STUDIES OF THE AMERICAS

edited by

Maxine MolyneuxInstitute of the Americas

University College London

Titles in this series include cross-disciplinary and comparative research on the United States, Latin America, the Caribbean, and Canada, particularly in the areas of poli-tics, economics, history, anthropology, sociology, development, gender, social policy, and the environment. The series publishes edited collections, which allow exploration of a topic from several different disciplinary angles by eminent scholars, and book-length studies, which provide a deeper focus on a single topic.

Titles in this series published by Palgrave Macmillan:

Cuba’s Military 1990–2005: Revolutionary Soldiers during Counter-Revolutionary TimesBy Hal Klepak

The Judicialization of Politics in Latin AmericaEdited by Rachel Sieder, Line Schjolden, and Alan Angell

Latin America: A New InterpretationBy Laurence Whitehead

Appropriation as Practice: Art and Identity in ArgentinaBy Arnd Schneider

America and Enlightenment ConstitutionalismEdited by Gary L. McDowell and Johnathan O’Neill

Vargas and Brazil: New PerspectivesEdited by Jens R. Hentschke

When Was Latin America Modern?Edited by Nicola Miller and Stephen Hart

Debating Cuban ExceptionalismEdited by Bert Hoffman and Laurence Whitehead

Caribbean Land and Development RevisitedEdited by Jean Besson and Janet Momsen

Cultures of the Lusophone Black AtlanticEdited by Nancy Priscilla Naro, Roger Sansi-Roca, and David H. Treece

Democratization, Development, and Legality: Chile, 1831–1973By Julio Faundez

The Hispanic World and American Intellectual Life, 1820–1880By Iván Jaksić

The Role of Mexico’s Plural in Latin American Literary and Political Culture: From Tlatelolco to the “Philanthropic Ogre”By John King

Faith and Impiety in Revolutionary MexicoEdited by Matthew Butler

Reinventing Modernity in Latin America: Intellectuals Imagine the Future, 1900–1930By Nicola Miller

The Republican Party and Immigration Politics: From Proposition 187 to George W. BushBy Andrew Wroe

The Political Economy of Hemispheric Integration: Responding to Globalization in the AmericasEdited by Diego Sánchez-Ancochea and Kenneth C. Shadlen

Ronald Reagan and the 1980s: Perceptions, Policies, LegaciesEdited by Cheryl Hudson and Gareth Davies

Wellbeing and Development in Peru: Local and Universal Views ConfrontedEdited by James Copestake

The Federal Nation: Perspectives on American FederalismEdited by Iwan W. Morgan and Philip J. Davies

Base Colonies in the Western Hemisphere, 1940–1967By Steven High

Beyond Neoliberalism in Latin America? Societies and Politics at the CrossroadsEdited by John Burdick, Philip Oxhorn, and Kenneth M. Roberts

Visual Synergies in Fiction and Documentary Film from Latin AmericaEdited by Miriam Haddu and Joanna Page

Cuban Medical Internationalism: Origins, Evolution, and GoalsBy John M. Kirk and H. Michael Erisman

Governance after Neoliberalism in Latin AmericaEdited by Jean Grugel and Pía Riggirozzi

Modern Poetics and Hemispheric American Cultural StudiesBy Justin Read

Youth Violence in Latin America: Gangs and Juvenile Justice in PerspectiveEdited by Gareth A. Jones and Dennis Rodgers

The Origins of MercosurBy Gian Luca Gardini

Belize’s Independence & Decolonization in Latin America: Guatemala, Britain, and the UNBy Assad Shoman

Post-Colonial Trinidad: An Ethnographic JournalBy Colin Clarke and Gillian Clarke

The Nitrate King: A Biography of “Colonel” John Thomas NorthBy William Edmundson

Negotiating the Free Trade Area of the AmericasBy Zuleika Arashiro

History and Language in the AndesEdited by Paul Heggarty and Adrian J. Pearce

Cross-Border Migration among Latin Americans: European Perspectives and BeyondEdited by Cathy McIlwaine

Native American Adoption, Captivity, and Slavery in Changing ContextsEdited by Max Carocci and Stephanie Pratt

Struggle for Power in Post-Independence Colombia and VenezuelaBy Matthew Brown

Taxation and Society in Twentieth-Century ArgentinaBy José Antonio Sánchez Román

Mexico’s Struggle for Public Security: Organized Crime and State ResponsesEdited by George Philip and Susana Berruecos

Raúl Castro and Cuba: A Military StoryBy Hal Klepak

New Political Spaces in Latin American Natural Resource GovernanceEdited by Håvard Haarstad

Politics and Power in HaitiEdited by Kate Quinn and Paul Sutton

Citizenship and Political Violence in Peru: An Andean Town, 1870s–1970sBy Fiona Wilson

Aesthetics and Politics in the Mexican Film IndustryBy Misha MacLaird

Reconfiguring the Union: Civil War TransformationsEdited by Iwan W. Morgan and Philip John Davies

Making Brazil Work: Checking the President in a Multiparty SystemBy Marcus André Melo and Carlos Pereira

Sexual Violence during War and Peace: Gender, Power, and Post-Conflict Justice in PeruBy Jelke Boesten

Argentina Since the 2001 Crisis: Recovering the Past, Reclaiming the FutureEdited by Cara Levey, Daniel Ozarow, and Christopher Wylde

The Origins of Bourbon Reform in Spanish South America, 1700–1763By Adrian J. Pearce

Gender, Globalization, and Health in a Latin American ContextBy Jasmine Gideon

The Political Empowerment of the Cocaleros of Bolivia and PeruBy Ursula Durand Ochoa

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The Political Empowerment of the Cocaleros of

Bolivia and Peru

Ursula Durand Ochoa

THE POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT OF THE COCALEROS OF BOLIVIA AND PERU

Copyright © Ursula Durand Ochoa, 2014.

All rights reserved.

First published in 2014 byPALGRAVE MACMILLAN®in the United States— a division of St. Martin’s Press LLC,175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010.

Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world, this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS.

Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world.

Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Durand Ochoa, Ursula. The political empowerment of the cocaleros of Bolivia and Peru /

by Ursula Durand Ochoa. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Peasants—Political activity—Bolivia. 2. Peasants—Political

activity—Peru. 3. Coca industry—Political aspects—Bolivia. 4. Coca industry—Political aspects—Peru. 5. Social movements—Bolivia. 6. Social movements—Peru. 7. Bolivia—Politics and government— 1982–2006. 8. Bolivia—Politics and government—2006– 9. Peru—Politics and government—1980– I. Title.

HD1531.B6D87 2014322.40984—dc23 2014010917

A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library.

Design by Newgen Knowledge Works (P) Ltd., Chennai, India.

First edition: September 2014

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2014 978-1-137-45354-9

ISBN 978-1-349-49769-0 ISBN 978-1-137-45355-6 (eBook)DOI 10.1057/9781137453556

To Luly and Paco, with love.

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Contents

List of Figures and Tables xi

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xiii

Chapter 1Introduction 1

Chapter 2The Criminalization of Coca and Cocaine 27

Chapter 3Peru: Formation of a Social Movement—Crisis and Repression during the Transition(s) to Democracy 53

Chapter 4Bolivia: Formation of a Social Movement—Crisis and Opportunity during the Transition to Democracy 81

Chapter 5Peru: Transformation of a Social Movement—Radicalization, Division, and Demobilization 111

Chapter 6Bolivia: Transformation of a Social Movement—Convergence and Diffusion 145

Chapter 7Conclusion: The Cocaleros of Bolivia and Peru Compared 183

Notes 201

Bibliography 207

Index 221

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Figures and Tables

Figures

1.1 Theoretical framework 225.1 Invention of a boundary within a boundary 1407.1 Bolivia Phase I 1867.2 Peru Phase I 1877.3 Bolivia Phase II 1937.4 Peru Phase II 194

Tables

1.1 Identity-shaping mechanisms 185.1 Public opinion survey: Coca and cocaleros 1315.2 Regional legislation on coca and coca production 1375.3 Constitutional tribunal ruling 138

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Acronyms and Abbreviations

Bolivia

ANAPCOCA National Association of Coca ProducersAND Democratic Nationalist ActionASP Assembly for the Sovereignty of the PeopleCIDOB Confederation of Indigenous People of Eastern

BoliviaCOB Bolivian Workers’ ConfederationCOFECAY Council of Federations of the Yungas of La PazCOMIBOL Mining Corporation of BoliviaCSCB Syndicalist Confederation of Bolivian ColonizersCSUTCB Unified Syndicalist Confederation of Rural Workers

of BoliviaEGTK Túpac Katari Guerilla ArmyFAMA Front of the Anti-Imperialist MassesFETCTC Special Federation of Peasant Workers of the Tropic

of CochabambaFINSA Arévalo Savings SocietyFSTMB Syndicalist Federation of Mining Workers of BoliviaIPSP Political Instrument for the Sovereignty of the

PeopleIU United LeftMAS Movement toward SocialismMAS-IPSP Movement toward Socialism-Political Instrument for

the Sovereignty of the PeopleMBL Free Bolivia MovementMIP Pachakuti Indigenous MovementMIR Movement of the Revolutionary LeftMITKA Túpac Katari Indian MovementMNR Revolutionary Nationalist MovementMNRI Revolutionary Nationalist Movement of the Left

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONSxiv

MRTK Túpac Katari Revolutionary MovementNFR New Republican ForceNPE New Economic PlanPCB Communist Party of BoliviaSPY Society of Landowners of the Yungas and InquisiviUCS Civic Solidarity UnionUDP Popular and Democratic Union

Peru

AAAHCPA Association of Livestock and Coca Leaf Farmers of the Padre Abad Province

AIDESEP Inter-ethnic Development Association of the Peruvian Jungle

APRODEH Pro Human Rights AssociationCAOI Andean Coordinator of Indigenous OrganizationCCP Peasant Confederation of PeruCENACOP National Coca Agricultural Organization of PeruCGTP General Confederation of Workers of PeruCNA National Agrarian ConfederationCNT National Confederation of WorkersCODEDU Committee of Development and Defense of UchizaCODETO Committee of Development and Defense of

TocacheCOICA Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the

Amazon BasinCONACAMI National Confederation of Peruvian Communities

Affected by MiningCONAPA National Coordinating Committee of Agricultural

ProducersCONPACCP National Confederation of Agricultural Producers of

the Coca Valleys of PeruCOPPIP Permanent Coordinator of Indigenous Peoples of

PeruCORAH Upper Huallaga Special Project for the Control of

Coca Crop Eradication and ReductionCRPCLP-A Regional Committee of Coca Producers of the

Province of Leoncio Prado and AnnexesCTP Confederation of Workers of PeruCTRP Center of Workers of the Peruvian RevolutionCVR Commission of Truth and ReconciliationDESCO Center for the Study of Promotion and Development

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS xv

DEVIDA National Commission for Development and Life without Drugs

DL 22095 Supreme Law 22095 (Law of Drugs)DS 044 Supreme Decree 044DS 245 Supreme Decree 254IDL Institute of Legal DefenseENACO National Enterprise of CocaFASMA Agrarian Federation of the Maestra JungleFECVRA Peasant Federation of the Valley and River ApurímacFEDECAH Defense Front against the Eradication of Coca in the

Upper HuallagaFENDEPCO National Front in Defense of the Producers of the

Coca LeafFEPA-VRAE Federation of Agricultural Producers of the Valley of

the River Apurímac-EneFEPCACYL Federation of Peasant Producers of the La Convención,

Yanatile, and LaresFIDH International Human Rights FederationMRTA Túpac Amaru Revolutionary MovementPCP Communist Party of PeruPDC Christian Democracy PartyPEAH Special Project Upper HuallagaSIN National Intelligence ServiceSUTEP Unitary Syndicate of Education Workers of PeruUPP-PNP Union for Peru-Peruvian Nationalist Party

Other

CIA Central Intelligence Agency (United States)DEA Drug Enforcement Administration (United States)ILO International Labour OrganizationIMF International Monetary FundNGO Non-Governmental OrganizationUN United NationsUNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and CrimeUSAID United States Agency for International Development