’s Guggenheim Museum in order to boost their
image and create their own “Bilbao-effect” (Jansson & Power, 2006). Currently,
more countries, regions and cities find branding through events to be a realistic
way of differentiating by providing “immaterial and experiential stimulation”
(Jensen, 2007).
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Nowadays it seems we have truly entered “the age of special events” (Janiskee
1996: 100 cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride 2002: 277). Cities, regions and
nations acknowledge the power of spotlight events and compete with others to
host some of the world’s most spectacular sports and cultural events. This global
competition is no longer limited to the capitals and the big metropoleis; it directly
affects every urban settlement that desires to be placed on the global map.
Accelerated and intensified globalization has lead to a situation where the main
competition is no longer the neighbouring city, but where competitors are half a
world away.
Despite the complexity of place branding, in recent years both public and private
actors have been busy re-imagining cities by trying to create new images or
dealing with image crises. Branding efforts often commence based around culture,
which helps places to successfully establish a positive image and reputation on
people’s minds. In the words of Michael Hamilton, founder of the London-based
brand consultancy The Hamiltons: “Liverpool, Edinburgh and Paris are
successfully branded cities. They ooze the most culture.1”
However, there is substantial critique that iconic buildings, flagship projects and
major events tend to contribute to the “Disneyization” (Bryman, 2004) of society,
where urban spaces tend to resemble Walt Disney’s theme parks with
standardized events and similar looking buildings. Yet destinations acknowledge
the power of special events because they offer rare opportunities for them to
perform on a national or international stage and enhance the chances of building
their reputation and ‘emerging on the map’ amongst a plethora of other competing
places. Also, due to the media coverage major cultural events attract, they truly
put cities in the spotlight and under the microscope, which can be a double-edged
sword for cities or more of a mirror of truth since a place’s problems are also
highlighted.
The role of a positive image enhances the chances of a destination to build its
reputation and brand image and to gain a foothold in the international
1 The Guardian (1 October 2008)
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marketplace. Place branding through major cultural events is an important tool for
destinations to perform in the global competitive game and a ‘hot’ topic in current
affairs discussions.
This study will try to explore the reasons why destinations are consciously
engaging in place branding and what they hope to gain, how spotlight cultural
events contribute to destination brand image, and what is the role of media in
creating and developing destination brands through storytelling.
1.1 SETTING THE SCENE: DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH
FIELD
This research is based on three pillars: culture, tourism and media. Anholt
(2007:101) points out that “Culture is next-door to tourism (indeed cultural
tourism is often identified as the highest-yielding and fastest-growing area of
tourism), and it is the area that can start to make a connection between people’s
interest in the place itself and their interest in the life of the place.” Therefore,
cultural tourism is an essential part of destination branding efforts.
Also, media, which broadly belong to the cultural industries, act as catalysts for
the sectors of culture and tourism to interrelate. Media create compelling stories
and place imagery that can easily influence the readers’ travel behaviour. In the
case of major cultural events and place branding, the role of media is to add new
information in the public’s knowledge about a destination and associate the event
image with the destination image, which can lead to adding destinations on a ‘to
visit’ list and motivate travelling towards a destination to attend a special one-off
event.
Indeed, public knowledge about foreign events, including major cultural or sport
events but also catastrophes, war and international crises relies heavily on mass
media. While people usually become aware of occurrences in their immediate
environment from direct contact with the events, they learn about events that
occur in more distant places primarily from the media. Moreover, due to new
arms of media such as the Internet, a wider number of people dispersed in every
corner of the globe can be reached.
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Finally, my exploration into the research field between destination branding,
cultural tourism and media focuses on spotlight events and will attempt to
uncover their power in image-making by a case study analysis of the media
narratives of Finland’s victory in the Eurovision Song Contest and media images
of Helsinki as a host city (Chapter 4).
1.2 MAIN RESEARCH QUESTIONS, PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES
Despite the growth of place branding and cultural tourism, little attention has been
given to the ways that events can impact a destination brand image. Apart from
the short-term benefits created by spotlight events such as the boost to the local
economy and tourism, they act as branding tools with a long-lasting impact on
destination image due to the immense international media coverage they attract
and the power of the media at influencing public perceptions.
This research discusses implications of the use of events in destination branding
with a long-term perspective. The strategic role of spotlight events and the
catalytic role of media in brand image creation are focal topics in this research.
Spotlight events are perceived as threefold entities based on their contribution to
destination branding: a) as branding and image-making tools, b) as travel
motivators and c) as a media strategy to battle an image crisis.
The main argument of this thesis is that spotlight events due to the media
coverage they attract can have long-term impact on destination image and cultural
tourism. This thesis posits that special one-off events can be used as media
strategies for places suffering an image crisis and if the media coverage is used
appropriately then positive place image is associated with event image, which can
lead to positive implications for future tourism. It is important that cities, regions
and countries capitalize on spotlight events and turn their short-term assets to
long-term benefits and competitive advantages in the attraction of investments,
creative people and tourists.
I strongly believe in the power of events and media in shaping city image. My
research focus is on cultural events and media’s role in destination branding. My
research interests are threefold: first, to discover how spotlight cultural events
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contribute to city branding; second, how event brand image benefits destination
brand image; third, how media contribute to the co-branding of destination and
event brand images through storytelling.
In the media content analysis of the chosen case study (Chapter 4), my research
questions are the following: first, how the Eurovision Song Contest as a spotlight
cultural event contributed to the brand image of Helsinki and Finland; second,
how event and place media narratives contribute to place image as a tourist
destination; third, how national images and stereotypes of Helsinki and Finland
are depicted in the media narratives.
Although authors note the importance of various arms of the media in influencing
how we interpret cities, there is little detailed case study analysis. (Boland, 2008)
This study contributes to the research field an examination on how places are
represented, constructed and imagined through the international media and how
spotlight events affect the construction of destination brand image in the media.
This paper offers a contribution to that aspect of the literature with particular
attention focused on news media and the Internet and their impact on social and
spatial imaginations of places.
1.3 POSITIONING OF THIS RESEARCH
This study reflects upon my personal interests as they have been formulated
through academic and professional experiences. My studies in Communication
and Media in Athens University, Greece and in the Arts Management master’s
degree programme in Sibelius Academy, Finland as well as my working
experience in Athens 2004 Olympic Games and in the media, culture, and tourism
sectors in Finland all shaped my desire to bring pieces of knowledge from
different fields together into a coherent and fruitful unit.
Due to personal experience and observation, I have identified that a number of
cities that hosted spotlight events in sports and culture are unable to keep the
spotlight on them, when the lights of the event turn down. There is a lack of
understanding of the major role spotlight events play in city image in a long-term
basis and an inability of collaborative actions among various stakeholders. My
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main concern is how to establish legacy and maintain the positive image on
destinations that host spotlight events that require large expenditures from
taxpayers and sacrifices from citizens and the local community.
This research contains knowledge from the fields of place branding, cultural
tourism and media. In the intersection of these three fields is my research project
as depicted in Figure 1. My approach is interdisciplinary since a number of
perspectives contribute to this research on destination and event brand image. The
foundation theories employed to prove my main thesis come from place branding,
cultural tourism, cognitive psychology, and media and communication studies.
Figure 1. Positioning of this research
Tourism studies, media studies, arts and cultural management studies and, in
particular, event studies are closely related professional fields that have solid
research and are growing in importance but still they might not be accepted as
distinct academic fields. However, all these fields deal with events and could
benefit from the study of spotlight events and the impact of media on destination
image, which can propel urban reputation and have a positive impact on tourism.
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My perspective to the topic focuses on how destination image is portrayed in the
international news media before, during and after hosting a spotlight cultural
event and what kind of spillover effect occurs when the destination and event
brands are paired. In Chapter 4, the content analysis of news media narratives of
Finland, Helsinki and the Eurovision Song Contest is going to unfold city and
national images and stereotypes along with event narratives.
1.3.1 PREVIOUS RESEARCH ON THE TOPIC
In the past, Pajala (2007) from the University of Turku has examined material of
Eurovision coverage in the Finnish national press regarding the ESC 2002. Also,
Pelkonen (2008) examined the international media coverage of Eurovision Song
Contest in Helsinki.
In addition, the City of Helsinki, one of the main partners in organizing the ESC
2007, commissioned an impact assessment of the Eurovision Song Contest in
order to evaluate the impressions of the public, the Eurovision partners and the
service companies of the Helsinki Metropolitan Area. The study, which was
carried out by Kilpeläinen and Laakso (2008) from Kaupunkitutkimus Oy (Urban
Studies Ltd.), is comprehensive but its focus is mainly on the economic impact
and the expectations of the organizers and the involved stakeholders.
I have drawn interesting ideas and conclusions from the research previously made
on the subject; however, my focus is clearly on how the international news media
portray Finland’s and Helsinki’s image and whether hosting the Eurovision Song
Contest 2007 in Helsinki contributes to the destination image or stereotype
enhancement (or not) and how.
1.3.2 CONTRIBUTION TO THE ARTS MANAGEMENT FIELD
The growing importance of special events and their complex nature makes this
study of major cultural events and their impact on destination image relevant to
many interdependent fields. The unique contribution of this research is that it
places culture and events at the heart of activities of various stakeholders and
sheds light to a key piece of the puzzle by offering an insight on the how special
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events can be used in a sustainable way to enhance destination image, attract
media coverage, and increase tourism.
The contribution of my research to the arts management field lies in the
cooperative opportunities for arts organizations, tourism organizations and city
authorities in creating memorable spotlight events and a legacy in their urban
reputation. The growth in special events demands the synergy between arts
organizations and tourism organizations in an urban context.
A destination’s current brand has been shaped by its history, policies and actions
to date. In order to change a place brand, it is important to understand its de-facto
brand, which requires a thorough review of the destination’s local and national
policies, an examination of the way the key stakeholders cooperate and an
assessment of how the destination’s is perceived by internal and external
audiences and the media. Only when the image of a destination is known and how
it is positioned in people’s minds, then desired image makeover can take place.
The media content analysis of how cities and nations are portrayed when they
host events shows what the current destination brand image is and how
storytelling can be used as an effective branding tool in order to create powerful
place images with. Getting involved in a storytelling experience has been the
essence of knowledge sharing and entertainment since our ancestors told tales
around the fire; today, media serve as storytellers since people gather in front of
their television or computer screens to get informed about distant places and
events.
This research attempts to increase the knowledge of the event studies component
in arts management and highlight creative ways in achieving objectives within the
cross-fertilization of the various fields of knowledge and practice. Events offer
potential for arts managers, tourism professionals and media professionals in
creating spellbinding stories that would create urban myths and build a lasting
reputation for destinations.
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1.4 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
Branding is a commonly used term in the corporate world, where companies often
change and reinvent themselves. However, the language and rhetoric of business
is commonly used in the public sector in many nations, cities and regions around
the world. It has become common practice for those working in urban affairs to
talk about how cities can ‘compete’ and how they can ‘sell’ themselves.
But when applied to places the chosen terminology seems to be problematic. For
some, the words ‘brand’ and ‘branding’ “embody notions of manipulation, deceit
and superficiality” (Dinnie, 2008: 251). On one hand, Jansson and Power (2006)
criticize urban branding and admit that it represents “a commodification of urban
space: the city becomes a product to be sold in competition with other similar
products.” On the other hand, Olins argues branding businesses and branding
nations have a lot in common: “They create myths, special languages,
environments that reinforce loyalties, colours, symbols, and quasi-historical
myths. They even have heroes (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 23)”.
Tourism marketing, place marketing, place promotion, nation branding, city
management, reputation management, competitive identity, and public diplomacy
are some of the terms professionals use to label the actions undertaken by places
in order to make them appealing to tourists, investors, immigrants, and local
citizens by creating an inviting image.
I personally prefer the term ‘destination branding’. Destination branding
encompasses the concept of travelling towards a destination and that connects
with my thesis that culture, in general, and events, in particular, are chosen as
media strategies and act as travel motivators and image-makers for destinations.
As presented in Dinnie (2008), three are the key elements of branding theory:
brand identity, brand image and brand positioning. In this study, I focus on brand
image and I use Dinnie’s (2008: 42) definition that “image refers to how
something is perceived”. In this research, two brand images are of interest, the
destination brand image and the event brand image. Two theories, associative
network memory theory and co-branding theory, shed light to what happens when
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places host spotlight events and how image transfers between the destination and
event images in the public’s perception as it is formulated by news media
representations.
Therefore, destination image and event image are central terms that help to unfold
the theoretical framework of the thesis. Destination image is defined as “the sum
of beliefs, ideas and impressions that a person has of a destination” (Crompton,
1979: 18 cited in Xing & Chalip, 2006) and event image is outlined as “the
cumulative interpretation of meanings or associations attributed to events by
consumers” (Gwinner, 1997: 147, cited in ibid.).
Due to the new cultural landscapes formed in a context of shifts and
transformations in society and global economy, destinations have started to
realize the role of culture and the impact of cultural events on destination image.
Also, the terms ‘experience economy’ (Pine & Gilmore, 1999) and the ‘creative
city’ (Landry, 2000) that have emerged in the fields of urban branding and arts
management are growing prominent amongst researchers, policy makers, arts
professionals and tourism professionals.
According to Landry (2000), a good quality of life is to be used as a competitive
tool among destinations and the role of culture and tourism in providing
experiential, leisure and fun activities is vital for urban settlements. In the
experience economy, the competitiveness between places is no longer solely
reliant on material conditions like natural resources or built infrastructure but it is
a consequence of intangible elements of places such as cultural events. Events are
alternatives to iconic, signature buildings because they act as animators of urban
spaces bringing the place alive and creating powerful images for citizens and
international visitors. Urban spaces are seen as a stage for events to unfold and the
built environment becomes a backdrop.
The focal point of this study is major events. Special, hallmark, spotlight or mega-
events are few of the terms found in the literature of various fields to describe
them. Although some might be used interchangeably, there are nuances in each of
them that make them more relevant than others in certain situations. For instance,
the term ‘special event’ encompasses knowledge from many fields such as
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marketing, event studies, leisure studies, tourism management, arts and culture
management, sport management, and communication and media studies.
Consequently, Jago and Shaw (1998: 29, cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride,
2004: 280) offer a thorough definition of ‘special events’:
“A one-time or infrequently occurring event of limited duration that
provides the consumer with a leisure and social opportunity beyond
everyday experience. Such events, which attract, or have the potential
to attract, tourists, are often held to raise the profile, image or
awareness of a region.”
For the purposes of this research, I agree with Smith, who believes that from a
branding perspective, it is more appropriate to label these events ‘spotlight
events’, due to the fact that they “truly put places in the spotlight”, which,
subsequently, “the opportunities they afford destination brand managers” (ibid.,
264).
Here is my own definition of spotlight events and their characteristics:
“Events of a unique and festive nature, with their own status, prestige
or brand image, of a limited and fixed duration and one-off or
infrequent occurrence that attracts immense media attention on the
host cities. Spotlight events usually involve a number of stakeholders
and organizers that plan and control the event while a live audience is
present at the physical event location(s) experiencing the event’s
unique atmosphere.”
Since the ancient times, special events in sports and culture have always been an
important motivator in the mobility between cities, regions and nations. In recent
times, the number of special events is increasing substantially over time and event
tourism is now a vibrant, and dynamic field of study and research. The term
‘event tourism’ (Getz, 1997), which formalized the link between events and
tourism, was coined in the 1980s and has been defined as “the systematic
planning, development and marketing of festivals and special events as tourist
attractions, catalysts, and image builders” (Getz & Wicks, 1993: 2).
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Lastly, public knowledge about foreign events relies heavily on mass media. Mass
news media have the power to decide what to cover (or not), to filter information
and allow what becomes (or not) news and how places and events will be
portrayed and what images will be presented. In this research, media are seen as
‘gatekeepers’, ‘agenda-setters’ and ‘image-makers’.
Shoemaker (1991) characterizes news media and journalists as “gatekeepers”,
who have the power to filter ideas and information and decide what stories are
published and become news. Additionally, McCombs and Shaw (1972) pointed
out that the gatekeeping concept is related to the concept of “agenda-setting”.
Hoare (1991) explains that, “newspapers’ mass circulation makes them a
powerful, aggressive agent and that they translate this power into decisions
regarding what to cover (or not to cover)” (cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 32).
1.5 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Nations have always branded themselves as their regimes and circumstances have
changed through their symbols, currency, anthems, names and so on. Even though
the practice of nations (re-) branding is not a new phenomenon, urban literature
became popular only during the 1980s in Europe and a little earlier in the Unites
States.
Place marketing is growing in popularity the last two decades due to the constant
efforts of western countries to transform from the industrial to the post-industrial
era. Industrial cities carry images of economic problems, pollution, negative
immigration and social unease, [while] post-industrial cities project images of
clean streets, high-tech industry and residents with high socio-economic status
(Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 12). As an answer to an image crisis, local
stakeholders in many nations, regions and cities responded by developing image-
makeover strategies designed to replace negative images with new dynamic place
imagery in order to lure investment, entice new residents and attract tourists.
Place marketing and place branding can be found in cities around the world: it is
now a global phenomenon. This is reflected in the growth of a substantial body of
work on place marketing (Ashworth & Voogd, 1990; Holloway & Hubbard,
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2001; Jessop, 1998; Paddison, 1993) and place branding (Dinnie, 2004;
Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2006; Olins, 2002). The literature evaluates the tools
used to ‘re-image’, ‘re-invent’ and ‘re-position’ the city; in fact, they indicate the
transition from ‘selling places’ to ‘marketing places’ to ‘branding places’.
In this study, the focus is on place branding, the role of spotlight events as image-
makers and travel motivators and the catalytic role of media narratives in the
process. Kotler et al. (1993) identify the value of events in enhancing image of
destinations and in attracting tourists and media attention. Place marketing
provides a framework within which cultural events find multiple roles, as image-
makers, tourist attractions and media strategies.
Furthermore, Brown et al. encourage exploring further “the role that events can
play as catalysts for development and in helping to build an image for a region
that will attract longer-term visitation” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004:
283). The power of events to attract visitors and visitor spending on a short-term
basis, as well as their ability to attract a tremendous amount of media coverage, to
raise awareness and improve destination image of the host region for future
tourism is present in the literature of place branding, cultural tourism and media
studies. Both short-term and long-term impacts of events on destinations are
described by Smith as the “tangible and intangible byproducts [which] are the
legacy of a place” (ibid., 263).
Although the majority of events have probably arisen for non-tourist reasons,
there is clearly a trend to exploit them for tourism and to create new events
deliberately as tourist attractions (Getz, 1989: 125 cited in Morgan, Pritchard &
Pride, 2004: 282). However, it seems that the focus of the research that has been
conducted to date is on the economic impact of special events. Despite the growth
of event tourism, little attention has been given to the ways that events can impact
a destination’s brand image. In this part of the study, the implications of the use of
events in destination branding are seen through a long-term perspective and how
they contribute to future tourism though destination image narratives.
Undoubtedly, spotlight events can be an important motivator for travel behaviour.
This study argues that the ability of spotlight events to raise awareness of the host
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region for future tourism is a sustainable act of image enhancement with longer-
term impacts on the host cities.
Jago et al. (2002, 2003) believed there was substantial potential for events to be
used in destination branding but that neither event nor destination managers do a
good job in harnessing that potential (cited in Getz, 2007: 142). Co-branding
between events and destinations is one strategy gaining popularity (Brown et al.
2001, Chalip & Costa, 2006). The intent is to reinforce the destination’s brand
with compatible events, which cause a transferral of positive images.
Indeed, spotlight events attract media coverage to the host city as well as
thousands of journalists, tourism writers, world-class athletes or artists, fans and
tourists that seek to be part of a unique experience. While under the spotlight, the
city itself has an opportunity to gain positive media exposure for its benefit in
creating a positive image and, subsequently, attracting prospective or repeated
visitors.
Avraham and Ketter (2008) highlight the mass media as powerful agents in
presenting, constructing and re-constructing images of events, places and people.
McRobbie and Thornton refer to the influential role that media play in
‘constructing meanings’ (1995: 561) about people and places and how this affects
the public’s mindset.
In the words of McRobbie and Thornton (ibid.: 570) “social reality is experienced
through language, communication and imagery”. This paper examines how news
media form social reality through language and imagery by creating powerful
images of people and place and shaping the perceptions of outsiders through
storytelling.
1.6 STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT
Chapter 1 introduces the purpose of this research. It presents the main research
questions, a summary of the theoretical background, and defines the key terms
used in this study. Also, the introductory chapter offers an insight to my own
interests as a researcher, how the topic was initiated as well as it presents this
15
research’s unique contribution in the field of arts management. It concludes by
describing the structure of the report.
Chapter 2 forms the theoretical foundation of the study. It defines the core
concepts of the study and gives the theoretical foundations of the research topic
through a literature review on place branding, brand image theories, the
experience economy, the characteristics of spotlight events and the catalytic role
of media narratives as image creators for destinations. The historic contexts of the
theories and their interdependence are also critically discussed.
Chapter 3 focuses on research methodology. It introduces the research approach
and methods and describes how the qualitative media content analysis research on
the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 and the image of Helsinki and Finland will be
conducted. Chapter three explains how the empirical data will be collected,
analyzed and interpreted and discusses issues regarding the appropriateness of the
chosen methods as well as possible problems.
Chapter 4 consists of the case study description and analysis of media narratives
and images of Helsinki and Finland that were triggered by the international media
attention given to Helsinki when the city hosted the Eurovision Song Contest in
2007. During the analysis of the international news media of the ESC 2007
fairytale themes were discovered and analyzed in the context of storytelling
within a spatial dimension. The analysis focuses on Finnish national identity,
image and stereotypes projected in the media and, in addition, gives an account of
how media portray travel destination image.
Chapter 5 presents the conclusion of the study. It gives a summary of the results,
presents a theoretical contribution together with managerial implications for arts
managers and makes recommendations. The limitations of the study and
directions for future research are also pointed out. In the concluding part, a few
research topics or themes that have emerged from the findings of this research are
presented. Due to the limitations of this study, certain aspects of the phenomenon
were not covered but hopefully this study opens up interesting areas for further
exploration in destination branding through cultural spotlight events that attract
media coverage.
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2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 PLACE BRANDING
Place marketing has existed since colonial times, when colonial governments tried
to persuade people to move to the newly conquered territories (Gold, 1994 cited
in Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 5). Paddison (1993) observes that the concept of
‘place marketing’ (which some label ‘place promotion’ or ‘city management’)
became popular in European urban literature only during the 1980s and a little
earlier in the Unites States (cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008:5).
2.1.1 PLACE BRANDING : THE HISTORIC CONTEXT
Olins, one of the world’s most experienced brand practitioners, explains how
France has presented a new symbolic version of itself both internally and
externally, each time its reality has been modulated: “Under Vichy [dictatorship],
France was rebranded yet again; the Republican slogan, or as branding people
would put it strapline, ‘libetré, egalité, fraternité’2 was replaced with ‘travail,
famille, patrie’3” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 18). Moreover, Olins
mentions that, “sometimes they [nations] invented or reconstructed national
myths, for instance Finland’s Kalevala; sometimes they even invented a new
language, such as Israel’s modern Hebrew” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride,
2004: 21).
Currently, many nations are seeking ways to enhance their image, demonstrate
their tourist potential or develop brands both for domestic consumption and for
export. In the words of Olins: “In order to compete effectively on a world stage
they [nations] need all the resources that contemporary branding techniques can
offer” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 23). He continues by giving the
example of Scotland: “Scotland is OK: although it is a small country, it has been
around for a long time; it has tartans, kilts, Scotch whisky, the Highlands,
2 Liberté, égalité, fraternité, French for “Liberty, equality, fraternity (brotherhood)” , is the national motto of France, and is a typical example of a tripartite motto. It finds its origins in the French Revolution. 3 Travail, famille, patrie, French for “Work, family, fatherland” was the motto of the Vichy France government during World War II. It replaced the republican Liberté, égalité, fraternité of the Third French Republic.
17
Braveheart and the Edinburgh Festival” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride,
2004: 23).
To put the evolution of nation branding into yet wider historical perspective, it
could be claimed that nations have always branded themselves- through their
symbols, currency, anthems, names and so on- and that is just the terminology of
nation branding that is new, rather than the practice itself (Dinnie, 2008: 20).
2.1.2 WHY PLACE BRANDING HAS A BAD BRAND ?
Place branding is perceived by some critics as an offensive term applied to cities,
regions and nations, despite the fact that history proves that almost every nation
has reinvented itself as its regimes and circumstances have changed. Branding is a
commonly used concept in the corporate world, where companies often change
and reinvent themselves. Anholt (2007: 3) states that, “the task of promotion,
positioning and reputation management on a global scale is a familiar one in the
world of commerce: corporations have been facing it for more than a century, and
this is how the techniques of brand management have emerged.”
Even though the phenomenon of nations (re-) branding is not new, the chosen
terminology seems to be problematic. According to Olins, the reasons “why the
word ‘brand’ acts like a red rag to a bull on some people” are three: snobbery,
ignorance and semantics (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 23). Olins
explains that it is not the ideas the critics of nation rebranding argue about, but
rather the semantics of the term ‘brand’ that bring bad connotations, “image and
national identity are fine but ‘brand’ sticks in the gullet” (cited in Morgan,
Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 22).
Similarly, Brown observes that the words ‘brand’ and ‘branding’ generate mixed
responses, “for some, the words are innocuous descriptors of elements and
practices of the commercial world; for others, the words embody notions of
manipulation, deceit and superficiality” (cited in Dinnie, 2008: 251).
Olins advocates that the techniques used by the commercial sector and nations
alike are similar since, “many brands help to create a sense of identity, of
belonging: just like the nation” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 25).
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Although analogies should not be taken too far, Olins acknowledges that branding
businesses and branding nations do have a lot in common:
“They create myths, special languages, environments that reinforce
loyalties, colours, symbols, and quasi-historical myths. They even
have heroes: Richard Branson and his heroic ballooning trips, Jack
Welch, the legendary hero of GE, and Anita Roddick, the staunch
defender of sustainable environments, to mention just three” (ibid.,
23).
On the contrary, Anholt (2007: 3) challenges the above view stating that, “there
are more differences than similarities between countries and companies, but some
of the theories and techniques of brand management can, if intelligently and
responsibly applied, become powerful competitive tools and agents for change
both within the country and beyond.”
Jansson and Power (2006) view the idea of branding a city or a place in the same
way as one might brand a commercial product as unproblematic. They
acknowledge however that, “Just as in the USA, the language and rhetoric of
business is now commonly used in the public sector in relation to Nordic cities
and regions. It has become common practice for those working in urban affairs in
the public sector to talk about how cities and regions can ‘compete’ and how they
can sell themselves.”
On the other hand, Jansson and Power (2006) criticize urban branding and admit
that it represents “a commodification of urban space: the city becomes a product
to be sold in competition with other similar products.” The authors address the
danger that “by attempting to commodify the city and build on its competitive
strengths (as all good businesses do) many interests and groups can be left out or
marginalized”. Yet Jansson and Power (2006) do not suggest neglecting the
importance of image for cities or regions but rather imply that it should
acknowledge the differences between selling a product and improving a cities
image or brand.
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It is necessary to understand why destinations are consciously engaging in place
branding and what they hope to gain. The following chapter demonstrates why
branding is important for places.
2.1.3 WHY PLACES NEED BRANDING ?
Avraham and Ketter (2008: 12) claim that place marketing is growing in
popularity the last two decades due to the constant efforts of western countries “to
transform from the industrial era to the post-industrial era.” Industrial cities carry
images of economic problems, pollution, negative immigration and social unease,
[while] post-industrial cities project images of clean streets, high-tech industry
and residents with high socio-economic status (ibid.).
Each nation, region or city face their own problems and crises, such as criminality
and terrorism, illness and epidemics, unemployment and social injustices, as well
as extreme climatic conditions such as typhoons, tsunami or earthquakes. Also,
images of boredom, lack of social and cultural amenities and negative stereotypes
play a critical role in place branding. These challenges impact the image of the
place to international visitors and damage its tourism.
While cities with long history continue to attract tourists, investors, immigrants,
and talent, others that have not been so privileged, try to battle their way to
travellers’ top choices. That is the reason why a positive image enhances the
chances of a city to start building its brand image and reputation in order to
‘emerge on the map’.
2.1.4 PLACE BRANDING TERMINOLOGY
A plethora of terms has been used to refer to the same phenomenon and its
application on cities, regions and nations. This chapter presents various
definitions of place branding and explains what terms are used in this research.
In the past decades, place branding, known also as tourism marketing, place
promotion, place marketing, urban branding, destination branding, reputation
management, competitive identity, or public diplomacy, has attracted much
20
attention from researchers and practitioners, who have made efforts to define it
from their own perspectives and disciplines.
Kolb (2006: 1) refers to tourism marketing as “simply applying the appropriate
marketing concepts to planning a strategy to attract visitors to a destination,
whether resort, city, region or country.” Similarly, Olsson and Bergland (2006,
cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 5) note that, “the conceptual foundation of
place marketing lies in marketing theories, primarily the marketing-mix
approach”.
Van Gelden and Allan (2007) give the following definition: “City branding is
about deliberately creating, developing and demonstrating [the city’s] value
through appropriate ‘on brand’ actions, which consist of investments, physical
and economic plans, attraction programmes, events, communications, and the
like.”
Avraham and Ketter (2008) provide an overview of definitions available in the
literature concerning place marketing, which are often used interchangeably with
the term place promotion. Specifically, according to Gold and Ward (1994: 2):
“Place promotion [is] defined as the conscious use of publicity and marketing to
communicate selective images of specific geographical localities or areas to a
target audience.” Another popular definition can be found in Short et al. (2000:
318): “Place promotion involves re-evaluation and re-representation of place to
create and market a new image for localities to enhance their competitive position
in attracting or retaining resources.”
Dunn et al., (1995) view place marketing as “a refreshing of urban or national
identity or as a creation of new forms of identity” (cited in Avraham & Ketter,
2008: 6). For Jansson and Power (2006), urban branding, “just like any other
branding, has to be considered a process rather than a stable state of being and e.g.
it continuously needs investments and reinvestments in order to avoid
misinterpretations and remaining fresh in people’s mind.”
Nielsen (2001: 207-208, cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 6) refers to place
promotion, emphasizing the arduous process dealing with an image crisis both in
21
terms of tangible and intangible damage. “Promoting a destination in normal
circumstances is a difficult task, but promoting a destination that faces tourism
challenges -whether from negative press, or from infrastructure damage caused by
natural disasters or man-made disasters- is an altogether more arduous task.”
I prefer ‘destination branding’ , a term used by Morgan, Pritchard and Pride
(2004: 3), which encompasses the concept of travelling towards a place and I
believe that culture, in general, and spotlight events, in particular, act as travel
motivators. Especially the ‘sense of urgency’, the ‘once in a lifetime experience’
notion that prevails in spotlight events tends to make this argument valid.
There is no common definition of ‘brands’ or ‘branding’; however, most authors
agree that any definition should include both tangible and intangible attributes of
a product, for instance, both functional and emotional characteristics. A brand’s
value is thus in the way people end up thinking and feeling about it and the
product it is linked to. The aim of branding is to make an almost indistinguishable
link between the character of an object and its branded image or form (Jansson &
Power, 2006).
2.1.5 BRAND IMAGE AND IMAGE TRANSFER
In today’s turbulent and competitive environment, the role of a positive image
enhances the chances of a destination to build its reputation and brand image and
to gain a foothold in the international marketplace. The construction,
communication and management of destination brand image are central to place
branding because “encounters between cities and their users take place through
perceptions and images” (Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2006).
As presented in Dinnie (2008), three are the key elements of branding theory:
brand identity, brand image and brand positioning. In this chapter, it is vital to
expand on what a brand image is and disseminate confusion between brand
identity and brand image. Also, I examine two theories that are relevant to this
research that deals with destination branding and spotlight events and explore
ways in which city brand image and event brand image are connected and are able
to enhance one another in people’s perceptions.
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First of all, there is no universal consensus on the precise meaning of the terms
‘brand identity’ and ‘brand image’, since numerous sources offer alternative
definitions. For the purposes of this study, I agree with Dinnie’s (2008: 42),
simple and robust perspective on the distinction between brand identity and brand
image: “identity refers to what something truly is, its essence, whereas image
refers to how something is perceived, which evidently marks a gap between these
two states.”
In this research, two brand images are of interest, the destination brand image
and the event brand image. Destination image has been defined as “the sum of
beliefs, ideas and impressions that a person has of a destination” (Crompton,
1979: 18). Although event image has been less thoroughly studied than
destination image, various researchers have attempted to define it. Gwinner
(1997: 147), for instance, outlined event image as “the cumulative interpretation
of meanings or associations attributed to events by consumers” (cited in Xing &
Chalip, 2006).
When cities host spotlight events, there seems to be a pairing of the destination
brand and the event brand with significant impacts on their image and –
subsequently– on the way people perceive them. Brand image incorporates
perceptions of quality, values and feelings as well as brand associations and acts
as a powerful tool of shaping public opinion and behaviour.
Brands are typically linked in order to increase brand awareness and/ or to
enhance or change an image. However, the use of events as a means to enhance or
change a destination’s image is less well understood in the literature. Destinations
might seek to change its image by using events to alter a negative aspect of their
brand image. For example, to counter the image of poor cultural amenities, events
designed to showcase cultural performances or activities could be added. Finally,
each destination could seek to introduce an entirely new node into its association
set.
Two theories, associative network memory theory and co-branding theory,
shed light to what happens to destination and event images when places host
spotlight events.
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2.1.5.1 Associative network memory theory
Cognitive psychologists have for some time held that knowledge is represented as
associative networks (Collins & Loftus, 1975; Anderson, 1983; Halford et al.,
1998, cited in Brown et al., 2004: 284). According to associative network memory
theory, a brand is represented in memory as a set of nodes and links (Keller, 1993,
Henderson et al., 1998 ibid.). The nodes and their relations form an ‘association
set’. Nodes are the elements of the association set, and the links combine the
nodes into an overall brand image (cited in Xing & Chalip, 2006). In simpler
terms, association sets constitute how information is stored in memory.
Figure 2. A graphic representation of an association set or mental map
Moreover, Holloway and Hubbard (2001: 48) refer to association sets as ‘mental
maps’ created by individuals allowing them to navigate through complex reality,
because “our surroundings are often more complex than the sense we make of
them” (cited in Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2006). In this research, the term ‘mental
map’ is an interesting metaphor that adds a visual representation to how event
brand image influences destination brand image when the two are paired and how
destinations can become a ‘must visit’ place in people’s minds and, therefore, be
placed ‘on the global map’. Figure 2 shows how mental maps or association sets
are perceived in this study.
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Spotlight events such as the Olympic Games or the Eurovision Song Contest work
at a local, national and international level and contribute in placing a place on the
public’s mental maps.
Branding deals specifically with such mental images. Place branding centres on
people’s perceptions and images, and puts them at the heart of orchestrated
activities designed to shape the place and its future. In the words of Kavaratzis
and Ashworth (2006), “managing the place brand becomes an attempt to influence
and treat those mental maps in a way that is deemed favourable to the present
circumstances and the future needs of the place”.
The association sets or mental maps that people draw of different cities, regions or
countries are influenced by a variety of factors. Dinnie (2008: 47) explains
influencing factors that determine to a greater or lesser extent a country’s nation-
brand image: a) personal experience of a country through working or holidaying
there can play a key role in the image an individual holds of a country; b) word-
of-mouth can influence country image when one does not have any first-hand
experience of a country; c) numerous other inputs can influence the image
formation process such as pre-existing national stereotypes, the performance of
national sporting teams, political events, portrayals of the country in film,
television or other media, the quality of brands emanating from the country, the
behaviour of individuals associated with a certain country et cetera.
In this study, the influencing factors researched are the media portrayals of
destinations and the performance of national representatives when cities host
spotlight events. Personal experiences of journalists and the visitors’ word of
mouth influence national images and stereotypes and increase the knowledge
about a place to a greater amount of people.
2.1.5.2 Co-branding theory
When two brands, event and destination, are linked, then this is an exercise in ‘co-
branding’ (Brown et al., 2004; Chalip et al., 2003). Co-branding theory suggests
that pairing an event with a destination will engender some transfer of image
between the event and destination brands (Xing & Chalip, 2006). Co-branding
25
research indicates that the degree to which two brands fit together is positively
related to the evaluation of the brand alliance and, consequently, the individual
partnering brands (Lafferty et al., 2004; Simonin & Ruth, 1998).
Destinations may seek to change their images through hosting spotlight events,
and event organizers may seek to enhance their event’s brand by capitalizing on a
favorable location. For instance, a relatively unknown, second tier city could
incorporate an international singing competition to elevate its perceived
excitement and fun elements, or a sports championship might be awarded to a
famous capital city to enhance the event’s prestige.
Using associative network memory theory, Brown et al. (2004) argue that transfer
of brand image can occur not only when two brands share similar association sets
(for instance, the destination association set shares common elements with the
event association set and they have matched elements), but also when consumers
assimilate a node from one brand’s association set into the association set of the
paired brand (cited in Xing & Chalip, 2006).
Brown et al., explain that in order for an event to have an impact on a
destination’s image there must be some “spillover from the event’s image onto the
destination’s image” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 284). For
instance, when destination and event brands are paired, the image of destination
brand can be strengthened by the positive elements in the association set of the
event brand and vice versa. The spillover effect of the image transfer process is
significant in the understanding of how event image affects place image, either
positively or negatively.
This is the reason why nations, regions and cities compete to attract spotlight
events so that they introduce the event brand’s positive nodes to the place brand’s
association set. Figure 3 shows what is meant by spillover effect and image
transfer in this research. Chapter 2.2 explains the ability of spotlight events to act
as travel motivators, branding tools and image-makers for destinations.
26
Figure 3. Image transfer between events and destinations
This thesis claims that the role of media in destination branding through spotlight
events is to sustain and multiply the positive impacts and associations between
events and places. While substantial increases in visitation, tourist expenditure
and the multiplier effect in the local economy, occur during events, the benefits
would be short-lived if the impact that a major event engenders could not reach
beyond the period during which the event takes place.
2.1.6 DESTINATION BRANDING – A NEW ROLE FOR CULTURE
Begg (1999: 795) points out that, “urban branding strategies must be seen against
the background of increased globalization and structural adjustments”. Those
structural adjustments and macro-level changes, are explained by Jensen (2007)
as the societal transformation process in western countries characterized by “a
shift towards immaterial and experiential stimulation”. In recent times, countries,
regions and cities find branding through events to be a realistic way of
differentiating from the competition with “immaterial and experiential stimulation
(ibid.)”.
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Specifically, the terms ‘experience economy’ and the ‘creative city’ have
emerged in the fields of urban branding and arts management and are growing
prominent amongst researchers, policy makers, arts professionals and tourism
professionals. Due to the new cultural landscapes formed in a context of
transformations in society and global economy, destinations have started to
realize the role of culture and the impact of cultural events on destination image.
2.1.6.1 The experience economy
German sociologist Gerhard Schulze observes that we are living in the
‘Erlebnisgeschellschaft’ or ‘experience society’, where the primary concern has
shifted from subsistence to making sense of the world by seeking ever more
stimulating experiences (Ritzer, 1999; Schulze, 1992, cited in Jensen, 2007).
Jansson and Power (2006) share Schulze’s view and refer to the so-called
‘experience economy’, where the competitiveness between regions and cities is
“no longer solely reliant on material conditions like natural resources or built
infrastructure” but it is a consequence of intangible elements of places.
Similarly, Pine and Gilmore (1999) agree that the hallmark of our economy is that
it is an experience economy. Cities worldwide acknowledge the arrival of the
experience economy and in order to stand out choose to become “stagers of
experiences” (ibid.). As a win-win situation for both places and events, urban
spaces become settings and backdrops for cultural experiences and in turn the
cultural events act as animators of urban spaces bringing the place alive.
As culture and experience gain importance, countries, regions and cities are
increasingly (re-) constructing their images and representations through the
practice of place branding with the assistance of spotlight events. The “culture-
led, experience-oriented policymakers” (Jensen, 2007) are looking towards the
discipline of urban branding in order to attract media coverage, improve
destination image and enhance tourism for their cities.
Also, tourism has been at the forefront of staging experience, as Sternberg (1997:
952-954) succinctly put, “tourism primarily sells a ‘staged’ experience [...]
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tourism’s central productive activity [is] the creation of the tourist experience”
(cited in Oh, Fiore & Jeoung, 2007)
2.1.6.2 Creative cities and the new creative class
As a consequence of the global trends and shifts into the experience economy,
creativity and culture gain priority and weight on the agenda of destination
professionals, event organizers and policy-makers. There is a global discourse of
the ‘creative city’ (Landry, 2000) along with an increased awareness of the
importance of the cultural industries (Hesmondhalgh, 2002: 14) and the creative
economy (Howkins, 2001) for destinations.
Also, there is an increased awareness that art and business are joining forces in
the new urban competitive economy (Caves, 2000; Hall, 2000). According to
Florida (2002), the new ‘creative class’ is a new social class with a particular
creative potential and has gained immense influence in urban policy and planning
circles worldwide.
As part of the global shift on immaterial, experiential satisfaction, cities now
represent themselves as “fun places” (Metz, 2002), which means places where the
‘good life’ is not only about employment but also increasingly about ample time
for leisure (Short, 1999). Fun city and the new cultural narratives are thus part and
parcel of each other (Boer & Dijkstra, 2003).
According to Landry, a good quality of life is to be used as a competitive tool
among destinations. In the words of Landry (2000: 133), the “creative milieu” is
the prerequisite of contemporary urban settlements:
“A place – either a cluster of buildings, a part of a city, a city as a
whole or a region – that contains the necessary preconditions in terms
of ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ infrastructure to generate a flow of ideas and
inventions”
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2.2 SPOTLIGHT EVENTS AND DESTINATION BRANDING
Cities have been relying to ‘hard’ infrastructure such as signature buildings like
the Frank Gehry’s Guggenheim Museum in order to boost their image and create
their own “Bilbao-effect” (Jansson & Power, 2006). In today’s experience
economy, spotlight cultural events are an alternative to iconic, signature
buildings.
In the words of Jansson and Power (2006), who use the term ‘soft-side’
development to refer to the development of image, brand and reputation, contrary
to ‘hard-side’ development, which means infrastructure upgrading:
“It is important to note then that the strategy to advertise and profile a
city or a region by focusing on one or several high profile or signature
things does not just relate to building unusual buildings: it also
includes hosting high profile or important events and other flagship
projects. Some annual or periodic events with altering hosts, like for
example the World Cup or the Eurovision Song Contest, attract
enormous attention, and to a certain degree economic turnovers, for
the hosts.”
Therefore, ‘headline catching events’ act as important communication devices for
destinations in the same way ‘eye-catching buildings’ assist in turning a place
with a negative image into an internationally recognized centre for culture and the
arts.
In their research paper on the image of Nordic region cities, Jansson and Power
(2006) point out three categories of city branding: 1) branding through signature
buildings, events, flagship projects, et cetera; 2) branding through planning
strategies, urban redevelopment, institutional and infrastructural support; 3)
branding through advertising, myths, slogans, logos, et cetera. In this study, the
focus is on how destination brand image through ‘headline catching’ events is
depicted in media narratives and how it contributes to place brand image.
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2.2.1 DEFINING SPOTLIGHT EVENTS
Jansson and Power (2006) attempt to define the events that contribute to the ‘soft-
side’ development in terms of image, brand and reputation as “headline catching
events” or “high profile events”. Various writers have used different definitions to
describe those types of events that attract enormous attention for the hosts and
influence their image. This chapter provides an overview of the numerous
definitions of spotlight events.
Firstly, it should be noted that the past 20 years have seen an increased demand
for special events and it is predicted that these events will continue to grow (Getz,
2005; Goldblatt, 2002, cited in Carpenter & Blandy, 2008: 144). Secondly, the
term ‘special event’ encompasses knowledge from many fields such as
marketing, event studies, leisure studies, tourism management, arts and culture
management, sport management, and communication and media studies.
Consequently, the growing importance of special events and their complex nature
makes the study of these events and their impact relevant to many interdependent
fields.
Specifically, although influential writers on event management such as Goldblatt
(2002) and Getz (2005) do not agree on a specific definition of special events, yet
there is a degree of commonality in their perceptions. Goldblatt (2002: 6)
highlights the celebratory and human nature of event by suggesting that: “A
special event is a unique moment in time celebrated with ceremony and ritual to
satisfy specific needs.”
While Getz (2005: 16) offers two definitions; one from the point of view of the
event organizer and the other from that of the event participant:
“A special event is a one-time or an infrequent event that occurs
outside of the normal programme or activities of the sponsoring or
organising body.”
“To the costumer or guest, a special event is an opportunity for an
experience outside of the normal choices or beyond everyday
experience.”
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A thorough definition of special events is given by Jago and Shaw (1998: 29),
who have proposed that a ‘special event’ is:
“A one-time or infrequently occurring event of limited duration that
provides the consumer with a leisure and social opportunity beyond
everyday experience. Such events, which attract, or have the potential
to attract, tourists, are often held to raise the profile, image or
awareness of a region.”
Scholars Deccio and Baloglu (2002) have labelled these efforts ‘mega-events’
because of their scale and scope. The impact of mega-events on international
tourism is, in part, a consequence of their capacity to attract an international
audience through the media they obtain. Whereas Smith (2004) believes that from
a branding perspective, it is more appropriate to label these ‘spotlight events’,
due to “the opportunities they afford destination brand managers” and the fact that
spotlight events “truly put places in the spotlight, usually emanating from the
lights of the television cameras” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 262-
264).
For the purposes of this paper, here the term ‘spotlight events’ is defined as such:
“Events of a unique and festive nature, with their own status, prestige
or brand image, of a limited and fixed duration and one-off or
infrequent occurrence that attract immense media attention on both the
event and the host city, region, nation. Spotlight events usually involve
a number of stakeholders and organizers that plan and control the
event while a live audience is present at the physical event location(s)
experiencing the event’s unique atmosphere.”
2.2.2 THE POWER OF SPOTLIGHT EVENTS
A number of spotlight events stand out because they offer rare opportunities for
destinations to perform on a national and international stage. Cities perform on
the global stage when hosting spotlight events in the same way artists or athletes
perform and compete in front of the audience in major sports and cultural events.
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According to Smith, three characteristics inherent in spotlight events make them
tempting as “branding devices” and “interesting for scholars”. First, the
participants in spotlight events are either numerous or important, or both. In fact,
for instance, the Olympics attract not only world-class athletes, but also thousands
of fans. Similarly, cultural spotlight events attract volumes of famous artists,
celebrities and the creative class as well as fans. Second, spotlight events appeal
to national and, perhaps, international audiences. Third, spotlight events attract a
tremendous amount of media coverage, typically because of the first two
characteristics (Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 263-264).
Brown et al. present the wide-ranging reasons why places host spotlight events
found in the literature. Some of the reasons are: increased visitation to a region,
improvement in a destination’s image or awareness, enhanced tourism
development, ability to act as a catalyst for development, reduction in seasonal
fluctuations or extension of the tourism season, positive economic impact,
increased employment, animation of static attractions, enhanced community
pride, advancement of political objectives (ibid., 282-283).
In addition, Smith argues that events of significant importance generate media
coverage, both in the general news media and among tourism writers, enhance the
place’s reputation for future campaigns or events and finally, leave the city with
other “tangible and intangible byproducts” (ibid., 263).
The power of events and their impacts on cities are undeniable. I agree with
Mules and Faulkner (1996) who argue that, “Governments have become
interested in special events largely because of their ability to attract visitors, and
hence visitor spending, as well as their ability to raise awareness of the host
region for future tourism” (cited in Brown, et al., 2004: 282). As a result, the
following section firstly, explores the role of events as motivators for travel
behaviour; secondly, as image-makers for host cities, regions, and thirdly, the role
of spotlight events as media strategies chosen by places to achieve the first two
impacts on branding and tourism. Figure 4 shows the triple role of spotlight
events as image-makers, travel motivators and as media strategy.
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Figure 4. The multi-purpose use of spotlight events
2.2.3 SPOTLIGHT EVENTS AS A MOTIVATOR FOR TRAVEL BEHAVIOUR
2.2.3.1 Cultural tourism: the historic context
Culture has always been an important motivator in the mobility between cities,
regions and nations. In the ancient times, travellers visited the Parthenon, the
Great Pyramids or were spectators at the Olympic Games, religious festivities or
theatre festivals. Also, wealthy Greeks and Romans travelled for leisure to their
summer homes and villas by the Mediterranean Sea.
In the late 16th century, the Grand Tour served as an education rite of passage for
Europe’s aristocratic youth. The itinerary embraced visiting metropolises of the
16th century like London, Paris, Venice, Florence and Rome, where those grand
tourists were exposed to the masterpieces of architecture, literature and the arts.
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Indeed, by its very nature of travelling involves a cultural element. Visiting
historic sites, cultural landmarks, attending special events and festivals, or visiting
museums have always been a part of the travel for leisure experience.
Cultural tourism began to be recognized as a distinct product category in the late
1970s, when tourism marketers and tourism researchers realized that some people
travelled specifically to gain a deeper understanding of the culture or heritage of
the destination (Tighe, 1986). Initially, it was regarded as a specialized activity
that was thought to be pursued by a small number of better educated, more
affluent tourists, who were looking for something other than the standard sand,
sun and sea holiday. It was only since the fragmentation of the mass market in the
1990s that cultural tourism has been recognized for what it is: a high-profile,
mass-market activity. (McKercher & Du Cros, 2002 :1)
2.2.3.2 The emergence of event tourism
Nowadays it seems we have entered “the age of special events” (Janiskee, 1996).
According to Smith, “an increasing number of destinations have looked to major
events to lure large numbers of visitors, attract investment and tourist spending,
and generate media coverage (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 262).
Cities, regions and nations acknowledge the power of spotlight events and
compete with others to host some of the world’s spectacular sports and cultural
events. Those major spotlight events include the Summer and Winter Olympic
Games and entertainment events or festivals such as the Eurovision Song Contest
or the European Capital of Culture.
The term ‘event tourism’ (Getz, 1997), which formalized the link between events
and tourism, was coined in the 1980s and has been defined as “the systematic
planning, development and marketing of festivals and special events as tourist
attractions, catalysts, and image builders” (Getz & Wicks, 1993: 2).
Event tourism is not a recent phenomenon. The first Olympic Games were held in
776 BC while religious festivities and cultural events and festivals have been held
throughout the ages. However, what is new is the scale of event tourism. Many
authors provide evidence that the number of special events has increased
35
substantially over time (Getz, 1991; Getz and Wicks, 1994; Janiskee, 1994, cited
in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 280). Event tourism is now a vibrant, and
dynamic field of study and research and its sheer scale of growth makes this paper
particularly timely and relevant to the field of arts management and event tourism.
Getz (1989: 125) observed that, “Although the majority of events have probably
arisen for non-tourist reasons, there is clearly a trend to exploit them for tourism
and to create new events deliberately as tourist attractions”. Additionally, Brown
et al., observe that, “much of the attention that has been accorded to special events
has been tourism based, as places have come to recognize the power of special
events to attract visitors from outside the region” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard &
Pride, 2004: 281).
A report from the World Tourism Organisation (2005: 52) outlines the main
features and raises various aspects of spotlight events and how they offer
interesting opportunities for places on the level of tourism:
“Such events, because they take place in a limited timeframe and
because they offer a unique one-off experience, can be used to
influence the position a place has in the long and shortlist of places the
potential traveller wants to visit. The effect is that the place where the
event is held will rise on the list of potential destinations in the
mindset of the traveller, due to the sense of urgency created by events
with a limited duration.”
2.2.3.3 Reasons for the emergence of event tourism
Demographic and psychographic changes that have occurred in modern societies
explain the dramatic increase in the popularity of special events as catalysts for
travel behaviour. According to Brown et al., those demographic and
psychographic changes are the following (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride,
2004: 281):
1. increasing levels of average disposable income
2. a move to more frequent short-term holiday breaks
3. increasing interest in experiential travel
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4. increasing interest in authenticity
5. increasing interest in culture
Similarly, as Robinson and Noel (1991: 79) point out the increase of spotlight
events is justified because they meet the societal changes above, since they are
“short-term, easily accessible, with a flexible time commitment, and offer options
for all ages” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 281).
In this study, the increasing interest of people in experiential travel and the
increasing interest in culture support the argument that spotlight events are
important motivators for people to pursue travel. To sum up, spotlight events are
exploited for tourism purposes since they act as a motivator for travel behaviour
due to their unique, once-in-a lifetime nature that creates the feeling of a ‘must
experience’ opportunity.
2.2.4 SPOTLIGHT EVENTS AS A BRANDING TOOL AND IMAGE -MAKERS
2.2.4.1 A long-term perspective
Undoubtedly, spotlight events can be an important motivator for travel behaviour.
However, it seems that the focus of the research conducted to date is on the
economic impact of special events and preoccupied with short-term implications
such as the multiplier effect of special events that captures secondary effects of
tourism expenditure and highlights the wide range of sectors in a community that
may benefit from cultural events.
Certainly, those who attend events consume the services the place offers and, in
that way, support the local economy and businesses in general such as tourist
attractions, restaurants, cafes and hotels in particular (Avraham & Ketter, 2008:
145). But apart from the short-term economic reasons and despite the growth of
event tourism, little attention has been given to the ways that events can impact a
destination’s brand image.
In this study, the implications of the use of events in destination branding are seen
through a long-term perspective as a strategy to attract media attention and
enhance destination image and awareness on a global scale, which in turn
37
contributes to future tourism. Tapachai and Waryszak (2000) accept the view that,
“a beneficial image influences the choices of tourists seeking a place to visit”.
Many authors (Whitson & Macintosh, 1996; Boyle, 1997, cited in Brown et al.,
2004: 283) argue that, “the use of events as a means to enhance consumer’s
awareness of a destination is a common reason that destinations seek to host
events”. Most importantly “the ability to raise awareness of the host region for
future tourism” (ibid., 282) is a sustainable act of image enhancement with
longer-term implications to the host cities.
Brown et al. encourage exploring further “the role that events can play as catalysts
for development and in helping to build an image for a region that will attract
longer-term visitation” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 283). Brown et
al. (ibid., 279) draw attention to the “intrinsically linked” relationship between
event image, destination image and tourism:
“Events add to the city’s range of tourist attractions and they often
actively seek media coverage as a promotional strategy, hoping that
more people will be encouraged to visit the city in the future. Thus, the
relationship between events and tourism has become intrinsically
linked. One significant element of this relationship is the way in which
images associated with an event may be transferred to the destination.
In this way the destination brand may be strengthened, enhanced or
changed.”
An appealing city image is an intangible byproduct of a spotlight event, which has
a long-term effect on destination branding through the visitors’ stories about the
place and media representations. For Smith, both “tangible and intangible
byproducts are the legacy of a place” (Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 263).
The legacy that spotlight event leave to the city has to be sustained and cultivated
in order to host more events and visitors in the future.
This thesis posits the vital role of events in the development of desirable city
images and subsequent positive implications for future tourism. It is important
that cities, regions and countries capitalize on spotlight events such as the ones
below and turn their short-term assets to long-term benefits and competitive
38
advantages in the attraction of investments, creative people and tourists. The role
of media is vital in projecting images that can enhance destination image and
attract visitors.
2.2.5 SPOTLIGHT EVENTS AS A MEDIA STRATEGY
Even tough, the economic value of an event to the host city or region is often
predicted on the media attention that the event obtains (Mules & Faulkner, 1996,
cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 283), my focus on media coverage of
spotlight events should be viewed as a strategic choice of destinations with a
long-term implications in image building. Spotlight events can be perceived as a
media strategy, which aims to enhance the brand image of the host cities.
2.2.5.1 The strategic use of spotlight events
As the name suggests spotlight events “truly put places in the spotlight, usually
emanating from the lights of the television cameras” (Smith, cited in Morgan,
Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 264) Spotlight events focus the media’s attention on a
particular location for a short, concentrated period, allowing the host place to
promote certain chosen images that can be used to improve a negative image,
create positive news and shift international media attention from a negative to a
positive portrayal of the place (Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 145).
By placing event images or mentions alongside images or mentions of other
elements of the destination’s product mix that highlight comparable aspects of
brand image, the overall impact should be enhanced (MacKay & Fesenmaier,
1997; Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Washburn et al., 2000, cited in Morgan,
Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 287-288). In essence, the linking of a destination’s brand
to one or more events is a co-operative branding activity (Morgan, Pritchard &
Pride, 2004: 283), which contributes to the spillover of positive images from the
event to the destination, as explained in chapter 2.1.5. The role of media in the
process is catalytic because it brings the two images –event and destination–
together in people’s minds.
Brown, et al. claim that the exposure that events obtain “through media (via
stories or advertising), would strengthen the aspects of brand image” (cited in
39
Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 286). Smith focuses on “reaching audiences
through news media [which] is less expensive than purchasing advertising”
arguing that media relations is a cost efficient tool for PR practitioners because
they “influence a great number of media representatives and, by extension,
members of the public” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 264)
Similarly, Morgan et al., (2002) suggest that, “as concerns rise over the cost of
branding efforts in light of reduced budgets, media relations have become more
attractive to place promoters (ibid.).
By engaging in media relations, place promoters hope to influence what the
public knows about a place. Another significant advantage for cities hosting
spotlight events is that they “attract opinion shapers such as journalists, who will
later write columns that can improve the place’s image” (Avraham & Ketter,
2008: 145). As Smith states cities hosting spotlight events are under the
“microscope” of the globe’s media (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004:
264), which can be a double-edged sword since a gap between destination image
and identity can be discovered with negative results for the destination brand.
2.2.5.2 Spotlight events and destination image crisis
Avraham and Ketter (2008) believe that cities, countries and tourist destinations
follow media strategies in order to battle an image crisis and improve their
national and international status. Avraham and Ketter (2008) argue that hosting
spotlight events is a media strategy that involves full acknowledgement of the
image crisis, where spotlight events as seen as a moderate coping mechanism.
For instance, Beriatos and Gospodini (2004, cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008:
145) have observed the prevalence and strategic role of spotlight events and assert
that, “since 1936 many places have used the Summer and Winter Olympics, the
World Expo, the title of Cultural Capital of Europe or the Eurovision Song
Contest as great platforms for massive PR-driven image campaigns”. In an era
when popular and mass cultures are positioned further up the symbolic hierarchy,
major sport and cultural events are considered by cities to be valuable image or
branding tools due to their global media coverage.
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Hosting the Olympic Games
The Olympic Games, a major international sports and cultural event held every
four years in a different city, are an excellent example of a spotlight event that
places battle to host since the Olympic Games act as a means to draw immense
media attention to the host city.
Hosting spotlight events has the power to replace negative images with positive
ones. Nielsen (2001, cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 144) mentions that, “one
of the most famous examples of using spotlight events to improve a place’s image
was the Nazi’s use of the 1936 Olympic Games to project a positive image for
their regime.
Historically, the original Olympic Games were held in Ancient Greece from 776
BC until 393 AD. In 1896 the Games were revived, when Athens hosted the first
modern Olympics. Since then, the Olympics are the most popular sporting event
in the world. For instance, 3.9 billion people worldwide watched the Athens 2004
Olympic Games (http://www.olympic.org, cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008:
145).
Therefore, due to the mass media exposure created when cities host the Olympic
Games and the subsequent positive image transfer from the event to the
destination, many places are willing to invest enormous amounts of money in
their battle to be the home of future Olympics. In 2005, some of the most popular
tourist destinations (New York, Paris, London, Moscow and Madrid) competed to
host the 2012 Olympic Games as a means to improve their image and their future
development. Avraham and Ketter (2008: 146) observe that:
“Although none of these cities [the 2012 Olympic Games candidate
cities] was beset by any serious image crisis, each of them believed
that hosting the games would contribute a great deal to its future
development and its image. At least two of these cities aspired to gain
some benefits related to crisis they had undergone: New York hoped
that hosting the games would help the city recover from the events of
9/ 11, and Paris hoped to reshape the city by means of the new
infrastructures needed for the games.”
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Hosting cultural events
The European Capital of Culture (ECOC) and the Eurovision Song Contest (ESC)
are also excellent examples of spotlight cultural events that cities and nations are
competing to host. In the words of Avraham and Ketter (2008: 147), “hosting
cultural events can be used to attract visitors or to improve a general image,
although some places use such events as a deliberate means to overcome an image
crisis.”
For instance, the ECOC programme conceived in 1983 by Melina Mercouri, then
Greek Minister for Culture, had a purpose to give a cultural dimension to the
work of the European Community (now the European Union) and to celebrate
European culture as a means of drawing the community closer (Garcia, 2005).
Similarly, the Eurovision Song Contest is the largest and most-watched
international popular music events, as well as one of the world’s longest-running
annual television programmes. The ESC attracts thousands of visitors to host
cities and millions of viewers that watch the televised event in 35 countries all
over the world.
Authors Avraham and Ketter (2008) claim that hosting spotlight events has the
power “to replace the damaged image with a positive one”. In addition, to
strengthen their claim they mention the example of the city of Bilbao in northern
Spain, where a combination of ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ infrastructure boosted the city’s
tourism by portraying a positive image:
“During the 1990s, the city suffered at the hands of Basque terror
groups and endured high levels of unemployment, the Guggenheim
Museum opened in 1997 as a major attraction, and a set of supporting
cultural events turned things around. More than a million tourists
visited the city in 2001” (Ha’aretz, 12 May 2002, cited in Avraham &
Ketter, 2008: 148).
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2.3 MEDIA, SPOTLIGHT EVENTS AND DESTINATION BRANDING
Boulding (1956: 8) defined image as “what I believe to be true”, and argued that
is an image is “build up as a result of all past experience of the possessor of the
image”. Place promoters use spotlight events to define a place and its unique
characteristics and to influence public perceptions of a place –its image– by
influencing media coverage. Spotlight events allow place promoters the
opportunity to influence a great number of media representatives and, by
extension, members of the public.
The media is an important vehicle through which information can be obtained and
exchanged. Indeed, nowadays, public knowledge about foreign events, including
major cultural and sport events as well as catastrophes, wars and international
crises, relies heavily on mass media. While people usually become aware of
occurrences in their immediate environment from direct contact with the events,
they learn about events that occur in distant places primarily from the media.
2.3.1 THE ROLE OF MEDIA IN PLACE IMAGE
Many different factors influence a place’s image or perception held by the public.
In order to successfully change a place’s public image, analysis of the factors that
construct image is required. Avraham (2003, cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008:
28) has concluded that the factors that affect place image are:
1. The nature of the place’s population (e.g., race) and its size (big
city or peripheral town)
2. Status and political power (a national centre such as a capital
city)
3. Crime rate, socio-economic status and employment situation
4. Number and character of national institutions located in the place
(e.g., prestigious universities)
5. Location (in the country’s core or periphery)
6. Historical background
7. Type of media coverage (highlighting criminal activity and
social problems or cultural events and other positive news)
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The widespread nature of the above factors prevents in-depth analysis of all of
them in this study. However, place marketers and arts managers should have a
profound understanding of all the factors that influence place image. In this
research, media coverage is believed to be of the outmost importance in shaping
place image.
People construct place images according to the kind of information they receive
from various sources. Holloway and Hubbard (2001: 48) describe that interactions
with places may be ‘through direct experience with the environment or indirectly
through media representations’. Kavaratzis and Ashworth (2006) recognize that
“people encounter places through perceptions and images”.
Over the years, many researchers have studied the power of media in public life
on the social, political, economic and cultural spheres and their effect in
formulating public perceptions. While films and television can contribute greatly
to a place’s positive or negative image, most places concentrate their efforts on
obtaining positive coverage in the news media because of their enormous
popularity and their major role in shaping public opinion (Weimann, 2000)
As the so-called ‘fourth estate’, the news media is a powerful tool in raising
awareness about events and places as well as influencing public opinion and
behaviour. In this study, the news media are seen as catalysts between destination
branding, culture and tourism, due to the fact that they often create and reinforce
certain media images about events, people, and places that motivate travel
behaviour.
News media and journalists act as “gatekeepers” (Shoemaker, 1991), who have
the power to filter ideas and information and decide what stories are published
and become news. Additionally, McCombs and Shaw (1972) pointed out that the
gatekeeping concept is related to the concept of “agenda-setting” (McCombs &
Shaw, 1972). Hoare (1991, cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 32) explains that,
“newspapers’ mass circulation makes them a powerful, aggressive agent and that
they translate this power into decisions regarding what to cover (or not to cover)”.
44
To sum up, media do not only shape public opinion but also they can easily
influence public behaviour by concentrating on certain issues and allowing certain
images of event and places to reach the public. In the case of spotlight events and
destination branding, news media’s power can easily accelerate (or hinder) travel
behaviour and place (or not) destinations on a ‘to visit’ list in the public’s
perception.
2.3.2 MEDIA IMAGES AND PUBLIC IMAGE OF PLACE
Place image is a central concept in several research fields, resulting from the
hypothesis that the image of a country, city or tourist destination has a marked
effect on our actions and activities. Decisions such as where to live, where to
travel, where to invest, where to study or which country to support in a conflict,
all result from the place’s image. Several researchers observe that the notion that
“a place’s image may be even more important that the place’s reality” has become
widespread (Morgan & Pritchard, 1998, cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 19).
Avraham and Ketter (2008: 19) distinguish between the place’s image among a
specific target audience and the place’s image in the mass media. Information
about a faraway place is not considered crucial to most people so they do not
attempt to locate first-hand sources to verify what happens there (Kunczik, 1997).
Consequently, the image of distant places that media project is perceived and
conceptualized as ‘reality’ by people around the world.
In this study, I examine the concept of place image in the media and its
subsequent impact in public perceptions. Public and media images of places are
closely linked. As a result, city authorities, decision-makers, marketers and PR
professionals spend resources, time and effort in creating a positive media image,
which in turn influences public images and perceptions.
2.3.2.1 Types of place image
Manheim and Albritton (1984, cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 30) conducted a
close analysis of how countries, cities and tourist destinations are presented in the
media, which revealed four types of place’s images:
45
1. Places that receive much negative coverage
2. Places not covered by the media except in a negative context,
usually related to crime, social problems, natural disasters, etc.
3. Places that receive much positive attention such as cultural
events, tourist activity, or investments
4. Places largely ignored by the media but when noticed they
receive primarily positive coverage
Undoubtedly, the third category is the desirable media coverage that city officials,
tourist organizations and event organizers are pursuing. Hosting spotlight cultural
events is a major guarantee in achieving a good amount of positive media
coverage, which in turn can increase tourism and improve the place’s image.
Researchers have used various typologies of place image. For instance, Avraham
and Ketter (2008: 31) distinguish between one-dimensional and multi-
dimensional image of a place in the news media. They argue that places with a
multi-dimensional image in the news media are those that receive coverage for a
wide variety of subjects and events that occur in them, such as politics,
economics, social events and cultural developments. Places with a one-
dimensional image are those that only receive coverage when events of a certain
nature take place there, such as crime or disasters.
When a place is labelled by the media as one in which only a certain type of
activities and events occurs, it becomes, a symbol of such events, and other
activities and events do not get covered (Shields, 1992; Strauss, 1961, cited in
Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 31). For instance, by focusing and publishing negative
aspects of destinations, media labels and stigmatizes place image and reinforces
stereotypes in the minds of the audience. Generally, it is believed that a negative
media image will result in a negative image among public opinion.
Kotler et al. (1993, cited in ibid., 26) list that a place’s image can be positive and
attractive, negative, weak -as in the case of peripheral locations that are not well
known, mixed -when the image includes both positive and negative elements- or
contradictory -when the place has a favourable image with one population and a
negative image with another.
46
Also, there are two other kinds of place images: open and closed. Open images
allow the addition of more characteristics, whereas closed images are not likely to
have new characteristics added, at least not characteristics that differ from the
core image. Such images are also known as ‘stereotypes’: simplified attitudes or
beliefs about a place that are not examined thoroughly and are difficult to change
(Elizur, 1987; Gold, 1980, cited in ibid., 27).
Furthermore, Elizur (1987, cited in ibid., 26) suggests a classification dichotomy
between rich and poor place images. A rich image means that we know a lot about
the place, usually from different sources and also from personal visits and
knowledge; a poor image means that we know very little about a place, and what
we do know usually comes from only one source of information.
2.3.2.2 Quantity and quality of media coverage
A deep understanding of the content of the media coverage is the initial and
essential step for analyzing and deciding upon the appropriate branding efforts
and media strategies that places need to follow in order to improve their image.
The focus of the research about coverage patterns of places in the media has two
dimensions: quantity and nature (Avraham, 2003b; Manheim and Albritton, 1984,
cited in ibid., 31).
First, the quantity dimension refers to the amount and visibility of coverage the
place receives in the news media and examines factors such as the number of
reports or photos of the place, on what page or in which section the articles
appear, the article’s size (in the press) or the length of the report (in TV news) et
cetera. Naturally destination marketers, event organizers and media relations
experts wish for their place or event to be the first item in the newscast or on the
front-page of newspapers along with colourful pictures. However, apart from the
amount and visibility of coverage the place or event receives, the context of the
story about the place or event is of greater importance.
Then, it is the nature dimension that refers to the content of media coverage. The
factors examined are which topics are most frequently covered from the place
(such as crime, poverty, social and community events, culture, sports or violence);
47
the ways the place is described in the stories; who is represented as being
responsible for the events that are covered; who is quoted and who is the source
of information reported; what us the tone of the stories (Avraham, 2003b;
Dominick, 1977; Graber, 1989; Larson, 1984; White, 2006, cited in Avraham &
Ketter, 2008: 31).
2.3.3 MEDIA NARRATIVES AND PLACE
My study focuses on the context rather than the quantity and treats the news
media coverage beyond numbers. The focus is on more subtle levels in which the
spirit behind each news story or article is brought to the surface. I search for
stereotypes, generalizations and myths, which appear in the coverage of events
and places, and I try to locate and reveal themes that portray place image, because
of the powerful effect of media on human perception. In this present work, the
centre of attention is on media narratives in search of images that emerge from
them before, during and after cities host spotlight events.
In media stories about distant places, the characters, themes and plots used as well
as the overall tone and the choice of words have an impact on what and how
people know and think of places. The way we narrate the city becomes
constitutive of urban reality, affecting the choices we make, the ways we then
may act (Sandercock, 2003: 182). However, the linkage between place and
narrative is an under-developed theme in the conceptualization, understanding and
practice of contemporary destination branding.
Kavaratzis and Ashworth (2006) suggest that successful branding “demands
associating the place with stories about the place, but not by simply adding them
next to the name or trying to imply them by isolating beautiful images of the
place. First the ‘stories’ need to be built into the place.”
When cities host events that attract international attention, media create numerous
stories that are inspired by the place. The city becomes the frame upon which its
physical surface, people, nature, culture and essence are represented in images
and texts. Spotlight cultural events act as an adhesive that interweaves media
narratives and places. As a result, understanding the complex relationship
48
between narratives, events and places is crucial to the exploration of
contemporary destination branding practice.
The following chapter (Chapter 4) unveils the news media narratives created
when Helsinki hosted the Eurovision Song Contest in 2007 in order to understand
existing images and stereotypes as well as explore alternative future images. In
fact, analysis of space requires analysis of narratives of the place in order to
understand how spaces come to be as they are, how people exist and act within
spaces (Jensen & Richardson, 2004: 43). The aim of this study is to explore the
interdependence between narratives, events and places; how the ‘word city’ is
inscribed upon the frame of the ‘built city’ (Greenberg, 2000: 230).
Flyvbjerg (1998: 8) mentions three issues that have to be taken into consideration
when dealing with narratives: first, the structure of narratives, second, the
plurality of narratives of an event or phenomenon and third, the importance of
narratives in understanding the past and also in making sense of the future. In
Flyvbjerg’s (1998: 8) words:
“Events are structured into a narrative by the conventional means of
time, place, actors and context . . . No phenomena can have only one
narrative or a single genealogy . . . Narratives not only give meaning to
our past experiences, they also help us vision alternative futures.”
To begin with, Jessop (1997) outlines the structure of narratives as such:
All narratives have three elements: a selective appropriation of past
events and forces; a temporal sequence (Aristotle’s beginning, middle
and end); and a ‘relational emplotment’ of the past events and forces
into a more general story that provides causal, or even moral, lessons to
be learned.
Texts are turned into narratives by means of temporal ordering (beginning, middle
and end) and narratives are turned into stories by means of emplotment.
Accordingly, ‘the king died, and the queen died’ is a story, but ‘the king died, and
the queen died of grief’ is a plot (Kaplan, 1993: 172).
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Next, it is of great importance to recognize the “plurality of narratives” stemming
from a number of heterogeneous voices (Sandercock, 2003). In this particular
study, media narratives are considered as central to destination branding and in
shaping city image through the power of spotlight events.
Last, the power of media narratives help “vision alternative futures” (Flyvbjerg,
1998: 8) of cities, due to the fact that media create visual imagery and mental
maps for cities by capitalizing on the power of spotlight events.
In the analysis of the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 media narratives (Chapter 4),
the focus is on how Helsinki is framed in words and what stories have arisen from
hosting the ESC that in return have promoted certain images of the host city and
host country. In the empirical part of the thesis that follows attention is given to
how Helsinki and Finland are represented in the news media, how the ESC brand
image and the city and nation image were associated, and what are the
implications on tourism and destination brand image.
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3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 SCIENTIFIC ORIENTATION OF THE STUDY
The theory in Chapter 2 consists of the theoretical foundations that form the
conceptual basis of this study and explains how those theoretical foundations
illuminate events, phenomena and relationships based on the research data
analysis. In the words of Northcutt and McCoy (2004: 309), “the literature serves
more as conceptual lens through which to view the findings of the study.” The
idea of Maxwell (1996: 33) that sees “theory as spotlight” is an interesting notion
for this study that deals with the power of spotlight events in destination branding.
In the words of Maxwell, “it [theory] draws your attention to particular events or
phenomena and sheds light on relationships that might otherwise go unnoticed or
be misunderstood.”
This chapter presents the research methodology, the process of data collection and
the analysis and interpretation of the selected material. Also, it addresses the issue
of appropriateness of the chosen research methods.
3.2 RESEARCH APPROACH AND METHODS
My methodology follows a qualitative approach. The qualitative research is
exploratory and inductive in nature. Yin (1993) considers exploratory cases as a
prelude to social research. Indeed, this research is an introduction to
understanding how a city is perceived, which is vital to know before destination
branding efforts commence.
The main method employed is case study analysis. The case study of Helsinki city
as the host of Eurovision Song Contest 2007 and the ways its brand image has
been depicted in the media, indicating the role of spotlight events in city brand
image creation and the catalytic role of media in the process. The aim of this
research is to contribute to the exploration of destination image impacts due to
spillover effects from spotlight events and, also, the exploration, exploitation and
future utilization of media material otherwise gone unnoticed by event organizers,
tourism professionals and city administrators.
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Therefore, desk research will be conducted using the method of qualitative media
content analysis in order to explore perceptions and attitudes towards destinations
and to understand how those are formed in documents and, especially, in news
media stories.
For Altheide (1996: 2) a ‘document’ can be “any symbolic representation that can
be recorded or retrieved for analysis” and ‘document analysis’ is “an integrated
and conceptually informed method, procedure, and technique for locating,
identifying, retrieving, and analysing documents for their relevance, significance
and meaning.” In this study, the documents analyzed are news media articles and
policy documents mainly retrieved from the Internet.
Firstly, the data to be analyzed comes from free access data on the Internet such
as publications of governmental and non-governmental institutions such as annual
reports, marketing brochures and official policy papers, evaluation assessments of
nations and cities. These documents show the position that Helsinki and Finland
hold in the global arena and, also, the strategic importance of spotlight events in
promoting certain city images. Document analysis of the policy papers and the
various rankings of the city and the country provides necessary background
knowledge on the brand of Helsinki and Finland and reveals useful perspectives
that helped addressing the right issues when conducting the media content
analysis of the media documents.
Additionally, media content analysis will be conducted. The sources of research
data are online newspapers, travel magazines and blogs. I have chosen to analyze
media documents in order to identify the city image created by media narratives,
when cities host spotlight events that attract international media coverage. The
major part of this study is media content analysis with emphasis on media
narratives (storytelling). I believe that before creating or altering destination
image, it is necessary to know what the existing image is and how urban reality is
projected via the news media.
In this study, storytelling or narratology is seen as a way branding is done in
practice. According to Newbold et al. (2002: 84) narratology is one of the main
strands particularly relevant to qualitative content analysis. Narratology focuses
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on the narrative or storytelling within a text with emphasis on meaning that may
be produced by its structure and choice of words (Macnamara, 2006: 15).
In order to identify narratives in media texts, the analysis searches for means of
temporal ordering and structures (beginning, middle and end). Besides, in order
to identify how narratives are turned into stories, the choice of words and means
of emplotment are explored. The definition of narratives and their connection to
place branding and the role of media are explained in detail in chapter 2.3.
In the case study of the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 in Helsinki, the focus is on
how the place is framed in words via media narratives, what city images and
representations are portrayed in the media texts and how these images influence
the knowledge about a place in readers’ perception. It is important to note that
media are perceived as a factor that plays an important part in society and one of
the many heterogeneous voices that construct urban reality.
3.3 APPROPRIATENESS OF THE CHOSEN METHODS
This section addresses the issues of reliability and validity of the research study
and explains the appropriateness of the methods employed.
I have chosen qualitative research methods due to their certain features. As Payne
and Payne (2004: 176) describe, qualitative methods: a) treat actions as part of a
holistic social process and context, rather than as something than can be extracted
and studied in isolation, b) they utilize non-representative, small samples (…),
rather than working from large representative samples to identify the broad sweep
of national patterns, c) rather than starting with a theoretical hypothesis, and
trying to test it, they explore the data they encounter and allow ideas to emerge
from them (for instance, using inductive, not deductive, logic).
Firstly, I have chosen desk research of media content, which is a time-effective
and inexpensive way of collecting large amounts of information. On the other
hand, among the disadvantages of desk research is the fact that the amount of
information available may be limited, incorrect or out of date. Some researchers
criticize the “intensive and time-consuming focus” on “small samples of media
content” of qualitative content analysis as “unreliable” (Macnamara, 2006: 6).
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However, in this research project conducting a desk research does not threat the
validity of the results because the intensive focus on small samples of media
content -even if outdated- reveals the evolution of city image in the news media
and acts as a tool that enables drawing comparisons among city images during a
certain period of time.
Also, Payne and Payne (2004: 51) remark that, “content analysis is one of the
most important, and under-rated, research methods.” Even though content
analysis was “originally a quantitative way of evaluating written texts,
particularly newspaper ‘stories’ (ibid.)”, my approach in this study is qualitative
content analysis. I aim to turn “mundane, taken-for-granted texts and transforming
them into interesting objects of research” (Abercrombie & Warde 2000; Harvey
& MacDonald 1993: 36-49 cited in ibid., 52).
Through media content analysis, I wish to unfold media stories that create city
imagery. The reasons I have chosen media content analysis are threefold: firstly,
due to my educational background in Communication and Media studies;
secondly, due to media’s global prevalence in setting the agenda and influencing
public perceptions; and thirdly, due to the abundance of media documents
available for analysis on the Internet.
Media documents such as online news media articles and blog posts are my
research data. Retrievability and access are two of the advantages of studying
media documents. In an era of information saturation and advances in information
technology, such as online search engines and databases, researchers are offered
numerous tools in their disposal.
Societal and technological changes explain why media documents have nowadays
become more easily accessible, retrievable, and affordable. Additionally, due to
the fact that mass media are getting increasingly global, the documents published
on the Internet -especially in the websites of newspapers- are available to a wider
audience, have a longer lifespan and impact on a larger amount of readers
dispersed around the globe, compared to the disposable, tangible newspapers.
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Moreover, exploring electronic media documents offers an advantage to my desk
research as it allows conducting search of thousands of documents within a few
seconds. In support of the emphasis in this study on material available on the
Internet, Glasgow Media Group (1976) states that, “The shift from print-based
media to electronic forms like TV, video and the Internet did not invalidate
content analysis. Rather, it spawned new forms of codification to handle images
and symbolic representations” (cited in Payne & Payne, 2004: 53).
However, due to the geometric expansion of media documents, the major role of
popular culture in everyday life and the massive changes in electronic media, a
great amount of data remains non-utilized. Altheide (1996: 6) accurately identifies
that:
“No culture in history has been more recorded or replayed -but yet not
analyzed!- than that of the Unites States and increasing portions of
Western Europe. More and more experience, business, news, and fun
were being processed as ‘media’ products.”
Similarly, Combs (1984) states that:
“Indeed, it is partly because such materials are on ‘record’ and have
been studied as cultural documents that we have a better understanding
of the impact of popular culture on ‘nostalgia’, ‘cultural myths,’ and
our sense of the future” (cited in Altheide, 1996: 6)
The intention of this study is to utilize already available data, which in this case
are the most appropriate to describe the phenomenon of destination image and
how spotlight events affect it. By conducting a media content analysis, I describe
how media narratives create and develop urban reputation based on spotlight
cultural events that assist city branding and subsequently enhance city event
tourism. I believe the chosen qualitative approach to research through media
narratives can yield new and exciting understandings on how image is shaped and
perceived by the media and, subsequently, by the public.
Additionally, Macnamara (2006: 6) recognizes that “media texts are polysemic”,
which means they are open to multiple different meanings to different readers.
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Accordingly, qualitative content analysis “relies heavily on researcher ‘readings’
and interpretation of media texts (ibid.)”. As a qualitative researcher, I
acknowledge bringing my own cultural meanings to the interpretation of the
chosen media documents of this research. This thesis reflects my interpretations
as the meaning incrementally emerges through constant readings of the data.
Altheide (1996: 10) refers to this process as ‘emergence’ and defines it as “the
gradual shaping of meaning through understanding and interpretation”.
Regarding the chosen method of media content analysis, as Payne and Payne
(2004: 53) explain “[it] helps to explore such issues, as well as throwing light on
the connections between coverage and public perceptions”. Also, since mass
media “set the agenda by selecting what they include and prioritize (ibid.)”, media
content analysis explores popular public misconceptions about places and their
status in the world’s memory.
Macnamara (2006:18) identifies two key roles of mass media: a) as the world’s
most powerful communication channel and b) as one of the world’s largest
databases. Many research studies that show that mass media have significant
impact and effects on public awareness, perceptions and sometimes behaviour
such as buying decisions and media are important influences affecting brands,
reputation, corporate image and the success of marketing and communication
campaigns. In the words of Macnamara (ibid.):
“Reports from far corners of the world can impact a share price, a
brand or reputation. Editorial media content also influences readers,
viewers and listeners -sometimes even more than advertising.”
Also, Macnamara believes that understanding the content of editorial mass media
is increasingly important for organizations involved in public communication
such as cities, tourism organizations and culture organizations. This study shares
the same opinion and views news media as powerful agents of image creation,
change and enhancement and travel motivation.
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3.4 RESEARCH PROCESS OF THE STUDY
This section explains how the data was found, collected, organized and analyzed.
Media document analysis essentially encompasses four stages: a) finding and
gaining access to the documents, b) collecting data from them, c) organizing the
data, and d) analyzing the data. My exploratory study seeks to provide an analysis
of the city and country image, spotlight event image and the implications of
hosting a spotlight event to the host city in terms of image and stereotypes.
3.4.1 SELECTION OF CASE STUDY
This research focuses on the image of Finland and its capital city Helsinki as they
are depicted in the English-speaking, online and print news media, especially
when Helsinki won Eurovision Song Contest in 2006 and became the event’s host
in 2007.
The written texts in my disposal are newspaper articles from online and print
news media, blog entries and policy papers. The research data comes from my
personal desk research online and from organizations that allowed me to use their
material for this study.
In this thesis, my intention is not to measure the column inches of an article
neither to identify the location of it in the news media (front-page news or ‘buried
inside’) nor to count how frequently words or topics are included. My interest is
rather shifting to qualitative priorities such as interpretation and subjective
meaning. However, it is evident that due to hosting the ESC 2007 the coverage
and interest of the international media towards Helsinki and Finland has
dramatically risen in terms of the numbers of articles written that include
mentions of the host city Helsinki and Finland as a nation. In contrast to the
classic form of content analysis, I am describing how news media act as image
creators and storytellers when narrating cultural phenomena and what storytelling
themes emerge from the media narratives that impact destination image.
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3.4.2 COLLECTION OF THE DATA
Throughout this research project, I had in my possession a folder containing
written reports from Finnish Embassies in 27 countries regarding the local media
exposure of the ESC 2007. The folder, which was obtained by Johanna Korhonen
from Greater Helsinki Promotions Ltd., contained all the relevant articles mainly
in the print or electronic media of those 27 countries regarding Finland, Helsinki
and the hosting of Eurovision Song Contest as well as 1-4 pages summary reports
from the Finnish Embassies.
However, because of language constraints and due to the fact that my analysis is
based on content and, therefore, demands an excellent command of the language
of the media documents, I have skimmed through the folder and concluded that I
will use only articles in English from countries that have English as an official
language such as United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.
Then, I retrieved the research material from the online versions of those English-
speaking countries’ newspapers. I have collected the research data by typing the
titles I found in the folder or -in order to enhance my sample- by typing keywords
indicating my topic of interest in commercial search engines and library
newspaper databases. The period of data collection lasted from January until
February 2009.
Even though my case study is ESC 2007 in Helsinki, a number of important
articles would have been omitted had my main search term been ‘Eurovision
Helsinki’. Therefore, I have used a number of broader keywords and key phrases
in my search such as ‘spotlight events Helsinki’, ‘branding Finland’, ‘Eurovision
Finland’, et cetera. The snowball sampling technique has resulted in the
enrichment of the research sample in terms of size and quality of the material;
specifically, more relevant news have been retrieved after coming across a
particular one.
In that way, I managed to obtain a satisfying and representative sample of data for
the following part of in-depth data analysis. After the relevant newspaper articles
or documents have been located online, they were then downloaded onto a hard
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drive and, also, onto a usb-removable disk for back-up in case of mechanic
failure. The documents were also printed for analysis and notetaking.
During the data collection process, I have skimmed through hundreds of
documents, I have read many of those and I have finally selected 31 documents.
In most of the 31 documents the unit of analysis was the newspaper article itself.
With repeated readings and notetaking, I will become familiar with the media
stories and as certain themes emerge I will create a grand narrative that
accommodates all the media narratives into a Eurovision story of Helsinki. The
electronic bibliography at the end of the thesis includes all the articles used as
research material for this study. The list of all the articles used as research data for
this study is found in Appendix A.
3.4.3 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA
After having collected the data, data analysis is the next stage. The unit of
analysis of the electronic documents are titles, paragraphs, sentences and, even,
words. In my media content analysis, the key text elements studied are those
listed by Macnamara (2006:17):
1. Adjectives used in descriptions (positive and negative) which
give strong indications of a speaker’s and writer’s attitude
2. Metaphors and similes used
3. Tonal qualities such as aggressiveness, sarcasm, flippancy,
emotional language
4. Binaries established in texts and how these are positioned and
used
5. Context factors such as the position and credibility of
spokespersons or sources quoted which affects meaning taken from the
text (for instance, if one message is presented by a high profile expert
it will generally outweigh a non-expert opinion).
Moreover, Payne and Payne (2004: 52) focus on the study of language “to
distinguish between neutral vocabulary and words with emotional connotations
like nicknames, vernacular symbolic phrases, buzz-words, and symbolic phrases”.
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Similarly, Jagger (2001, cited in ibid.) poses questions on tonal qualities and the
use of terminology, “Is the overall tone positive, neutral or negative? How do
impressions get built up and then modified through the choice of terminology?”
In my qualitative research, content analysis seeks the meaning behind the words.
The focus in this research of media narratives is in: structure, choice of words,
plot and characters as well as words, sentences, paragraphs or ‘stories’, symbols,
and themes referring to city image, for instance, architectural landmarks, nature,
culture, local people. Also, binaries, tonal qualities, metaphors and similes, as
well as adjectives will be extensively analyzed along with stereotypes and
negative attitudes from the writers’ perspective.
In my qualitative media content analysis (Chapter 4), I will make extensive use of
quotations from the sources in order to highlight the stories told by the media,
integrate them into my own grand narrative and bring the subject to life for the
readers. Also, quotes from the other policy documents are used. Payne and Payne
(2004: 52) agree that qualitative stances suggest, “more reporting of detail,
verbatim quotation and discussion of interpretation.”
Altheide (1996: 25) claims that major news sources are entertainment oriented.
Therefore, it is vital before analyzing media documents to be aware of the
entertainment factor present in news, especially in the culture and tourism section
of newspapers. As a result, my analysis approach has an entertainment factor as it
aims at analyzing the data in a creative way taken from fairy-tales and
storytelling.
The Eurovision Song Contest 2007 in Helsinki offers an interesting case study of
how spotlight events can act as an opportunity for places to attract valuable media
exposure. Using a combination of analysis and review of official documents and
media coverage, chapter 4 of this thesis contributes to the understanding of how
Helsinki and other destinations, in general, can take advantage and utilize media
opportunities that are created by international spotlight cultural events in order to
reinforce and extend the place’s brand image for both national and international
audiences.
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4. THE GRAND MEDIA NARRATIVE OF EUROVISION,
HELSINKI AND FINLAND
In order to understand how destinations are branded through spotlight events, it is
necessary to analyze the media portrayals of cities that hosted a major event and
identify the role spotlight events in destination image enhancement and increase
of event tourism. This chapter presents the findings of the analysis and the
interpretation of the empirical data combined in a grand narrative of knowledge
about Finland, Helsinki and Eurovision.
4.1 EUROVISION NARRATIVES: FROM NATIONAL SHAME TO
NATIONAL PRIDE
“Once upon a time…”
In 1961, the French presenter Jacqueline Joubert began the Eurovision Song
Contest with the words ‘Good evening, Europe!’ and welcomed three new
countries: Spain, Yugoslavia and Finland.4
Pajala (2007: 72) accurately points out that:
“In the salutation, ‘Europe’ was equated with Western Europe, as the
programme was not yet broadcasted in East European countries.
Finland was situated at the outskirts of the initial Eurovision Europe,
as neatly illustrated by the map used to introduce the songs of the 1961
contest. It was framed in such a way that it only included parts of
Norway and Sweden and a small southwestern corner of Finland. The
map is an important visual symbol for Europe, and here it gave a
central position to West European countries, marginalizing the North.”
Viewing the map as a powerful visual symbol of national identity and image
explains why when talking about nation, region or city branding, a common
metaphor to describe the desired outcomes of the branding initiatives and process
is to ‘put a place on the map’.
4 http://www.eurovision.tv/page/history/by-year/contest?event=278#event_info_278
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In some media narratives analyzed for this study, the Eurovision Song Contest is
described as a “campy, over-the-top annual musical contest5”, “an annual
kitschfest6”, a “festival of flocks and schlock7”, “a contest for years dominated by
lightweight pop and sugary ballads8”, a “tune-free nonsense9”, a “cheesy
competition10” and, even, a “circus11”.
On the contrary, in other media narratives, it is said to be “the continent’s most
excruciatingly wonderful cultural event12”, a “glamorous spectacle13”, a “pop
culture tradition for Europeans14” and a “mixed blessing of a publicity bonanza15”
for the host city.
Although, the ESC is being heavily criticized for its commercialism, questionable
aesthetics, standardized tunes, meaningless lyrics, and vote- trading among
neighbour countries, some countries more than others perceive the whole
enterprise as critical to their national identity, image and positioning.
Jim White writes, in a flippant and sarcastic tonal quality, about the difference in
perception of the Eurovision amongst Great Britain and other participant
countries:
“Others see the contest as a platform to parade their national identity,
an opportunity to flourish their new-found independence. We [British]
view it as a giggle, a bit of comedy camp and a chance to let Wogan
[Terry Wogan, the BBC’s Eurovision host since 1972] sample a new
golf course.16”
5 CBC Arts (11 May 2007) 6 Financial Times (11 May 2007) 7 ibid. 8 The Guardian (22 May 2006) 9 The Telegraph (19 Mar 2007) 10 Milwaukee Journal Sentinel (4 May 2007) 11 The Guardian (22 May 2006) 12 The Telegraph (22 May 2006) 13 Financial Times (11 May 2007) 14 Milwaukee Journal Sentinel (4 May 2007) 15 The Telegraph (22 May 2006) 16 The Telegraph (19 Mar 2007)
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Despite the mixed reactions to the ESC, the televised event “is typically watched
by more than 100 million TV viewers around the world17”, which makes
Eurovision a transnationally broadcasted, live musical entertainment spectacle
that raises immense media attention.
The Eurovision Song Contest is the largest and most-watched international
festival of popular music, as well as one of the world’s longest-running annual
television programmes. Eurovision is a spotlight event that captivates the
attention of millions of viewers and engages thousands of fans that travel to each
year’s host city to experience the competition unfolding.
4.1.1 TRUE FANTASY : THE FAIRYTALE OF FINLAND ’S VICTORY
After years of unsuccessful attempts, Finland’s first ever Eurovision victory in
2006 raised phenomenal media attention to the country and the host city. A
number of international journalists and travel writers visited Finland in order to
cover the ESC and to give their accounts and reports on Finland’s cultural and
tourist attractions.
After the long-awaited success in Eurovision that has caused a “decades-old
national trauma” (Björnberg, 2007:17), Finns were clearly eager to celebrate an
end to 40 years of Eurovision humiliation. In the news media the success is
degraded to a non-disaster. “It was Finland’s first win in 40 years of competition.
In fact, it was Finland’s first non-disaster in 40 years of competition.18”
In the media narratives, failure in the ESC is presented with humour as
synonymous to Finland, “Finnish entries have come last a record eight times, and
younger Finns had begun to think that ‘Finland Nul Points’ was how foreigners
translated ‘Suomi’.19” However, Pajala (2007:71) explains that:
“ ‘Finland, zero points’ has become a popular phrase to describe the
Finnish Eurovision experience. The Eurovision Song Contest is
represented as a source of negative emotion, a national humiliation.
17 CBC Arts (26 May 2006) 18 The Telegraph (22 May 2006) 19 ibid.
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The words “Finland, zero points” are of course never heard in the
actual ESC broadcasts, but they have popular appeal as a shorthand
expression for Finland’s perceived position in Eurovision.”
When metal rock band Lordi were selected as Finland’s entry to the Eurovision
Song Contest 2006, the feelings were mixed. Both national and international press
saw Finland’s entry as “shocking choice20” and numerous articles were written
about Finland’s representatives. A sentence that best summarizes the perspective
of the news media on the events refers to Lordi as “a Eurovision-ruling monster
metal band that gave shy Finland an identity crisis.21”
This study seeks insights into media narratives about Eurovision and Finland as
well as interesting links between events, places and stories. Here, I combine the
media narratives about Finland’s victory in Eurovision into one grand narrative
using the Fairy-tale Model. According to Fog, Budtz and Yakaloylu (2005), the
four elements of storytelling are: a) message, b) conflict, c) characters, and d)
plot. Those constitute the Fairy-tale Model, which can be useful when developing
or analyzing a story. Below I embark on Finland’s fairytale titled ‘True Fantasy’.
4.1.1.1 Characters
Every story typically starts out with the main character, the hero, pursuing a goal.
The hero has one or more arms of support but there is always an adversary, who
tries to work against the hero and thereby establishing the conflict. Also, any story
that follows the Fairy-tale Model has a beneficiary and a benefactor (Fog, Budtz
& Yakaloylu, 2005: 37). One of the rules of thumb for a good story is to “put
faces on the characters in your story” (ibid.,117).
20 CBC News (6 February 2008) 21 World Hum (21 February 2008)
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Figure 5. The Fairy-tale Model
Once upon a time… There was Mr. Lordi, who had “horns protruding from his
forehead and sports long black fingernails22” and “red demon eyes23”, Kita, an
“alien-man-beast predator24”; Awa, a “blood-splattered ghost25”; Ox, a “zombie
bull26”; and Amen, a “mummy in a rubber loincloth27” dressed in “suits of
armour28”.
The main characters of the story –“the face of Finland29”– are described as heroes
taken out of a fairytale. Lordi are portrayed in non-flattering ways using
metaphors and similes that refer to them as a “demonic-looking musical
22 The New York Times (24 April 2006) 23 ibid. 24 ibid. 25 ibid. 26 ibid. 27 ibid. 28 CBC Arts (21 May 2006) 29 The New York Times (24 April 2006)
65
quintet30”, whose members resemble “extras in a zombie film31”, “cartoon
metalheads32”, “slasher film imitators33” and “heavily made-up monster
mutants34”.
Finland’s fairytale embarks in the Eurovision Song Contest 2006. Lordi are the
heroes (anti-heroes or underdogs, as will be explained below) fighting to bring
victory to Finland. Lordi’s arms of support are their fans that believe that Lordi’s
uniqueness can deservingly represent Finland’s identity and music culture in the
contest. Lordi’s loyal fans and supporters “had been so determined to end
Finland’s history of failure in the contest that they launched a fundraising
campaign to pay for the band’s pyrotechnics.35”Also, the supporters of Lordi are
holders of the “world record for the most people singing karaoke simultaneously,
after more than 80,000 gathered in Helsinki to welcome home the Eurovision
champion band and sing its winning song Hard Rock Hallelujah.36”
The adversaries that posed obstacles to the heroes were religious groups,
politicians, citizens and others that saw Lordi as a disgrace and a non-
representative sample of Finnish music and identity. In the narrative of Finland’s
first ever victory in Eurovision history, the benefactor is the Finnish government
that gave the financial aid for the heroes to pursue their goal and the beneficiary is
both Lordi in the short-term and Finland in the long-term.
30 CBC Arts (26 May 2006) 31 The Telegraph (22 May 2006) 32 The Guardian (22 May 2006) 33 The New York Times (24 April 2006) 34 ibid. 35 The Guardian (22 May 2006) 36 CBC Arts (29 September 2006)
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Figure 6. Finland’s Eurovision Song Contest Fairy-tale
4.1.1.2 The Message – From underdogs to heroes
The main message of Finland’s fairytale is how an underdog can transform into a
hero overnight. In detail, three themes were identified in the media narratives
describing the ride from Finland’s failure and obscurity to victory in Eurovision.
Those three themes spring out of well-known fairytales, religious narratives and
comic stories of the Western world; namely, the Ugly Duckling, David vs.
Goliath and Dennis the Menace.
Fog, Budtz and Yakaloylu (2005) addressed several well-known fairytale themes,
which illustrate how classic fairytales, which we all relate to, can represent the
core story and brand image of companies. Here, these fairytale themes were
further evolved and adopted to fit the purposes of the analysis of spotlight event
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image and city image as presented in media. In particular, the message of an
underdog turning into a hero is portrayed in the following themes:
a. The Ugly Duckling
The heroes started out as the black sheep that nobody thought would ever amount
to anything. Regardless, with unwavering belief in their qualities and skills, they
have become a force to be reckoned with, surprising and impressing even their
harshest of critics (adapted from Fog, Budtz & Yakaloylu, 2005: 94).
Finland’s representatives in the ESC 2006 began as “outsiders37” and left as
“unexpected winners38”. They have surprised and impressed their critics, which
have mocked and ridiculed the band prior to their victory. The following passage
from one the one of the highest-traffic English-language news websites is
indicative:
“Dressed as bloodthirsty orcs and warning Europe to ‘get ready to get
scared’ the rockers from Arctic Lapland took the stage as Eurovision
outsiders and left as winners.39”
b. David and Goliath
The hero is small and flimsy compared to its competitors, but thanks to
determination and effort, it is able to challenge the big boys and emerge victorious
–against all the odds (adapted from Fog, Budtz & Yakaloylu, 2005: 94).
Another theme that reinforces the underdog notion, which is the main message of
the grand narrative of Finland’s first-ever Eurovision victory, is the story of David
and Goliath. In the bible, the young and small Israelite, David volunteered to fight
the Philistine giant, Goliath. In spite of discouraging insults and fearful threats,
David did not stop and, in the end, he won the battle.
This bible story resembles Lordi’s pathway to Athens ESC 2006 to compete for
their country and their return as heroes to Finland, which would host the ESC
37 The Guardian (22 May 2006) 38 ibid. 39 ibid.
68
2007. Metaphorically, it seems that in Finland’s true fantasy fairytale, the
battlefield is the Eurovision Song Contest, where the national entries are hoping
to emerge victorious at the end in order to bring the hosting of next year’s
spotlight event to their country.
However, it has to be emphasized that the underdog is not Finland’s contestant
but rather Finland as a nation. The fact that Finland used to score low and rank in
the last places of the Eurovision results had reinforced an image of a remote,
small country in the outskirts of Europe with no caliber music export. Finally, in
2006 Finland challenged countries with successful music exports and success
stories in the ESC, such as the Big Four counties40, and emerged victorious –
against all odds.
Also, the news media draw extensive comparisons between Finland and
neighbour Sweden –a country with a long history in making popular hit music–
and its famous pop export ABBA, which is referred as the “notable Eurovision
winners who went on to further fame41”. These mentions have an impact on the
Finnish national identity, image and positioning, since Finland has been under the
Swedish rule and, therefore, historically influenced by Sweden. The Finland’s
image is examined in chapter 4.2.
c. Dennis the Menace
Dennis the Menace is characterized by his “unconventional and capricious
approach that sometimes shocks, often surprises but never bores [its audience].
The hero is well-liked because he acts honestly and with good intentions, without
being fuddy-duddy (adapted from Fog, Budtz & Yakaloylu, 2005: 94).”
Dennis the Menace is a comic strip that became a well-known film and television
cartoon series. Dennis is an anti-hero similar to Lordi, Finland’s representatives in
the ESC 2006, and, therefore, Finland as a nation. Lordi are indeed characterized
by their unconventional approach that shocks and surprises but never bores. Lordi
as the heroes of the media narratives are well-liked because they were proven an
40 United Kingdom, France, Germany and Spain contribute most to the EBU budget and automatically qualify to participate in the ESC each year. 41 CBC Arts (11 May 2007)
69
interesting twist on Eurovision fashions so that journalists could create
compelling stories with universal messages that audience would find appealing.
The message ‘from underdogs to heroes’ has proven to be a catchy media topic
that contributed to the immense visibility of the event. Also, the heroes that were
surrounded by mystery and projected the underdog image made them easily
identifiable and even attractive to the audience.
4.1.1.3 Conflict
Conflict is a vital part of good storytelling. Fog, Budtz and Yakaloylu (2005: 33-
34) argue that, “The very lifeblood of a story lies in the field of tension between
the two outer poles: unpredictable chaos and predictable harmony. Like the hero
who ventures out in search of adventure and returns home safe and sound in the
end.”
In Finland’s emplotted grand narrative, the outer poles are rather predictable
failure and unpredictable, unexpected victory. The “atrocious42”ensemble found
great opposition in the very beginning of their adventure since “Lordi’s shock
tactics have not met universal approval at home43”. The “evil44” anti-heroes
pursued to gain victory for Finland, while battling conflicts and opposition in their
homeland and abroad.
Lordi were accused by Finnish religious leaders of “inspiring Satanic worship45”
and as “agents sent by Vladimir Putin to destabilize Finland before a Russian
coup46”. But Mr. Lordi, vocalist Tomi Putaansuu, “denies any satanic leanings47”.
The harsh critics, also, called for “President Tarja Halonen to use her
constitutional powers to veto the band48” and send a “traditional Finnish folk
42 The Guardian (22 May 2006) 43 ibid. 44 The New York Times (24 April 2006) 45 ibid. 46 ibid. 47 The Dominion Post (3 December 2007) 48 The New York Times (24 April 2006)
70
singer49” instead. Similarly, an anti-Lordi fury spread in Greece, the ESC 2006
host country, where for some people Lordi were personae not gratae.
Lordi, who were accused of trying to bring “hell to earth50”, cleared it up by
saying they were not aligned with the devil, but to the more powerful force of
metal, “We are not Satanists. This is entertainment51.” In conclusion, the
prevailing binary discovered in media narratives is the battle of ‘good versus evil’
in the form of “Finnish religious leaders52” versus “satanic worship53”, the battle
between music genres “heavy-metal monster band54” versus “traditional Finnish
folk singer55”, and the battle between Finland’s exports Santa Claus and Lordi
that both spring from Arctic Lapland.
4.1.1.4 Plot
General speaking a traditional story can be segmented into three parts; beginning,
middle and end. First, the scene is set. Next, the progression of change creates
conflict and sets the parameters for the rest of the story. The conflict escalates but
is finally resolved, marking the end of the story (Fog, Budtz & Yakaloylu 2005:
42).
When the cast of characters are in place and the conflict is known then the way
the events of the story unfold is what constitutes the plot. Equally important is the
message of the narrative, which acts as the final moral or the lesson learnt of the
story and ties the story with all its elements such as characters, message, conflict,
events and places. The Story Model in Figure 7 shows how stories progress in
time.
49 The New York Times (24 April 2006) 50 http://www.news.com.au (22 May 2008) 51 ibid. 52 The New York Times (24 April 2006) 53 ibid. 54 ibid. 55 ibid.
71
Figure 7. The Story Model
In short, in the fairytale of Finland’s entry in ESC 2006, the plot opens
melodramatically when ‘underdogs’, who threaten Finland’s national image
abroad, are chosen to represent Finland in Eurovision. The conflict starts when
Lordi are mocked and sentenced to a priori failure. Despite the strong opposition
in Finland and abroad, Lordi finally perform in Athens and against all odds
triumph over competition. That is the point of no return of the story that
constitutes the initial phase of the story’s climax. The ‘underdogs’ bring the long-
awaited victory to Finland and are acclaimed ‘national heroes’. The ugly
ducklings have been transformed overnight into swans and, as for Finland;
Eurovision was turned instantly from a source of embarrassment to a source of
immense pride.
Lordi’s victory was seen as “a victory for rock music56” but also as “a victory for
open-mindedness57”. Mr. Lordi predicted his band’s win would open the doors
for a wider range of musical styles at Eurovision. In Mr. Lordi’s words, as he is
56 CBC Arts (21 May 2006) 57 ibid.
72
quoted extensively in the news media, “This is proof that from now on there will
be more rock bands who will have the courage to join in. 58”
The story fades out when Finland’s capital, Helsinki, wins the bid to host the ESC
2007. The moral of the story is that a small nation with a negative reputation and
a poor image in the ESC can project its music representation as a wild card choice
and, eventually, enhance a differentiating and diverse image for the country.
“…And they all lived happily ever after.”
4.1.2 EUROVISION AND NATIONAL MUSIC REPRESENTATIONS
In the ESC, the competing performances carry potentially dense cultural
meanings associated with issues of national, regional, and European identity and
their musical representations (Björnberg, 2007:15). One of the many functions of
the Eurovision Song Contest is to “display the musical representations of national
identities” (ibid.,16).
In an article, leading character Mr. Lordi says, “Many Finns would rather have
sent someone boring and acceptable than to be represented by freaks like us59”
acknowledging that their peculiarity and differentiation from the Eurovision norm
would cause “a stunning upset for a competition that is usually associated with
upbeat pop sounds or bland dance music.60”
The Eurovision Song Contest has been notoriously famed for its Europop catchy
tunes and “Take That wannabes61” sent by most European countries. In 2006,
Finland caused “a tectonic shift in Eurovision fashions62” and “offered up tongue-
in-cheek63” “cartoon metal band Lordi64”, who “despite their bulky furs, romped
home in first place65”. The winning song, Hard Rock Hallelujah, one of “the most
58 ibid. 59 The New York Times (24 April 2006) 60 CBC Arts (21 May 2006) 61 http://www.wnew.com (24 April 2008) 62
The Telegraph (11 May 2007) 63 The Telegraph (11 May 2007) 64 http://www.wnew.com (24 April 2008) 65 The Telegraph (11 May 2007)
73
rocking Eurovision entry since Abba’s Waterloo66” signified “a marked contrast
from the bubblegum songs Eurovision tends to attract67”.
Yet Terry Wogan described Finland’s entry “as a new level of foolishness68”,
while The Guardian’s rock critic, Alexis Petridis believes that the Eurovision “has
become an event all about spectacle and flamboyance69” and wonders, “When did
quality music ever come from the Eurovision anyway?70”.
Nonetheless the fact that Lordi received a record of 292 points, made up of votes
from almost all participating countries, was treated as an event marking a unique
and important historical change in the music representations of the Eurovision
Song Contest.
“Lordi gained 292 points, the highest score in Eurovision history, and
their crushing victory was heralded as a turning point for a contest for
years dominated by lightweight pop and sugary ballads.71”
After Finland’s victory, Lordi’s lead singer Tomi Putaansuu stated that Lordi
“changed the face of Eurovision forever72”. However, a year after his statement
Putaansuu admitted he was wrong, “The glitz and the kitsch are back.73”
4.1.3 EUROVISION AND NATIONAL IDENTITY
Despite the fierce opposition and conflict raised by Finland’s entry in ESC 2006,
some saw Lordi as a great representation of Finland and Finnishness, since “the
monster squad expresses the warrior spirit of the Vikings74”. The opinion of Alex
Nieminen, a Finnish advertising executive and a high-profile expert, adds a
national significance to Finland’s entry:
66 ibid. 67 CBC Arts (13 May 2007) 68 The Guardian (22 May 2006) 69 ibid. 70 ibid. 71 ibid. 72 CBC Arts (13 May 2007) 73 ibid. 74 The New York Times (24 April 2006)
74
“The band harks back to the Hakkapeliittas, the legendary Finnish
cavalry unit that fought as part of the Swedish army in the 17th
century. [Lordi] embody Finnish self-assertion after decades of
isolation.75”
Another credible source quoted in the news media is one of Finland’s leading
music critics. In the words of Ilkka Mattila:
“ ‘Finland, zero points’ has become a source of deep embarrassment in
the nation’s psyche. So Lordi’s success must be understood as a vote
by people who feel we have nothing to lose.76”
‘Finland, zero points’ shows how deep the constant failures in Eurovision have
impacted the national pride of the Finnish nation. Although exaggerated as a term,
from the research of Pajala (2007) in the Finnish press it is evident that the
general public opinion about Eurovision and its relation to Finland entries has
been negatively associated. Additionally, the theme of the ‘eternal underdog’ is
portrayed again, supported by the notion that the choice of Lordi representing
Finland was a wild card, a risk from people who were utterly disappointed and
had “nothing to lose” (ibid.).
However, after Finland’s victory in the ESC 2006, responses from the highest
political and state levels were triggered. After Lordi’s triumph, the underdogs
were transformed into national heroes and they were no longer seen as a source of
embarrassment for Finland but as a representative sample of Finnish music
export. Finland’s president Tarja Halonen congratulated the band with a telegram,
and the culture minister, Tanja Karpela, said it showed Finnish music could
succeed abroad.77
The return of Lordi back to Finland was a celebration of national pride
accompanied by an official presence from the very highest level, since Finnish
President Tarja Halonen was also present to congratulate. According to the
international version of Finland’s leading newspaper, in the welcoming event,
75 The New York Times (24 April 2006) 76 ibid. 77 The Guardian (22 May 2006)
75
Tarja Halonen handed over a bronze key awarded to the band by the Association
for Finnish Work in recognition of the members’ triumph in Athens, Sampo
Square in Rovaniemi was renamed as Lordi Square and “Prime Minister Matti
Vanhanen, a purported hard rock fan, has pledged government funds to finance
the gig [ESC 2007 held in Finland]78”.
Finally, Lordi’s song Hard Rock Hallelujah that caused a nation- and European-
wide heated controversy was turned overnight to the spring’s national anthem.
After Lordi’s unexpected victory, “Hard Rock Hallelujah has been a mainstay on
Finnish radio, their album The Arockalypse is approaching platinum status and
stories about the band have been featured on the front pages of newspapers and
local tabloids.79”
Apart from the media exposure that Lordi received, a great amount of articles
about Helsinki, Finland, Finnish exports, culture and tourism were published in
the international press. The place narratives are analyzed in chapter 4.2.
The end of the story of Finland’s success is marked by the victory of another
‘ugly duckling’ from a small country. On a similar note, the Eurovision Song
Contest in Helsinki passed the torch to the next underdog that won. “Serbia’s
Marija Serifovic was crowned the winner of the Eurovision Song Contest at the
final extravaganza in Helsinki Saturday night.80” Similarly to Lordi’s story,
Serbian Prime Minister Vojislav Kostunica as a state representative spoke on
behalf of the Serbian nation and congratulated the winner acknowledging the
victory of Marija Serifovic as a national quest and Serbia hosting ESC 2008 as a
matter of the national importance. “Congratulations, Marija! Serbia is very proud
tonight and celebrates your success.81”
4.1.4 EUROVISION AND EUROPEAN IDENTITY : CENTRE AND PERIPHERY
Throughout the history of the ESC, it appears that the attention raised by the event
has been considerably greater in nations, which in geographical and/ or cultural
78 CBC Arts (26 May 2006) 79 ibid. 80 CBC Arts (13 May 2007) 81 ibid.
76
terms belong to the ‘periphery’ of Europe than in its geographically/ culturally
‘central’ nations (Björnberg, 2007:16).
The analysis of narratives in the British media indicates that journalists-
storytellers use a sarcastic and elitist approach to refer to the music
representations of Europe’s peripheral nations, “to see people from countries
you’ve never heard of perform weird concoctions on stage is just fantastic82.”
According to Björnberg (ibid., 17), the ESC functions as a space for a “symbolic
revenge of the margins”, an opportunity for culturally peripheral nations to
distinguish themselves among nations normally playing the principal role in the
dissemination of popular culture.
Geographical and cultural neighbours due to political alliances or similar musical
tastes usually exchange votes. Figure 8 depicts a humorous representation of
Eurovision’s voting alliances. The tactic of how regional clusters exchange votes
in the ESC known as ‘buddy-voting’ or ‘bloc-voting’ is mentioned extensively in
news media narratives. In an ironic tone, Eurovision is said to be “awash with
voting cartels and carve-ups, about as close to a free exercise in democracy as a
general election in Zimbabwe83”. In the extract below, Janine Gibson writes about
“bloc-voting84”, where the Balkans and Turkish diaspora are presented as the
villains of the story:
“Last year, Wogan railed against the bloc-voting. With fire and
brimstone he denounced the unfairness of the neighbourhood boost.
These days, what with the popular phone vote and emigrant
populations, anyone with a working knowledge of land-locked
boundaries of Balkan states and the Turkish diaspora can figure out the
result beforehand. 85”
82 The Guardian (22 May 2006) 83 The Telegraph (19 Mar 2007) 84 The Guardian (14 May 2007) 85 The Guardian (14 May 2007)
77
Figure 8. Friendship blocs in the Eurovision Song Contest
(Source: lyricstranslations.com)
The British press takes a serious political stance about Eurovision and European
identity with a humorous yet sardonic approach that scapegoats East European
countries, which are blamed for trading votes regardless of the quality of the
competing songs:
“Like nostalgia, Eurovision’s nowhere near as good as it used to be.
But democracy is the enemy of idiosyncrasy, and across the steppes
neighbouring countries vote for each other en bloc with almost Soviet
regularity. Of course, the EBU still tries to keep up appearances. Every
national capital gets to show off its Starbuckstrasse in a quick tourist
78
promo, before its blondest national treasure clips through the top
marks from that country’s phone vote.86”
Eurovision and European identity are closely related topics in the media stories
analyzed. The British press often makes the distinction between the Big Four
countries (United Kingdom, Germany, France and Spain) and the rest of
participant countries. The writer of the extract below envisions the formation of a
“Western bloc87” with “its own currency, without borders, and with a joint
constitution88” that would “vote only for each other89” in opposition to the
‘Eastern bloc’ and the ‘Balkan-bloc’:
“It’s clear that if any nation west of the Danube hopes ever to win the
Eurovision Song Contest again, we must form a Western Bloc: the
UK, France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Portugal, Ireland, Holland,
Belgium, Switzerland, Monaco... we must all put aside old prejudices
and vote only for each other. Then, and this is only a mad idea, these
nations could form a community, with its own currency, without
borders, and with a joint constitution. It could be ruled from
somewhere central, such as Brussels. Peace and harmony would reign.
Or is that just an impossible dream?90”
Despite the popularity of the event with television audiences in 140 countries,
many will still find themselves agreeing with the sentiments of the New Zealand
humorist Joe Bennett that Eurovision “makes one long for war91”. At least until
the lights go down, Eurovision is a battlefield of national identities and their
musical constructions. Politics in Eurovision are a common topic of debate as the
ESC represents a wide range of cultural and political issues especially about the
relationships, cultural and linguistic diversity between European nations.
For instance, it is clear that in the narratives of the British media the notion of
being ‘European’ in connection to the ESC does not appeal to British people, who
86 The Telegraph (11 May 2007) 87 The Telegraph (13 May 2007) 88 ibid. 89 ibid. 90 ibid. 91 ibid.
79
are “famously Euro-sceptical” (Raykoff, 2007: 8). The extract below indicates
how the press perceives Britain’s relationship to Eurovision in relation to their
powerful music exports:
“You might imagine the nation that gave the world the Beatles, David
Bowie and the Stone Roses, the country whose popular music artists
remain a hugely significant earner of foreign currency as they fill the
record stores and concert venues of the continent, would have a
chance. But it is nothing to do with history, quality, or ability. Britain’s
relationship with Eurovision is a bit like Brazil entering the World Cup
knowing a linesman’s flag will overrule any goal they score. No
wonder, then, we tend not to take it as seriously as some other
participants.92”
Furthermore, the choice of the English language -even though it is the national
language of Britain and Ireland- in most of the national ESC entries is another
issue that has raised immense media discourse. Despite the cultural and linguistic
diversity among Eurovision participants, English is the contest’s lingua franca.
The British press is being sarcastic to the fact saying that, “Oscar Wilde might
have described Eurovision as an entire continent divided by a common
language93”.
The ESC rules state the principle of ‘freedom of language’, which poses no
formal restrictions on the language of the national entries. Remarkably, singing in
English has become the norm among contestants from across the regional
European spectrum. As Torres writes,
“400 million Europeans from different regions as a whole tune in together to
listen to each other at the ESC what they hear is by and large a succession of
national entries sung in a de facto lingua franca.”
The Anglo-American domination of the international popular music market may
explain why English language is used as the common linguistic denominator. The
same can also justify the choice of collecting and analyzing data in English for 92 The Telegraph (19 Mar 2007) 93 The Telegraph (13 May 2007)
80
this study due to the fact that the English language is the global lingua franca in
media, communications, and entertainment.
4.2 PLACE NARRATIVES: NATIONAL IDENTITY AND IMAGE
“The affair [Lordi’s entry], has exposed the insecurity of a young
country whose peculiar language is spoken by only six million people
worldwide and whose sense of identity has been dented by being part
of the Swedish Kingdom and the Russian Empire until gaining
independence in 1917. Most Finns would rather be known for Santa
Claus than heavily made-up monster mutants. In Finland, we have no
Eiffel Tower, few real famous artists, it is freezing cold and we suffer
from low self-esteem.94”
Putaansuu’s, Lordi’s frontman, aptly remark above is indicative of the identity
and image debate evoked by the choice of Lordi to represent Finland in the
Eurovision Song Contest. This chapter analyzes all issues of nation branding and
national image and stereotypes in news media narratives about Helsinki and
Finland in connection to Eurovision. Also, a few older narratives are quoted in
order to explore the change (or not) in Finland’s image.
In the first half of the quote, Finland seems to be in an identity crisis. Finland
appears like a young country with a “dented95” national identity and insecure
about its “peculiar language96” spoken by only 6 million people. The severely
crashed and impacted national identity can be justified by historical reasons since
Finland was first part of the Swedish Kingdom (hence the West) and then the
Russian Empire (hence the East), before it gained its independence.
In the second part of the quote, first, I distinguish the binary between good and
evil, which is a theme commonly used to create conflict. Santa Claus and Lordi,
two of Finland’s exports and well-known personalities abroad, are colliding in
order to find out who is going to be the face of Finland; second, the mention about
the lack of iconic buildings as signifiers of national status “in Finland, we have no
94 The New York Times (24 April 2006) 95 ibid. 96 ibid.
81
Eiffel Tower97”; third, the lack of the nation’s creative class’s international
success “few real famous artists98”; forth, the harsh climatic conditions “it is
freezing cold”; and fifth, the emotional and psychological issues of the Finnish
people, who are suffering from “low self-esteem99”.
Within these statements, there are elements of truth. At least, the truth of Mr.
Lordi, who accurately points out all the elements needed to create and develop a
successful destination brand. Nature, climatic conditions, infrastructure and
flagship buildings, as well as music exports all add to national image. In Finland’s
case, those elements are not in abundance and, therefore, the efforts to build
national image should be based in immaterial elements such as spotlight events,
which use places as backdrops where stories can unfold.
4.2.1 IMAGES OF FINLAND
Apart from the Eurovision grand narrative presented in chapter 4.1.1 with its
characters, message, conflict and plot, journalists are focusing their stories on
Finland and its brands and exports. Among with the Eurovision journalists, a
number of travel writers also visited Finland to write about the country as a
destination. “Finland has always seemed like the independent traveller’s Everest -
icy and difficult to conquer100” but does that image change when journalists get to
know the place and its people?
Articles in the news media about Finland were very scarce before 2006. In this
research, only two extensive articles were found about Finland, dating back at
1989 and 2001. Leslie Li uses a metaphor to introduce the readers to Finland’s
geography: Finland is shaped like a summer squash, with the Arctic Circle the
stem, the capital of Helsinki the base, and the lake region the fleshiest part, where
the country bellies out. 101
In the past, Finland’s nature provided an exotic setting in media narratives and,
therefore, it has been the main aspect associated with the country. Finland
97 The New York Times (24 April 2006) 98 ibid. 99 ibid. 100 The Guardian (30 June 2007) 101 The New York Times (16 April 1989)
82
represented the exotic, the undiscovered land of the thousand lakes, the northern
lights, snow and the arctic, low temperatures. Finland has been commonly known
as “the land of a thousand lakes102 103”. Indeed, with a population of about five
million, Finland has one lake for every 26 people104. Also, the water element was
often presented as part of urban life. “The beaches are clean and easily accessible
and on warmer summer evenings can become party zones105.”
Also, Finland’s legal concept of ‘everyman’s right’, which gives everyone the
chance to enjoy outdoor pursuits, and the freedom of the country’s vast forests,
lakes and rivers, with few restrictions, is mentioned in the media narratives:
“Finland, one of the most densely forested countries in the world,
contains 10 times as much forest per person as any other part of
Europe. Public access to lakes, forests and other outdoor areas is
granted every Finn by law and custom – it’s known as ‘everyman’s
right’106.”
The fact that Finland is a vast country occupied largely by landscapes of lakes and
forests is seen as an escape from the realm of everyday life, an opportunity to
experience a different kind of summer holiday than mass-tourism’s typical ‘sea,
sun, sand’ and head for a destination that has historically been a choice of affluent
travellers, such as the tsarist Russian tourists and currently attracting urban
travellers that want a quiet, close to the nature break.
“There are just 16 Finns to every 16 sq km of Finland, but it isn’t until
you’re actually in the landscape that you really appreciate how gifted
the country is with space. If it’s escape from the summer hordes you’re
looking for, then this is the place to come, as the original tsarist
Russian tourists did in the 19th century and as thousands of city-living
Finns do today every summer weekend.107”
102 ibid. 103 The Guardian (8 September 2001) 104 The New York Times (16 April 1989) 105 The Guardian (8 September 2001) 106 The New York Times (16 April 1989) 107 The Guardian (9 June 2007)
83
Li points out Finland’s political system and it relationship with Russia.
“Finland today maintains an amiable but autonomous relationship with
its huge neighbour to the East and is proud that, alone among small
nations involved in World War II, its democratic system never ceased
functioning, and it successfully resettled the 400,000 Finns who lost
their homes under the peace treaty signed with Moscow.108”
Finland is portrayed as a “highly industrialized and socially progressive
nation109”, a wealthy country based on an extensive welfare system.
“[In Finland] the per capita income is higher than that of England or
France, and where education, culture, social services and health care
receive by far the largest share of the national budget.110”
In many articles, sauna is among the most well-known exports associated with
Finland as its country-of-origin. As Spooner puts it, “Before Nokia came along,
the sauna was arguably Finland’s greatest export and no visit to Helsinki is
complete without at least an hour ensconced in cleansing steam111.” From 2001,
Finland starts to be associated with IT, innovation and technological advances
rather than mere natural elements. But ‘sauna’, which is Finland’s linguistic
export to the rest of the world, still wields the sceptre in media narratives and is
associated with Finnish national identity.
“In Finland the sauna is not just always close geographically, but also
philosophically and socially too. Perhaps this shouldn’t be surprising
as the smells and sensations of the sauna are somehow hard-wired into
the Finnish psyche112.”
After Finland’s first-ever victory in Eurovision with Lordi in 2006, more cultural
exports of Finland are found in the news media. According to Sheers, “the most
108 The New York Times (16 April 1989) 109 ibid. 110 ibid. 111 The Guardian (8 September 2001) 112 The Guardian (9 June 2007)
84
famous Finnish export [are] the Moomins113”. The Moomins are world-renewed
white creatures, characters in a series of books and a comic strip by Swedish
speaking-Finnish illustrator and writer Tove Jansson. This success story of
Finnish literature became the basis for numerous television series, films, a
Moomin opera as well as a theme park in Finland. Indeed, Tove Jansson and her
Moomins are a central theme of Finnish culture (Räihä, 2005).
O’Brien proposes visiting the National Museum of Finland in order for the
visitors to get a sense of Finland’s history, “from Stone Age finds to Viking
artefacts, wooden church interiors, 18th-century elegance and more, you get an
absorbing view of the country’s past at the National Museum of Finland 114”.
Lastly, among the most widely known destinations and exports of Finland are the
Finnish Lapland and its capital Rovaniemi that is branded as the hometown of
Santa Claus. Interestingly, the media reinforce again the binary of good versus
evil when drawing associations between the beloved Santa Claus and the devilish
foursome Lordi, since both come from the “small town of Rovaniemi just north of
the Arctic Circle115”.
4.2.2 FINLAND AND MUSIC REPRESENTATIONS
Finland’s classical music tradition and world-renowned Finnish conductors that
have contributed to the country’s reputation in an international level are
mentioned extensively in the media narratives.
Back in 1989, Li writes about the Savonlinna Opera Festival that transforms every
summer from a place with a poor image and no cultural amenities to a lively
cultural hub that attracts lots of local, national and international visitors: “Every
July Savonlinna is transformed from a sleepy little town of 28,500 to a cultural
hub filled with 100,000 Finnish and foreign music lovers come to attend the
Savonlinna Opera Festival, one of Europe’s oldest musical events116”
113 ibid. 114 The Independent (8 September 2007) 115 The Telegraph (22 May 2006) 116 The New York Times (16 April 1989)
85
In 2007, the year that Finland hosted the ESC, some journalists identified a void
between the death of the “nation’s musical hero117” Jean Sibelius and Finland’s
first-ever victory in ESC 2006, which placed Finland on the map again. The lack
of positive mental associations between music and Finland and the halt of Finnish
music export after the death of Jean Sibelius are mentioned below:
“The words ‘music’ and ‘Finland’ have rarely been associated since
the death of Sibelius in 1957, a year after the birth of the Eurovision
Song Contest (although the two events were not related).118”
On the contrary, it is a fact that Finnish artists can succeed in Europe. Finnish
music export saw a rise in 2000, when several Finnish groups such as Bomfunk
MC’s and Darude had produced international top-ten hits. Finnish music export
continues to be on the increase. According to Music Export Finland, “the market
value of Finnish music export in 2008 was over 23 million euros, which was 4
million euros more than in 2007”. However, in the media Finland’s music export
seems marginal and not worth mentioning. The news media with their
gatekeeping role filter what information the will write about and what not. So,
recent success stories are not mentioned or probably not associated with Finland.
In general, based on the analysis of the news media narratives about Finland, the
music life in Finland is portrayed to be bi-polar with clear dichotomies between
two types of music. “The two most popular forms of music in Finland are death
metal (as caricatured by Lordi, Finland’s winners of last year’s Eurovision Song
Contest, and no, nobody here takes them seriously either) and tango.119” Indeed,
those two images of metal and tango are evident throughout the news media
analysis. In the following chapters (4.2.2.1 and 4.2.2.2), Finland’s images as the
tango capital of the world and as home of metal are analyzed in detail.
117 The Independent (8 September 2007) 118 The Telegraph (22 May 2006) 119 The Guardian (30 June 2007)
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4.2.2.1 Finland: tango capital of the world
In 2004, Finland was portrayed as the “tango capital of the world120”. In addition,
journalist Peter Culshaw comments on the association of tango with Finland:
“I was already aware that the Finns excelled at classical musicianship
–several major orchestras now have Finns waving the baton, including
Sakari Oramo at Birmingham– but the tango was a surprise.121”
The article presents how the Argentinean temperament meets up harmoniously
with the Finnish one as Peter Culshaw narrates his own images and stereotypes of
Finland, such as Finland’s drinking culture and the melancholic nature of Finns.
He explains that tango “not only does it chime with the country’s temperament, it
helps keep the men sober122.”
Also, Culshaw’s article features a quote from Jukka-Pekka Saraste, one of
Finland’s world-renowned conductors arguing that: “Tango is a mirror of the
Finnish soul, giving direct access to the melancholy that is an essential part of our
nature123”. That ties in with the image of Finns as “a people not easily given to
merriment or excitement124” (see chapter 4.2.3.)
4.2.2.2 Finland: home of metal
After the Eurovision Song Contest that turned Lordi into an international success
story, widespread international press coverage was prompted at the Finnish heavy
rock boom. Finland’s image got enriched with one more dimension. From a
nation named as the “tango capital of the world125” in 2004, Finland is now
introduced as the “home of metal126”.
Various Internet sources such as music websites and blogs offer their own account
of Finland’s metal and rock music export. Specifically:
120 The Telegraph (07 Jun 2004) 121 ibid. 122 ibid. 123 ibid. 124 The Telegraph (13 May 2007) 125 The Telegraph (07 Jun 2004) 126 http://www.wnew.com (24 April 2008)
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“Based on recent trends, Finland is fast becoming the home of metal:
Children of Bodom, Nightwish, Sonata Arctica, HIM , Apocalyptica,
Tarja Turunen and the Rasmus are all proving that days without sun
and reindeer meat can result in some pretty serious music.127”
Metaphorically speaking, Finland is portrayed as the land of metal, which gives
birth to great Finnish metal bands. Visual imagery depicts Finland as a dark,
sunless land where people eat reindeer meat and produce metal music. This might
be a stereotypical view of the country but it definitely creates a distinctive image
and adds one more node in Finland’s association set. Here, there is a nation image
contradiction between Finland’s harsh, infertile arctic climate and the fertile
grounds in terms of metal music creation and export. This contradiction is useful
in the narrative as it can turn negative place characteristics into assets. For
instance, instead of focusing on the extreme arctic Finnish climate, the successful
music production and export are highlighted that add a positive node in the
public’s mental maps about Finland.
Finland’s first ever victory in Eurovision eulogized new music tastes and ethics.
In the news media, Lordi are often compared to Jean Sibelius and heavy rock
music is referred to as Finland’s “new heritage128”. One young, Finnish female is
quoted in The Guardian:
“As Finns celebrated on the streets of Helsinki, Satu Puolakka, a 19-
year-old student, struggled to come to terms with her new heritage.
‘It’s not Sibelius, but they [Lordi] have their own way,’ she said.129”
In the article “Oh Lordi! Finn metal is the new face of Eurovision130” even Matti
Vanhanen’s –Finland’s Prime Minister’s– music taste became a source of public
dialogue as, “suspicions were deepened by the sudden conversion of Matti
Vanhanen, who said yesterday that he quite likes rock and ‘heavy music’131”.
127 http://www.wnew.com (24 April 2008) 128 The Guardian (22 May 2006) 129 ibid. 130 The Telegraph (22 May 2006) 131 ibid.
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Despite the music tastes of the Prime Minister, Finland “has an extraordinarily
large Goth demographic and that may have had some bearing on the rather dark
and depressing nature of most of the [Eurovision] entries132.” Also, the rock
scene in Finland is flourishing, “heavy metal is mainstream and Helsinki abounds
with metal karaoke bars, dedicated clubs and regular gigs133”. Metal related event
tourism could be a possibility for Finland to capitalize on its image as the home of
metal.
Towards that direction of attracting more visitors, especially those with a rock
music orientation, is the organization and management of spotlight events like the
heavy music-related Metal Expo and the Metal Mass that are hosted in Finland
and attract media’s attention.
“Finland also holds an annual Metal Expo, which this past February
featured Municipal Waste, Mustasch, Ari Koivunen, Kiuas, the
Sorrow, Sotajumala, Amberian Dawn, Cause for Effect, the Scourger
and Discard.134”
The increase of metal-related events after Lordi’s victory and the succeeding
increase of stories in the mainstream news media are indicative of the impact of
Finland’s Eurovision experience on the country’s music field, music export and
country image. Herald Sun refers to Finland’s extravagant passion with metal
music in connection to Lordi’s victory in Eurovision as such, “It is not surprising
metal hymns have surfaced in Finland -it won the Eurovision Song Contest for the
first time in 2006 with Lordi’s Hard Rock Hallelujah135”.
Also, Herald Sun sheds light on Finland’s pioneering effort to arrange Metal
Mass:
132 Herald Sun (22 September 2008) 133 ibid. 134 http://www.wnew.com (24 April 2008) 135 Herald Sun (22 September 2008)
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“Most teens may not get excited about church, but in Finland they go
out of their way to attend in the latest testimony to the country’s
infatuation with heavy metal music: Metal Mass.136”
Metal Mass co-founder Mikko Saari explains the connection between the
newfound national identity in connection to the nation’s psyche and its musical
preferences, “metal’s appeal lay in the Finnish character - reserved, serious,
honest and possibly gloomy137.” The music is connected with emotional and
psychological characteristics that are believed to be stereotypical parts of the
Finnish identity. The next chapter explores and analyzes the images and
stereotypes of the people of Finland as they are depicted in the news media
coverage of the Eurovision Song Contest.
4.2.3 IMAGES AND STEREOTYPES OF FINNS
Stereotypical or not, journalists use various adjectives to refer to the physical and
behavioural characteristics of Finnish people in the media narratives analyzed in
this study. For instance, Finns are described as “thin-skinned138” “a people not
easily given to merriment or excitement139” yet “reckless140” in their choices.
Finns with their “upturned apple-cheeks141” “know how to party142” and they
“drink the most coffee per capita in the world143”.
Humour and sarcasm are found throughout media narratives about Finland in
connection to Eurovision. A joke that circulates on the Internet seems to have
been said by Finland’s current Minister of Foreign Affairs, Alexander Stubb, to
show how uncomfortable Finns are with themselves, “when they [Finns] meet
someone for the first time, they stare at their own feet. Then, after 10 years of
friendship, they stare at the other person’s feet144”. In his article, Dan Bilefsky
136 Herald Sun (22 September 2008) 137 ibid. 138 The New York Times (24 April 2006) 139 The Telegraph (13 May 2007) 140 The Telegraph (06 May 2007) 141 The Telegraph (13 May 2007) 142 The Guardian (8 September 2001) 143 ibid. 144 The New York Times (24 April 2006)
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continues with a sarcastic remark regarding Lordi, “But there is little risk that
anyone, Finnish or otherwise, will stare at Lordi’s furry platform demon boots145”.
In addition, the stereotype of Finns being shy and appreciating silence are
explained as such, “It’s not that they are shy, quiet and reserved; they just think a
lot before speaking. […] Once you get to know them, they really aren’t so icy.146”
Another political personality quoted in media narratives is Timo Soini, leader of
Ordinary Finns, a traditionalist political party. Soini describes his fellow citizens’
oversensitivity to criticism and what others think of them, referring directly to
issues of self-confidence and the way Finns interpret the world around them. In
Soini’s opinion, Lordi have attracted criticism because:
“Finns are so thin-skinned about how others perceive them. Finns are
suspicious when they see someone new come to play in their sandbox.
And that is particularly the case when that someone looks like a
monster.147”
Moreover, Finns are said to suffer from “the international equivalent of middle-
child syndrome148” in Laurie Winer’s words:
“The Finns may have the international equivalent of middle-child
syndrome. Sandwiched between Scandinavia (of which they do not
consider themselves a part) and Russia, they have been periodically
invaded by both sides. They don’t like to call attention to everything
they’ve got going on.149”
Owen Sheers, who travelled across Finland, claims that from his first-hand
experience, “the Finns are all courteous, practical, reserved yet welcoming people,
it seems there is also, within all Finns, an undeniable propensity for wackiness”
and justifies that “Eurovision winners Lordi150” prove his point on wackiness.
145 The New York Times (24 April 2006) 146 The Guardian (30 June 2007) 147 The New York Times (24 April 2006) 148 The New York Times (14 December 2008) 149 ibid. 150 The Guardian (9 June 2007)
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4.2.4 IMAGES OF HELSINKI
The city of Helsinki has a relatively recent history by European standards –
founded in 1550, it is one of the few major European cities to lack a medieval
centre– and appears as a modern centre with an abundance of innovative
architectural works of steel and glass, but still lacking a particularly strong urban
dimension (Ilmonen, 1998).
Cultural activity is one of the major factors that determine the status of urban
spaces in the global competitive arena. In this study, the focal point is how
cultural spotlight events affect urban dimension and image and how urban
dimension is projected in the news media.
Over the years, Helsinki hosted a number of spotlight events. Chronologically, the
1952 Summer Olympics, were the biggest international multi-sport event ever to
be held in Helsinki and, generally, in Finland. When the two ‘Flying Finns’, as the
press nicknamed runners Paavo Nurmi and Hannes Kolehmainen, lit the Olympic
Flame the Finnish crowd was ecstatic with national pride. Also, stamps, posters,
photographs and numerous newspapers stories were circulated all over the world
heralding and depicting Finland as the host of the XV Olympiad.
In 2000, almost five decades after the Helsinki 1952 Olympics, Helsinki hosted
another spotlight event. Helsinki was awarded the title of the European Capital of
Culture along with eight other European cities celebrating the new millennium. In
2001, soon after Helsinki held the title of the European City of Culture, Andrew
Spooner writes:
“Helsinki is youthful, dynamic and stylish –a city graced by superb
architecture, parks and lakes. Whole areas are given over to souped-up
wireless internet connectivity, wild nightlife and decent food.151”
Additionally, Helsinki is referred to as a “user-friendly152” city with “eclecticism
[that] should satisfy everyone153”. Nature, architecture, technology, entertainment
151 The Guardian (8 September 2001) 152 ibid.
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and cuisine are themes covered in the article as Helsinki is portrayed as a great
getaway for British travellers for the weekend.
Cuisine is an issue of particular interest to the international visitors as the
restaurant and hospitality facilities and offerings are crucial to one’s decision to
visit and stay at a destination. The cuisine perspective is portrayed with emphasis
in a number of media narratives. The cosmopolitan nature of Helsinki is shown in
the following extract, which mentions the co-existence of various cuisines, such
as local Lappish dishes along with Asian and Russian ones:
“Quite decent wok-inspired noodleries abound and sushi is just
beginning to take off. Traditional Lappish sautéed reindeer and
smoked while-you-wait fish can be had along with a smattering of
excellent Russian dishes.154”
Placing emphasis on national cuisine or embracing international elements is
indicative of a nation’s identity and image, and its positioning of the global
gastro-map. Helsinki acquires yet another node into its association set, one of
internationalism in the tourism and hospitality sector.
Furthermore, Spooner in his article recognizes the power of infrastructure in
destination branding. In his article, the built environment and architecture is “a
simple way to grasp the historical forces that have shaped the Finnish capital.”
With vivid language and descriptive adjectives, he gives a lively narrative of
Helsinki’s atmosphere created by signature buildings such as, “the huge white
sepulchre of Engel’s cathedral at Senate Square [that] reveals cobbled streets,
neo-classical grandeur and the nearby Uspenski Orthodox church155”.
The Russian influence on Helsinki’s architecture is projected throughout media
narratives. Depending on the context, Finland is either associated with its Eastern
(Russia) or Western (Sweden) neighbour. The binary between the East and West
is critical in shaping Finland’s nation identity, image and positioning on the
153 The Guardian (8 September 2001) 154 ibid. 155 ibid.
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European map as well as the perception of the country and its capital, Helsinki, in
the international global arena.
Spooner writes:
“Finland, while hanging on to its language and individuality during
Swedish and Russian rule, only achieved independence in 1917 after
the fall of the old Russian Empire. The back streets around Senate
Square are a mini-facsimile of Helsinki’s eastern neighbour.156”
Additionally, Spooner refers to the romantic nationalism era that followed the end
of the Russian Empire, when the built infrastructure of Helsinki was embossed
with Finnish symbols and characters from Kalevala. According to Nipperdey
(1983), romantic nationalism was a “cultural nationalism” and its central
characteristics have been a) the nationalizing of culture and b) the founding of the
nation on the basis of a common culture.
Kalevala, Finland’s national epic, assembled by 32 epic and lyric folk poems,
“marked the beginnings of Finnish culture and served as the basis of Finnish
national identity157”.
“Towards the end of the Russian empire there was a flowering of
national romanticism in Helsinki via huge granite buildings embossed
with Finnish symbols such as characters from the national epic the
Kalevala.158”
Finland’s road to independence was paved primarily by cultural elements of
music, literature, and folklore customs. Indeed, Kalevala, the 19th-century epic
poem compiled by Elias Lönnrot from traditional Finnish oral poetry “did so
much to bolster early Finnish nationalism on the road to independence159”.
Also, Harriet O’Brien identifies the binary between Finland and Russia as she
describes the juxtaposition between Helsinki’s architectural styles of neo-classical
156 The Guardian (8 September 2001) 157 The Independent (8 September 2007) 158 The Guardian (8 September 2001) 159 The Guardian (9 June 2007)
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and art deco, which show the historical and cultural influence of Saint
Petersburg’s style in Finnish design.
“Helsinki was established as the Finnish capital by the Russians, with
much of the centre rebuilt in the early-19th century in the gracious
neo-classical style of St. Petersburg. Beyond this core area lie Art
Deco buildings, designed as a defiant expression of Finnish
identity.160”
O’Brien offers a historical account of Finnish architecture by extensive mentions
of world-renowned Finnish architect Alvar Aalto. Aalto’s architecture became
synonymous with Finnish design and architectural style. The extract below is
indicative of the changes that occurred in Finnish design and architecture in the
1920s and 1930s as well as the contemporary changes that contributed to the an
abundance of innovative architectural works of steel and glass, due t Finland’s
transition into a modern, industrialized, high-tech country and Nokia’s worldwide
success:
“During the 1920s and 30s, flush with the optimism of independence,
a group of young, idealistic Finnish architects and designers led by
Alvar Aalto made their mark. Functionalism and art deco held sway
through buildings such as the central Lasipalatsi - part of the 1940
Olympic village, not used until 1952 because of the Second World
War, and now a public library and media centre. Aalto added to the
functionalism of the city centre with the Finlandia hall on the shores of
Lake Töölö. Now Nokia cash is leading to a massive expansion of
glass and steel superstructures.161”
4.2.4.1 Helsinki during Eurovision
A great amount of media narratives were created about the Eurovision Song
Contest 2007 in Helsinki. Media attention was placed to both spatial and
intangible elements of the host city. The following passage is an excellent
160 The Independent (8 September 2007) 161 The Guardian (8 September 2001)
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introduction that sets the tone and transfers the readers to Helsinki’s Eurovision
atmosphere:
“The sun shines on Helsinki, reflected on the water and the harbour,
the domes of many great churches, and the upturned apple-cheeks of
the Finns, a people not easily given to merriment or excitement. And
yet this city of granite is en fête. For the first time, the Eurovision
Song Contest is in town and the flags and banners are flying in every
street and park. There are great white balloons in the Senate Square. A
stage has been erected and a giant screen, there are white plastic
loungers scattered everywhere, so that those unlucky enough not to
have a ticket for the Helsinki Arena may watch Eurovision in
comfort.162”
In the above paragraph, all elements of city branding are present, including
natural elements (sun, water), landmarks (Senate Square, Helsinki Arena), general
infrastructure (harbour, domes, churches, every street and park) and a cast of
characters (Finns with upturned their apple-cheeks, those unlucky enough not to
have a ticket).
Helsinki during Eurovision was a “city of granite en fête163”. The narrative
vividly describes the festive atmosphere that prevailed on the streets of Helsinki
due to the numerous outdoor events held in various places aiming to engage the
locals and the international visitors. It is interesting to note that “Finnish
officials put on a week-long party to celebrate Eurovision, including a giant street
party on Friday with military parades, samba shows and band performances164”
while “9,000 people packed Helsinki’s largest hockey stadium to watch the event
unfold165”.
162 The Telegraph (13 May 2007) 163 ibid. 164 CBC Arts (13 May 2007) 165 ibid.
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4.2.4.2 Helsinki as a travel destination
Spotlight events acts as image-makers, motivators for travel behaviour and media
strategy. Their unique, once-in-a lifetime appeal creates the feeling of a ‘must
experience’ opportunity for destinations to create, change or enhance their image,
and attract visitors and media coverage.
In 2007, Finland celebrated the 50-year anniversary since the death of the nation’s
musical hero, Jean Sibelius, as well as Helsinki’s 20th International Film Festival.
It was also a Eurovision year for the country. O’Brien, who visited Helsinki,
offers her account on the city and its cultural life: “Finland’s elegant capital
comes alive with film and music in the autumn. The perfect destination for chic
shopping, smart design – and smoked reindeer166”. Helsinki is portrayed as a
stylish capital that is an ideal destination for demanding cultural travellers. Also,
O’Brien poetically describes Helsinki as “a city on the water with a magical
quality of light – particularly so at the start of autumn, when the low sun lends the
Finnish capital a poignant feel.167”
In 2008, less than one year since Helsinki hosted the Eurovision Song Contest,
Helsinki is featured as one of Europe’s “best romantic city breaks168”. In an
article at The Sunday Times Travel Magazine, six romantic city break choices are
listed as destination alternatives to Paris, for those who think ‘the City of Lights’
is an outdated choice for couples. So, among five other destinations Helsinki is
featured as “The Tasty One169”. The storytelling of the article sets the scene as
such:
“The Finnish capital is full of surprises. Some bits feel like Rome, as
you idle over coffee at pavement cafes; others feel like St. Petersburg,
as you stroll by its powder-blue and primrose-yellow Neo-Classical
buildings.170”
166 The Independent (8 September 2007) 167 ibid. 168 The Sunday Times Travel Magazine (February 2008) 169 ibid. 170 ibid.
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Apart from the prominent emphasis on the build environment, weight is given to
cultural aspects such as cuisine and design. The article urges to “head for Helsinki
[which is] rapidly establishing Nordic cooking on the global gastro-map171”.
Restaurant Savoy, an important part of Finnish design history as its dining room’s
interior was initially designed by Aino and Alvar Aalto, is mentioned as
“Helsinki’s most romantic dining spot, with views over the leafy esplanade to the
archipelago172”, where visitors should “expect twists on tradition173” regarding
meals.
In addition, Design Forum, the outlet maintained by the Finnish Society for Crafts
and Design, is described as a place to shop for “sexy stuff174”, a place where “the
latest Finnish designers as well as the kitschest keepsakes parade175”.
Lastly, The New York Times describes Helsinki as “charming, park-filled176”,
“small, safe and fragrant177” city. Also, Helsinki is “one of those cities from
which you return and do things in your daily life a little differently178”.
Dichotomies between the traditional and the contemporary are present throughout
the narrative of Helsinki being a romantic city. From the diverse architecture that
resembles West and East at times, to the traditional with a twist dishes in
restaurants, to the luxurious yet minimalistic designs of hotels and ornaments,
Helsinki holds an image that can appeal to the international travellers with a
richer image than the one-dimensional one media used to project years ago
focusing merely on traditional Finnish characteristics or with one-dimensional
emphasis to certain characteristics.
4.3 DISCUSSION OF FINLAND’S PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
The Eurovision Song Contest has raised Finland’s media presence in the
international news media. Along with the media narratives of Eurovision, issues
171 The Sunday Times Travel Magazine (February 2008) 172 ibid. 173 ibid. 174 ibid. 175 ibid. 176 The New York Times (14 December 2008) 177 ibid. 178 ibid.
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about Finland’s history, politics, European identity, culture and music exports
were widely portrayed. Helsinki’s architecture, urban atmosphere and Finnish
people were integral parts of the news media articles and were used as backdrops
and actors for stories to unfold. Tourism, as expected, being next-door to culture,
drew the attention of many journalists -that given the occasion of the ESC- had
the chance to experience the local cuisine, traditions, sights and the way of living
in Finland.
The image of Finland in the news media has been growing more diverse and
multi-dimensional every time major international events have taken place and
journalists have been visiting the country and discovering more facets of
Finland’s identity. The ESC initiated media stories on Finland’s national identity,
history, its position at the crossover between the East and the West, its European
identity as a marginalized nation that is brought to the forefront due to rare
success stories from the cultural field such as Jean Sibelius, Alvar Aalto, Santa
Claus and Lordi.
Previously held images of Finland as the undiscovered land of a thousand lakes,
sauna, forests and reindeer are enriched with images of Finland as a modern,
high-tech, innovative country with rich urban culture, international cuisine, and
stylish and design choices for tourists in terms of hospitality infrastructure. Also,
the association set about Finnish people gains more elements apart from the shy,
reserved stereotype such as the politeness, practicality and hospitality. In
Finland’s mental map, the metal rock element is added along with those of
classical musicianship and the passionate relationship Finns have with tango.
The pairing of the destination brand and the event brand in the media articles
transfer positive elements from the Eurovision as a fun and international event to
the city as a fun and international place as well. The brand image of Eurovision
incorporates perceptions of a certain quality, values and feelings and some of
those, due to the co-branding existed in the media, were transferred to the host
city.
Additionally, it is important when talking about national, city, or destination
branding to be aware of the branding efforts at the levels of strategy and policy-
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making, which signify what the brand identity is and what the ideal brand
positioning should be.
In 2006, the Ministry of Education and its Department of Culture, Sport and
Youth policy of Finland set up a Committee with the task to draw a proposal for a
national strategy for major international events organized in Finland. The
Committee’s report titled “Kansainväliset suurtapahtumat Suomessa: Ehdotus
kansalliseksi strategiaksi179” defined a major international event as “an event with
national significance and one in which the state has good reasons to be involved”.
Among the ‘good reasons’ for the state to be involved in organizing major
international events are the expected “positive and long-term effects180”.
The Committee’s vision of Finland below is indicative:
“[…] a vision of Finland as a place, which is internationally known as
an active, modern, trustworthy and responsible organizer of major
events, and where the cooperation between different players produces
the best-organized events in the world.181”
Over the years, Finland has hosted a number of spotlight events. Since the first
Olympic Games in 1952, the distance between spotlight events hosted in Finland
is getting closer. In 2000, almost five decades after the Helsinki 1952 Olympics,
Helsinki was given the title of the European Capital of Culture along with eight
other European cities celebrating the new millennium.
In 2006, after 45 years of participation, Finland won the Eurovision Song Contest.
Helsinki won the bid over the cities of Rovaniemi, Turku and Tampere and
became the host city of the 52nd edition of the Eurovision Song Contest. The
Eurovision Song Contest in 2007 brought the marginalized geographically
Finland to the forefront and in spotlight of the international media once more.
Overnight Eurovision was turned from a source of embarrassment to a source of
national pride and an issue of national importance. Public officials, Helsinki
179 Report of the Committee on a national strategy for major international events in Finland, Ministry of Education, Finland: http://www.minedu.fi/export/sites /default/OPM/ Julkaisut/ 2006/liitteet/tr27.pdf?lang=fi 180 ibid. 181 ibid.
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City’s cultural authorities, the Finnish Tourism Board, the Finnish Broadcasting
Company YLE, private enterprises and citizens realized that the ESC would be a
unique opportunity to enhance Finland’s image, attract tourists, boost the local
economy and increase citizen pride.
However, still Finland’s brand had not been analyzed internally until December
2007, the Finnish government agreed on the need to define Finland’s brand and to
enhance coordination of international communication among enterprises,
organizations and representatives of various sectors of society. The collaborative
efforts from experts from different areas were organized by the Finland
Promotion Board and overseen by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The working
group included experts from the Finnish Tourist Board (MEK182) and Finpro183.
Jaakko Lehtonen, Director General of MEK, explains why Finland needs
branding:
“Finland is a relatively unknown country. With branding, it is possible to
increase familiarity and interest. People tend to reject marketing
communication because there is too much of it. A brand can pass through
these filters184.”
However, Lehtonen acknowledges the importance of identifying Finland’s brand
identity and its consistency, which can vary from the image portrayed by
marketing, media representations and people’s word of mouth:
“We do not aim to create an unrealistic image. The starting point was to
have a close look at Finland and what it really represents. The image is
created partly by activities such as marketing, but also by media, one’s own
experiences and conversations. The image can be incoherent or even
182 The Finnish Tourist Board, MEK, was established in 1973 under the Ministry of Employment and the Economy to promote tourism to Finland. http://www.mek.fi 183 Finpro is a member organization consisting of over 500 companies, the Confederation of Finnish Industry and Employers and the Finnish Entrepreneurs Organization. http://www.finpro.fi 184 Finpro Magazine. “Finland Is Officially Cool!” Firpro Web site. http://www.finpro.fi/en-US/About+Finpro/ Publications/ Finpro+Magazine/ December+2007/FM+article+Finland.htm, accessed March 2009.
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negative, but if the reality of Finland and any associated communication are
consistent, it invokes the desired positive image.185”
The process of the working group on Finland’s brand started by listing hundreds
of attributes, which described elements of tourism in Finland. The number of
words was narrowed down to the Four C’s: Credible, Contrasting, Creative and
Cool. Lehtonen argues that, “Finland has credibility. It also has positive contrasts
and creativity, which make it a cool country for tourism186”.
Despite the emphasis on tourism, Finland’s brand is seen as a three-sided entity.
The tourism aspect supports the development of foreign tourism in Finland, but
branding can also enhance Finland’s political and commercial status. Lehtonen
argues about the commercial function of branding that, “A country’s positive
image helps exports and helps its companies to establish themselves abroad. The
country is also likely to attract more investments from foreign companies.187”
Around the world cities, regions and nations alike spend millions of taxpayer’s
money on their branding strategies. Therefore, it is expected that these strategies
will produce results. According to Lehtonen, “long-term financing and political
support are key ingredients for a brand’s success188”. In addition, Lehtonen adopts
the view that synergy between various actors is vital for successful nation
branding, “Enterprises, organizations, political leaders and representatives of the
sciences, arts, sports and many other areas should accept the image and further it
as part of their work.189”
Finland’s future seems bright, since it strategically bids to host some of the
world’s major events. Helsinki was designated as the World Design Capital for
the year 2012 and this is another opportunity and challenge for culture and the arts
to collaborate closely with tourism enhancing Finland’s brand and attracting
creative people and tourists.
185 Finpro Magazine, “Finland Is Officially Cool!”, Firpro Web site, http://www.finpro.fi/en-US/About+Finpro/ Publications/ Finpro+Magazine/ December+2007/FM+article+Finland.htm, accessed March 2009. 186 ibid. 187 ibid. 188 ibid. 189 ibid.
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5. CONCLUSION
5.1 SUMMARY OF THE STUDY
This research was fuelled by the desire to identify the role spotlight events play in
city image in a long-term basis and how interrelated fields can collaborate in
order to produce successful events that would enhance destination image and
create a sustainable legacy.
This research has been based on three pillars: culture, tourism and media. This
study explored the reasons why destinations are consciously engaging in place
branding and what they hope to gain, how spotlight cultural events contribute to
destination brand image, and what is the role of media in creating and developing
destination brands through storytelling. Cultural tourism was seen as an essential
part of destination branding efforts; and media, which broadly belong to the
cultural industries, were viewed as catalysts for the sectors of culture and tourism
to interrelate through the transferral of image.
Finally, my exploration into the research field between destination branding,
cultural tourism and media focused on spotlight events and uncovered their power
in image-making by a case study analysis of the media narratives of Finland’s
victory in the Eurovision Song Contest and media images of Helsinki as an ESC
host city.
5.2 KEY CONTRIBUTION OF THE THESIS
I set out to bring knowledge of the fields of destination branding, cultural tourism
and media into a fruitful unit. To a certain degree, this research has managed to
achieve its objectives and through the literature it has been proven that those
fields indeed share common grounds. All three fields deal with events and can
benefit from the study of spotlight events and their impact on destination image,
which can propel urban reputation and have a positive impact on tourism.
My main claim is that a long-term holistic approach to urban branding can
overcome boundaries among disciplines and fields. Theoretical boundaries
between disciplines should be blurred in order to combine and share knowledge
103
that would allow viewing the big picture especially in relatively new fields of
academic knowledge. Various disciplines regard spotlight events through their
own theoretical lenses and perspectives, but in the present study culture in general
and spotlight events in particular were placed at the centre of all the fields
involved. Culture’s pervasive role has to be understood as an adhesive that brings
together culture, tourism and media in an urban context.
Additionally, since all the interdependent fields discussed here belong to the
creative industries, my research used a creative way in order to deal with media
narratives and make sense of a large amount of information that creates city
imagery. Media stories about events and places remain non-utilized. Therefore,
my focus has been on more subtle levels in which the spirit of places behind each
news story is brought to the surface. I searched for stereotypes, generalizations
and myths, which appear in the coverage of events and places, and I discovered
themes that portray place image and help transfer positive event image to
destination image, which creates co-branding associations in people’s perceptions.
Therefore, a practical goal of this study was to indicate creative ways that both
tourism and arts managers could employ in order to measure and understand how
destinations and events are experienced. It would be beneficial for cities to utilize
media narratives as powerful image creators that build stories, myths and images
for places based on events and, also, get inspired by storytelling in order to tell
their own stories of identity, history and desired future.
5.3 MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS
The creative and cultural industries are becoming growingly pervasive in all
sectors of society. This transformation has brought about the critical realization
that arts management is needed and its role is intricate. Therefore, employment
opportunities for arts managers are slowly starting to be created in both private
and public, profit and non-profit sectors as well as in various allied fields such as
tourism, media and place branding.
A suitable niche for arts management graduates and professionals could be event
management, since almost all culture and arts organizations are organizing events
104
from one-off mega-events to events hosted regularly. Event management is a
multi-dimensional profession with diverse career opportunities in event
management companies, tourism and hospitality industries, advertising agencies,
public relations firms, and news media.
Event managers are involved in more than just the planning and execution of the
event, but also brand building, marketing and communication strategy. Therefore,
it is essential to understand the complexity of events and the interdependence and
impact on all the involved stakeholders. This research attempts to increase the
knowledge of the event studies component in arts management and highlight
creative ways in achieving objectives within the cross-fertilization of the various
fields of knowledge and practice.
The arts managers of today need to have a wide and diverse knowledge of various
disciplines from law to finance and project management to aesthetics. An
effective arts manager is one who enables art-making and brings it to the public
by shaping cultural policy and media discourse and understanding how the
complex relations between all the involved actors work. Therefore, the arts
manager is an innovator, networker and multi-tasker that facilitates greater
interaction and exchange between art, artists, art organizations, policy makers,
media, places, and audience in a local and international level. Arts managers with
diverse backgrounds should be the ones bringing their own experiences and
engaging with other professionals on the critical issues facing the cultural and
creative industries today.
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS
Building a destination brand image is not a one-time media event. All
stakeholders involved must support the maintenance of positive place image over
the long run. Spotlight events attract immense media coverage and tourists but the
synergy of tourism, culture and city authorities should keep in mind that the
legacy could be long-lasting if it is constantly cultivated.
Cities are also developing spotlight events to stimulate visitor numbers and
overcome fluctuation of visitation due to seasonality. In order to keep the
105
spotlight on cities and capitalize on spotlight events and enhance tourism, event
managers and tourism officials should be aware that within a city different
attractions may go through a lifecycle, but it is unlikely that they will all be at the
same stage simultaneously with the consequence that while one is declining,
another will be growing.
The idea of synergy is a concept of a critical weight in the area of destination
branding and cultural tourism. A broader coalition of interests is needed to
campaign for the interests of the arts and entertainment, sports, culture and
tourism. The role of the media in projecting place and event images should also
be creatively recognized and utilized.
Without media’s coverage, the potential visitor will not be aware of what place to
visit. Due to either signature buildings such as museums and stadiums or spotlight
events, capital cities -especially- have the great advantage that their image is
constantly being broadcasted in the media. However, the situation is not static and
a place’s position in the hierarchy of destinations to visit is not fixed for life.
There is no loyalty to destinations, and each decision the tourist makes where to
go this year is an opportunity for a nation, region or city.
Firstly, the results of the present study indicate that storytelling is a branding tool
that destination and event managers could implement in practice and in a cost
efficient way. A place’s local stakeholders should strategically and synergistically
identify and select stories they would like to tell to various audiences. It is
important that a place’s reality and its connection to the local community are
taken into account, so that the images projected are not alienated by the image and
reality citizens are experience. However, I still believe that a projected image by
destinations should hold a promise of a better future, it should partially act as a
self-fulfilling prophecy for the destination to develop into all those elements that
it imagines.
Secondly, professional arts managers that have the knowledge of cultural
production, tourism and media should be those actively involved in brand
building. Also, public actors and organizations should join forces with both the
academic institutions and the private forces.
106
Thirdly, educational institutions in tourism and arts management should have
subjects of culture, tourism and media in their curricula and common projects for
the professors and the students to network, share ideas and create multi-
disciplinary results. Especially for the future generations of tourism and arts
marketers, this suggestion would be a great opportunity to enrich their knowledge
and associate with their future co-workers.
Fourthly, developing an image strategy should e understood as a matter of great
importance for all national, municipal and local authorities, arts and tourism
organizations and media. In order to build an image strategy, an analysis of the
current -de facto- image destination brand among local and international
audiences is of the essence. Therefore, my suggestion is that cities should develop
a framework for a continuous news management of the city’s media coverage.
News media stories from around the world could be collected and analyzed. This
analysis would allow evaluation of the success of the marketing and PR efforts of
the destination’s press office, the tourism board and the arts organizations.
Lastly, all stakeholders involved in brand building should be conscious of how
particular communication channels and media can affect negatively or positively
the brand and how over-exposure or exposure to the wrong groups can damage
brands. Sometimes attention is given to wrong, fancy ways forgetting that
simplicity and creativity can yield more authentic results, which are the
prerequisites of the experience economy.
5.5 LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
The theory and data analyzed in this thesis suggest the value of further work on
the role that spotlight events in strengthening, elaborating or changing a
destination’s brand image. For instance, more work is needed to examine the
ways in which event and place narratives can be most effectively utilized in
destination branding communications, before, during, and after spotlight events.
Spotlight events have a distinctive capacity to excite residents and to appeal to
international target markets. They become the basis for images, stories and
emotions. The challenge for destination marketers, arts managers, place marketers
107
and authorities is to find the best ways to use event images, stories and emotions
to capture travellers’ attention and to build the desired destination brand image
that leads to its favourable perception as a potential travel destination.
This research has presented the focal role of spotlight events and the high degree
of interrelatedness between destination branding, tourism and media. Despite the
intangibility of destination image and event image and the impact of media
coverage on city cultural tourism, emphasis has been given to the non-economic
and intangible impact of events such as image transfer due to co-branding, which
can have monetary and tangible effects on the basis of tourism.
Research on the non-economic impacts of cultural spotlight events and cultural
tourism in cities is rare and has usually been undertaken by academics and
students. This study contributes to the increasing desire for nations, cities and
regions to create successful brands by offering an insight in how media shape
image and how destinations can benefit from the analysis and news management
of media narratives.
Both academics and practitioners have become interested in the relationship
between tourism, culture and destination branding. Developing long-term holistic
approaches to destination branding could be the key for destinations suffering an
image crisis or in search of a new image. A particular issue here is how such
processes can work successfully when both public and private actors and sectors
take part, adapt and learn from each other.
It is evident though that spotlight events are powerful tools for destinations to
enhance their profile and image and, subsequently, attract tourists. The continuous
flow of tourists depends on the ways that each destination handles the media
coverage of its issues and of spotlight events it has hosted. Each special event
should thus be only part of a long-term campaign, which must be cohesive in
order for the results to be sustainable.
The study of destination branding and cultural tourism is still a relatively new
subject, and despite the growing literature, there is still much scope for research.
There is a need for more research about the nature of demand and the interaction
108
of culture and the arts with the tourism, economy, media and society. Especially,
there is a vital need for research on what is the role of image and visibility of
destinations in the media as a starting point before branding efforts commence.
Despite the significant role that events play in tourism since the ancient times,
there has been little research that addresses the use of events in destination
branding. Moreover, although authors note the importance of various arms of the
media in influencing how we interpret cities, there is little detailed case study
analysis. Nevertheless, as the Eurovision Song Contest in Helsinki case in this
research showed, even a one-off event can have a significant impact on
destination brand image via the transferral of images from the event to the
destination, which makes the place more vibrant, active and fun. This paper
contributes to that aspect of the literature focused particularly on news media and
the Internet, and their impact on social and spatial imaginations of destinations.
However, this study was based on one city in a certain country and the research
materials were from English speaking countries only. For these limitations, the
sample of the study might have been narrow, but its objective was to discover and
promote interesting ways that non-utilized media material could become a source
of creativity in branding efforts for destinations.
Media do not only shape public opinion but also they can easily influence public
behaviour by concentrating on certain issues and allowing certain images of event
and places to reach the public. In the case of spotlight events and destination
branding, news media’s power can easily accelerate (or hinder) travel behaviour
and place (or not) destinations on a ‘to visit’ list in the public’s perception.
Those responsible for promoting destinations as tourist locations are keenly aware
of the power of the media. Place imagery can be positive or negative and negative
place imagery and bad publicity is difficult to overcome. A place can get
stigmatized, which would cause a deeper image crisis affecting its image on
public perceptions.
Apart from the media, people who attend an event will return to their homes to
give first-hand accounts of their experience. The destination brand is inevitably
109
implicated by the success of the event and the level of satisfaction experienced by
people who, in the case of the Eurovision Song Contest, attended the event as
spectators, corporate guests, artists, national delegations, officials and the media.
All people that experienced the event and its atmosphere in an urban context hold
personal images associated with the destination brand that will affect their desire
to return to the place and the type of word-of-mouth promotion and stories about
their Eurovision experience.
In the future, researchers could analyze the motivations of travellers visiting a
destination that hosts a spotlight event and discover the influencing factors and
whether knowledge acquired by media played a critical role. Also, visitors’
narratives about their experiences, when visiting a destination during a spotlight
event could, reveal place imagery on visitors’ perception. Apart from how cities
are constructed in words, it would be worth exploring how cities are seen through
the camera lenses of both media and visitors. Photographs and videos create an ‘I
have been there’ feeling to visitors of a destination that like to share them with
their friends and family and even post them on the Internet. Also, photographs
and videos broadcasted by the mass media have a powerful effect on public
opinion and perception.
Additional conceptual clarification needs to be done regarding the relationship of
the experience economy, cities, culture and tourism. I believe the focus on
creating memorable experiences may offer a distinct advantage in the global
competition for tourists. Hosting spotlight events should not be considered as
panacea for image building, tourism development and sustainable event legacy,
but as a major opportunity, depending on how it is utilized, it offers potential
positive or negative impacts.
In conclusion, Anholt’s metaphor, “national image is like starlight which, by the
time it reaches us on Earth, is only the distant echo of an event that started and
finished long before” means that the images and stereotypes that media create
about destinations might not reflect the reality of the place. Despite the bad or
good reputation of places created by the media, we should explore places
ourselves and create our own, personal ‘I have been there, done that’ stories.
110
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APPENDIX A
No. Source Author Title Date 1 The New York Times (USA) Leslie Li A Land of a Thousand Lakes April 16, 1989
2 The Guardian (UK) Andrew Spooner Glossy Finnish September 8, 2001
3 The Telegraph (UK) Peter Culshaw Finland: Home of the tango June 7, 2004
4 The New York Times (USA) Dan Bilefsky Finland Squirms as Its Latest Export Steps Into
Spotlight April 24, 2006
5 CBC Arts (CAN) - Finland’s Lordi monster hit at Eurovision May 21, 2006
6 The Telegraph (UK) Ben Fenton Oh Lordi! Finn metal is new face of Eurovision May 22, 2006
7 The Guardian (UK) Robert Booth &
Helena Smith From the land of Sibelius, a song for Satan May 22, 2006
8 CBC Arts (CAN) - Finnish fans gather to celebrate Lordi May 26, 2006
9 CBC Arts (CAN) - Star-studded 2007 edition of Guinness World
Records released September 29, 2006
10 The Telegraph (UK) Jim White Eurovision is tuneless, but inspirational March 19, 2007
11 Milwaukee Journal Sentinel (USA) Tim Cuprisin Eurovisionary: Weird’s the way as pop and kitsch
collide in contest May 4, 2007
12 The Telegraph (UK) Terry Wogan Wogan’s World (1) May 6, 2007
13 The Telegraph (UK) Neil Midgley Why Eurovision’s not what it was May 11, 2007
14 CBC Arts (CAN) - Singers prepare for Eurovision final May 11, 2007
15 Financial Times (UK) Mark Cook ‘I’m a Eurovision addict’ May 11, 2007
16 The Telegraph (UK) Terry Wogan Wogan’s World (2) May 13, 2007
124
17 CBC Arts (CAN) - Eurovision winner: A Prayer answered for Serbia May 13, 2007
18 The Guardian (UK) Janine Gibson Eurovision: all over, bar the singing May 14, 2007
19 The Guardian (UK) Owen Sheers Land of the midnight sauna June 9, 2007
20 The Guardian (UK) Benji Lanyado Next big Finn June 30, 2007
21 The Dominion Post (NZL) Jenny Ling Oh Lordi... Christians take on fiends of rock December 3, 2007
22 The Independent (UK) Harriet O’Brien 48 HOURS IN... Helsinki, Finland September 8, 2007
23 Times Online (UK) - Six of the best romantic city breaks February 2008
24 CBC News (CAN) - Lordi hopes for monster hit with horror film debut February 6, 2008
25 World Hum Joanna Kakissis Dan Bilefsky: Telling Counterintuitive Stories From
the Edge of Europe February 21, 2008
26 http://www.wnew.com Paul Rhodes Finland: Land of Hard Drinking and Heavy Metal April 24, 2008
27 http://www.news.com.au (AUS) Sean Plambeck The high and very low notes of Eurovision May 22, 2008
28 Herald Sun (UK) - Finns find God is a rock September 22, 2008
30 The Guardian (UK) Saba Salman Brand of gold October 1, 2008
31 The New York Times (USA) Laurie Winer The Local Flavor of Helsinki’s Food Revival December 14, 2008