Culture and Developmental Processes

Chapter 4

Outline

Culture and Temperament Culture and Attachment Cognitive Development Moral Reasoning Other Developmental Processes Conclusion

CULTURE AND TEMPERAMENT

Traditional Knowledge

Temperament: Biologically based style of interacting with world

Easy: regular, adaptable, mildly intense style

Difficult: intense, irregular, withdrawing style

Slow to warm up: need time to make transition

Goodness of fit: interaction of child’s temperament with that of parents

Cross-cultural differences in temperament

Temperament: Biologically based style of interacting with world

Easy: regular, adaptable, mildly intense style

Difficult: intense, irregular, withdrawing style

Slow to warm up: need time to make transition

Goodness of fit: interaction of child’s temperament with that of parents

Cross-Cultural Studies on temperament

Differences in temperament Chinese American babies Japanese and Navajo babies

Cross-cultural studies using the Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale Differences due to cultural practices of

caregiving, cultural goals for appropriate behavior, cultural ideas on capabilities of babies

Cross-Cultural Studies on temperament

Temperament and learning culture Differences in temperament may reflect cultural

values on appropriate ways of acting and being

The goodness of fit between temperament and culture “Difficult” temperament may be adaptive in one

culture Need to interpret infant disposition and behavior

in cultural context

Cross-Cultural Studies on temperament

Sources behind temperamental differences Cultural values, environmental demands, cultural

experiences (diet and culture-related practices), physiological aspect of mother

CULTURE AND ATTACHMENT

Attachment: Special bond between infant and caregiver Provides child with emotional security

Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment

Infants must have preprogrammed, biological basis for becoming attached to caregivers

Attachment is survival strategy

Ainsworth’s Classification System of Attachment

Ainsworth’s study in Uganda Three attachment styles: secure, ambivalent,

avoidant

Replicated in Baltimore

Similar distribution of attachment styles in other cultures

But, in Dogon of Mali, no avoidant infants; in Israel,more ambivalent babies

Cross-Cultural Studies on Attachment

Hundreds of studies on attachment conducted in cultures all over the world

Weak association between parent sensitivity and security of attachment

Cultures differ in conceptualization of sensitive parenting

Cross-Cultural Validity of Assessing Attachment

Meaning of Strange Situation Meaning of separation different across different

culturesex) Japanese babies

Avoidant attachment as an indicator of insecure attachment Reliance on nonparental caregivers for Chinese

may account for avoidant attachment behavior Subtle attachment behaviors difficult for coders

from different cultures

Is secure attachment a universal ideal?

In United States, secure attachment ideal

Some cultures differ in what is considered ideal

Ex) German mothers, Israeli children, Japanese children

Nonetheless, many cultures consider secure attachment ideal

Attachment and Child Development

Attachment predicts child competence and health

Relationship between temperament and attachment

More research needed in this area

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Piaget’s Theory

Cognitive Development: How thinking skills develop over time

Piaget’s theory based on observations of Swiss children Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years Preoperational stage: 2 to 6-7 years

Conservation, centration, irreversibility, egocentrism, animism

Concrete operations stage: 6-7 to 11 years Formal operations stage: 11 years to adulthood

Piaget’s Theory

Mechanisms for moving from one stage to next Assimilation: fitting new ideas into preexisting

understanding of world Accommodation: changing one’s understanding

of world to accommodate ideas that conflict with existing concepts

Piaget believed these stages are universal

Piaget’s Theory in Cross-Cultural Perspective

Do Piaget’s stages occur in the same order in different cultures? Yes

Are the ages that Piaget associated with each stage of development the same in all cultures? No, cultural variations exist (but children may

have potential to solve tasks sooner)

Piaget’s Theory in Cross-Cultural Perspective

Are there variations within, rather than between, Piaget’s stages? Yes, cultural variations in order in which acquire

skills within one stage

Do non-Western cultures regard scientific reasoning as the ultimate developmental end point? No

Ex) Islamic educational systems

Piaget’s Theory: Summary and Discussion

In some cultures, very few complete fourth-stage Piagetian task Cultural appropriateness of tasks Skills being tested Role of previous knowledge and cultural values

Universality of fourth stage has not been demonstrated

Other Theories of Cognitive Development

Great divide theory Separates Westerners from those in primitive

societies Non-Westerners’ development seen as inferior Justification of colonial imperialism, ethnocentric

Non-westerners also have ethnocentric assumptions

MORAL REASONING

Kohlberg’s Theory of Morality

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

Preconventional morality: compliance with rules to avoid punishment and gain rewards

Conventional morality: conformity to rules defined by others’ approval or society’s rules

Postconventional morality: moral reasoning on basis of individual principles and conscience

Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral Reasoning

Cross-cultural studies suggest many aspects of Kohlberg’s theory of morality are universal Snarey (1985), Ma (1988)

Cross-cultural studies also raise questions about universal generalizability of Kohlberg’s higher stages Cultural biases Moral reasoning at higher stages is culture-

specific

Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral Reasoning

Miller Moralities of community Moralities of divinity

OTHER DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES

Developmental research offer insights into causes and contexts of ontogenesis of cultural differences

Cross-cultural developmental research in many areas such as future-oriented goals and commitments, social expectations, affective and romantic relationships in adolescence, etc.

Universal:

Order of stages

Culture-specific: Age of 3rd and 4th stage

Ex) Children who constantly move were better accomplished spatial task sooner than conservation task whereas children who had to fetch water and store grain, they accomplished grain task sooner

Culture-specific:

Importance of scientific reasoningEx) Islamic educational system: transmit faith,

general knowledge and appreciation for poetry and literature

Reaching 4th stage