Mbeere Archerl' and lta Technolog]':

A Prebninarl' Descrlptlon anal AnatlrBts

Martin Wdah

Research Fellow,School of African and Asian Studies,

University of Sussex, England

rorking draft

May 1993

Mb€€re Archeq' and lta Technology:

A Preundna:rJ' Descrlpuon and Anaty8l8

Martin Walsh

InttoducUon

There is a paucity of good de-scripuon of material culture, e-specially for

the Bantu-speaking peoples of East AJrica. The best recent rtork has

been on pottery ( see Blackburn L973; Kenyan pottery volume),

blacksmithing and beekeeping. The first two reflect the interest of

archaeologists and prehistorians in ceramic traditions and ilon working,

the latter the interest of historical linguists and ethnographers in

hunting and gathering. Unfortunately the work of many

ethnoarchaeologists is informed by dubious (though academically

fashionabte ) theoreUcal constructs \^trlich do not place a premium upon

a@urate and detailed description of tie artefacts being discussed (if at

all they are). As a result the most useful sources for the material

culture of many East African people.s date from more than 50 years ago

and the period before the now dominant tradition of social (cultural )

anthropology took hold, with its strong anti-evoluuonist bias and

conscious renunciauon of its own historical origiins. The best

de-scriptions of the material culture of the people.s of central Kenya, for

example, remain Lindblom's monograph on the Kamba (1920) and

Leakey's three volume work on the southern Kikulru (1977). The latter

was orig"inaly written in 1939, and it is no accident (in terms of the

development of mainstream social anthropology ) that its publication had

to await Leakey's death and promotion by the Foundauon established in

his name. Meanwhile Soper (f976) had to rely primarily on Lindblom

for his comllarison of finds from the Chyulu Hills with the Kamba.

The foUowing is a preliminary attempt to document one aspect of the

material culture of the Mbeere of central Kenya, namely archery. It is

not based upon a comprehensive survey, but upon informauon recorded

primarjly in the IsNara area in northern Mbeere. This IEper is

intended in part to demonstrate the wealth of information that can be

obtained from a brief survey, and to iUustrate one way in which it

might be presented. This gives considerable emphasis to the Iinguistic

descripuons of the items concerned and the cultural field in which they

are embedded. One of the reasons for this is so that the information

recorded can also be of use to historical linguists. The significance of

this is taken up in detail later on in the paper, fo[owing the basic

descripuon of Mbeere archery and its associated technology.

The Mb€ere and thel! History

This secuon locate.s the Mbeere and their history. Central Kenya

Bantu. Influence of Southern Cushiuc. The Gumba. Only a brief

archaeologdcal survey ( Soper 1979).

Available descripUons of Mbeere blacl<smithing and b€ekeeping.

The context of archery. Warfare, huntjng, protecung crops and

bleeding cattle. tcheck Ehret on Southern Cushiticl . No good

descriptions of Mbeere warfare, though there is something on

neighbouring peoples - S. Kikul'u, Fadiman on the Meru and Embu

Historical Texts. Still used in local disputes. The most famous recent

case was the fight b€tween the Tharaka and the administration over the

bounalary: this was in 1986 (?) and is known as 'The DCs Wedding"

[check Tharaka name: see Dj!ry__Nqtion cuttings]. Now mostly in local

land disputes, especialy concerning land adjudicauon. One of the

authors lost his elder brother in this way. Hunung of large animala

likewise is limited now. Now mainly confined to Ngiiri and the banks of

the Tana River. However, the hunting of small animals and e-speciaUy

birds by young boys continues. This overlaps with the protection of

crops against animal pests and livestock predators. Near the Tana

River hippos are killed and their fle.sh is eaten and sold. Pythons are

kiUed, paruy for their skins, also to protect p€ople and livestock.

Against the depredaUons of monkeys.

as a treatment of disease.

Bleeding of cattle for food and

Informauon collected in and around IsNara. An important market, held

on Tuesdays (it is not operative on Fridays now). The local dialect of

Mbeere. ( Somewhere explain the orthography and indicauon of noun

classes). Botanical idenuficadons are taken from Riley and Brokensha

( their speling modified). Informauon also collected at Kiriuri, where

markets are held every Monday and Thursday.

Mbeere Archery and lts Technology

BowE

Parts of the Bow

r{lga, nga, LI/I9, the bowstring. Bowstrings used to be made from

the ligaments of catUe (a]so caled nga). The advantage of these is

that they are very long-Iasung: the disadvantage that they split if

they get hret. These days bowstrings are commonly made from nylon

threads taken from sacks made of the same material. Bowstrings made

of nylon can be used even when it is raining. The bowstring (of

whatever type ) is usually held fast to the ends of the bow in one of,

two ways: (a) using a thread made from the chewed inner bark of

mogaa ( Acacia tortilis ) and the sucky sap of lkaga (Euphorbia

candelabrum ) or other suitable alternauves; or (b) by tying it vrith

strips of wet skin taken from a small animal which will dry in posiuon.

The bowstring of three bows purchased in Kiriuri market was made

from nylon. This is taken from sacking and has then to be twisted into

a string. The string is held in place by a binding of Xitharara (7/8,

Lannea floccosa). The fibre from this small tree is chewed to make it

soft and then wound round the wood (trus use is not menuoned by

Riley and Brokensha 1988: u, 274-275). This binding is then held in

place by the sap of lkeega (5/6, Euphorbia tirucali: ttris specific use

of the sticky exudate is not menuoned by Riley and Brokensha 1988:

II, 116). The binding of one of the bows (as well as on another wlrich

was not purchased ) was not, however, held with sap, and was

therefore thought fikely to slip down the bow more easily.

Leakey notes that among the Southern Kikuyu bowstrings were made

from the sinews of oxen or, occasionally, eland (1977: 336):

"The sinews from the [-land's] back ... were Nghly prized foruse as bow strings, and were regarded, in fact, as "lucky gut"( r{Iga roa monyaka) " (7977 | 451).

Ota, 14/

Three bows purchased in Kiritjri market (and made by two different

craftsmen ) were made of rnovar0 ( see below ) with nylon bowstrings.

They are all about armpit height and cost Kshs. 30 each in may 1993.

Orde Browne, who believed Kamba technology to be superior and the

model for that of the peoples to the west of the Tana River, described

the bows of the latter as follows:

"The bow is a feeble one, made of a plain single staff, whichtaper off into a point at each end. It is strung with twistedsinew, which is bound round each end, the bow being keptstrung. The curve of the strung bow varies considerably, but isalways more or less symmetrical - the stave is not pierced toreceive the string, nor is any other device adopted to keep this inposiuon' (1925: 151).

Leakey described the Southern Kikuyu Ota as follows:

"The Kikuyu bow, which was used for fighUng by the older men,r,lras made from the wood of the trees caled m0tongu m{llro wa wer{lI unidentified sp.; m0tongu is So]anum incanum and Solanumindicuml , mondersndu I Teclea nob,ilis and Teclea simplicifolia], andmohar{l lunidentified sp., presumably the same as Mbeere movaro,Dombeva kirkii and Grewia rotundifolial. The bow staves weresimply round-secLioned stave-s about 3L ft long, tapering at eachend, and with a thickness of about L in at the centre of the stave.In spite of their apparenUy simple form, most bows were made byspecially skiled bow makers, since it \das necessary that the bowbe properly balanced and evenly tapered, so that the pull erasequal from both ends. Bow strings were made from the sinews ofoxen or, occasionally, eland" (L977': 336).

4

Tvpes of Bow

Apart from the ordinary bow, Ota, there is only one other kind in

common use:

Ota wa ndlya, 14/ , a small bow for shooting the small arrows(nauya) which are used in drawing blood from oxen and other cattle.

According to orde Browne:

"Toy bows and arrows ale often used by children, and the boysherding cattle generally carly them; these are merely small ediuonsof the full-sized article. The litue wooden arrows are used forshooung small birds, etc., but there seems to be no idea oftraining the young people in archery at all.Very rarely a little bow a few inche-s long will be found in awizard's equipment; it seems to be used for the dramatic indicauonof some person who has been selected by a lot-castjng ceremony,for some reason. LitUe importance is attached to it, nor has itany peculiaritie.s, being litUe more than a bent twig; any smallsUck seems to serve for [the] arrow, being at the personto be indicated" (1925: 155).

Trees used in Bow-makinq

The principal requirement in wood for bow-making is that it should be

straight and flexible.

mogudl, mlgucdi, 3/4, Acacia brevispica, a common shrub along

$rater courses. Riley and Brokensha also refer to tlre use of the

tNcker stems for making bows (1988: II, 82).

m0ragwa, miragwa, 3/4, Grewia bicolor or Grewia trichocarpa. The

use of this in making bows is also mentioned by Riley and Brokensha

(1988: I I , 195).

morenda, mirenda, 3/4, Sle!{l3__lishgeefpa (and possibly also

mistakenly identified as Ziziphus abvssinica: Riley and Brokensha 1988:

II, 205). According to Silas Kibwece this does not have thorns, ruling

out the identificaUon with the Ziziphus sp., which is spiny. The bows

made from this small tree a.re of a high guality and more expensive than

all the other types of bows. Trus is because it does not los€ its

elasticity, whether wet or dry.

moruva, miruva, 3/4, Grewia tembensis or Ziziphus abvssinica, both

of which occur as straggly bushes. Also menuoned by Justus Runji.

The use of the long, straight, flexible shoots, when peeled of their

bark, for making bows (as well as arrow shafts) is also noted by Riley

and Brokensha, who use the spelling nmuruban (L988: II, 22L-222).

m0vangua, mivangua, 3/4, Dlillettia usaramensis, quite rare and

usually found as a small bush growing on high and rocky hills. Riley

and Brokensha do not mention its use in making bows and arrows,

though they do refer to its use in making diggring sticks and

spearshafts (1988: II, 14).

movaro, mivaro, 3/4, Dombeya kirkii or Grewia rotundifolia, both

small trees. Also menuoned by Justus Runji. Under the speling"mubaru", Brokensha and Riley note that the flexibiuty of the young

and thin branches of the-se two trees made them the most important

sources of wood for bow-making (1988: II, 16-U).

movu, mivu, 3/4, Grewia villosa, usually found as a bush rather

than a tree. Bows (and arrows) made from this are very elasuc and

long-lasting. Riley and Brokensha (under "mubuu") also note that the

Ught, straight and flexible branches provide good wood for bows, as

well as arrows (1988: II, 35).

(Any other spp. mentioned in Riley and Brokensha?).

Arrowa

Parts of the Arrow

kiano, cdano, 7/8, the shaft of an iron-upped arrort.

Leakey described the Southern Kikuyu l<iano as follows:

"An arrow shaft was made either from the wood called mogumucanoI Gachathi (1989: 66) gives mogumo-cdano, Mimusops kumme]l ormondelendu I Teclea nobilis and Teclea simplicifolia]. A suitablepiece was shaved and pareal down and a notch cut at one end anda small cup-shaped hollow at the otfier to receive the tang of theiron arrow head. Having been fastened to the shaft by insertingthe tang into this hollow cup, the arrow head was cemented thereby apptying first the milky juice of m0th0Ort I Gachathi (1989: 121)gives m0th0rl, Euphorbia candelabruml and ttlen the gummy sap ofthe roots of the Orlru plant lthis name is not in Gachathi (1989),but see belowl . Trlis gum or glue, once hardened, gripped thehead so finnly that no one could pu]l it out" (L977 | 337).

Leakey also de.scribes Orlru as follows:

"This was a gum made from the bulb of a small rock plant( Sansevieria parva... ). It was quite a strong glue, and was usedfor fixing arrow heads" (L977: 377).

cachathi give-s this plant, Bow String Hemp, the name ndlbal, and

notes that its fibres are used for making bow strings wrule the stem

produces a strong glue used for fixing arrow heads (1989: 133).

ldvogo, tvogo, 7/8, the nock o! notch at the butt end of the shaft

which holds the bow-string.

Orde Browne described the nock of the model Kamba arrow thus:

"The other end of the shaft lfrom the arrowhead ] has a nock cutin it, with a sinew or giraffe-tail binding to prevent splitting"(1925: 152).

In tfre arrows of the tribes round Embu, however, the neat giraffe-tail

binding is said to be absent (L925: 153).

ngerel€, ngerel<o, 9/I0, the flights or feathering of an arrow.There are usually three flights per arrow. However, if an arrow isvery heavy, for example with an iron head, and/or there are nofeathers (mbtll) from a vulture (nderi, 9/fO) ot other large birdavailable, but just cNcken feathers, then the arrow make! may use fouro! even five flights. This in interesUng as an explanauon of the fourflights used by the Waata ( see Holman 1967) and atso the Hadza [need areference herel .

In Mbeere feathers are preferably obtained and used from the foUowingbirds:

(1) The $dng feathers of ndert (9/10) are used. This bird is saiat notto be found in Mbeere any more, but its feathers are still used.Arrows purchased in Kirifiri market in May 1993 had flights made ofthe.se feathers. They were said to be obtained from Kamba coming fromAthi River and other areas where the nderl can still be found. It wassaid that the birds are not kiiled but the feathers picked up from

around their nests.

(2) The Glossy Ibis I probably also the Hadada: need scientific names

frere and elsewhere in this secdonl, ngarara (9/lO). It is believed thatarrows with these feathers cannot miss thefu target. Therefore mo€t

hunters try to obtain at least one of these feathers, if not enough for

a]l of their arrows.

(3) Justus Runji menEoned the use of ngoru tcheckl (g/LO,"buzzard" ) feathers and also irango (5,/6), sinews, obtained from

animals, for example goats and cows, and I presumably ] used to bind

the feathers in place. In Kiriuri market irango, cattle ligament, was

used to bind the end of the shaft which holds the arrow head [checkwhether or not this term is also used in Ishiaral and ttrus prevent it

from splitting.

In neighbouring Chuka, feathers from the following birds are used:

(f) mwarara (3/4), probably the Hadada and the clossy lbis. Trus is

widely hunted for its feathers which are good for making arrows - past

and present.

(2) nguru (g/LO), a black water bird with webbed feet, again hunted

for its feathers which are used in arrow-making.

(3) mb0ng0 (9/LO), hunted for its feathers whicrh are

used in arrow-making.

(4) ndl0 (9/10), uhawkn, also widefy hunted for this purpose.

( 5 ) gftOnkoril (7 /8) , Pied, Crow, also wialely hunted for its feathers

which are used in arrtlr-making.

(6) nJeO (9/10), a locust-eaung bird, alro hunted for the samepurpose.

(7) ntandamauru (9/IO), a bird of prey, likewise hunted for its

feathers.

A number of these birds are noted for their high and strong flight

[check whether or not it is a]so straightl . They are birds which prey

upon other creatures, though not just raptors, and are not eaten for

this reason [check]. It is specificaly forbidden in Chuka to use the

feathers of one bird, the ntunduguru (9/10), a kind of owl, as arrow

flights. This is a bird of i]l omen and it is believed that if a'person

uses its feathers then the aEow will kiU his mothe! while she is

grinding [why grinding? cive fuller explanauon].

These days the flights ( for example those on arrows bought in Kiritiri

market ) are held to the shaft with sisal thread glued down with the

sucky sap of one or other of the following:

(1) mokuyu (3/4, Ficus spp., including F. capensis, F. qnaohalocarpa

and F. sycomorus). Riley and Brokensha note the use of tbe gummy

$p, ukuyu [cbeck], as a glue, and though they do not specificallymenuon feathering arrows in their se@nd volume (1988: II, 159-160),they do in their first (1988: I, 193).

(2) ithori (5/6, Euphorbia spp., especially E. candelabrum, alsoE. cussonioides, E. qrandicornis, E. nvikae and E. robechii). Riley andBrokensha mention the copious latex-Iike milky sap as an irritant, butnot its use as a glue (1988: II, 297-298).

(3) ikaga (5/6, Euphorbia candelabrum ). Riley and Brokensha give

this a double vowel, ikaaga, and agaln do not mention its use as a glue( 1.988: II, 100)). According to Silas Kibwece this is the most widelyused for feathering arrows.

(4) Another glue used is the sucky white sap of ndaro (9/LO,

Sarcostemma viminale). which is more easily collected than any of theother kinds ( perhaps because this plant is now used in fencing: Riley

and Brokensha note that broken stems exude a copious milky latex orsap, but do not menuon its use as a glue (1988: II, I72-L73)).

(5) Afso used is the " brownish yeltow" sap of m{lkoo (3/4, Commiohoraneqlecta), whose use in this re-spect is not menUoned by Riley andBrokensha (L988: II, 156).

(6) In Kiriuri the use of the sap of lkeega (5/6, Euphqbia_grrfeall-)was mentioned ( though this particllar use is not menuoned by Riley

and Brokensha 1988: II, 116).

If a lot of arrows are being made a needle will be used to thread the

sisal. However, if only one or two arrows are being made, then aknife of thin piece of wood is used to create gaps between the feathers

through which the thread can be inserted.

Orde Browne described the feathering of the model Kamba arrow asfollows:

10

" Belovr [the nock] is a feathering in three ribs, straight, andabout two inches long at most; these are usually guinea-fowlfeathers, though not always. They are kept in place by a fibrebinding, while gum is smeared over the various bindings to keepthem in posiuon' (1925: 153).

The feathering of the Kambars western neighbours (induding,

pre-sumably, the Mbeere ) is said to be a cruder version of the same.

rathuntl, ntunu,or w@den.

LI/LO, the Up or head of an arrow, whether iron

r{lvuro, mburo, IL/7O, a barb, whether carved on a w@den arro$,

or filed on an iron tip.

( shank )

A number of the types of arrow described by Orde Browne have

separate wooden shanks. In fact this arrangement seems to have been

the rule. Even the most common excepuon, the V-shaped iron head

fashioned ( reputedly) on the Kamba model, could also be made in this

way:

"The iron point is someUmes made lvith a small tang which selvesto secure it to a wooden shank which replaces the iron shank ofthe one-piece point; this, however, is not strong, and isconsidered inferior to the other form" (1925: 154).

( decorauon )

Fire is used for decoraung as well as hardening arrows. The soft

green bark of m0raghra (3,u4, Grewia bicolor or G. trichocarpa ) or, less

commonly, m0gere (3/4, Hibiscus aponeurus or H. micranthus), are

wound in a spiral around an arrow shaft. When the shaft is smoked

over a fire the gleen bark acts as a stencil: when removed it leaves a

Iight-coloured spiral lEttern on the darkened wood.

According to Orde Browne, "A red vegetable dye is often used for

ornament, in bands or dots, and the effect of a well-made arrow is

very neat..." (1925: 153). Harriet Skinner has noted such a dye

being applied in the market at Ishiara. According to Simon Nyaga it is

prepared from the sap of m0kofdl G/4, Ficus capensis, Ficus

t L

qnaohalocarpa and/or Ficus sv@morus (and possibfy others) ). The

bark of the tree is simply cut with a krrife or a stone, and the white

sap is collected [in what?]. It turns red-brown when it dries, and is

then used as a dye for colouring baskets as well as bows and arrows

[how is it applied? Is it watered down?]. In their first volume

Brokensha and Riley briefly menuon its use in decoraUng arrows (1988:

I, 193). In their s€cond volume (J.988: II, 159) they also refer to the

use of nokoytl in providing dye, though they do not say what this dye

is used for or hrhich part of the tree it comes from. They note that"One particularly disuncuve reaction is the chang'ing colo! of the

exudate. Several Mbeere informants described the latex (sap) that

ooz€s from the tree as being milky at first, but rapidly changing to a

reddish-brown on exposure to the airn (1988: II, 160).

while the mokoyg prowides a red dye, most of the craftsmen purchase

modern chemical paints (including red paint ) in the market for

decorating bows and a.rrows. These decorations are applied solely to

make the bows and arrows more attractive. They do not mean

anything, except perhaps personally to the craftsmen who apply them.

Distjnctive craftsmen's marks ale not otherwise put on bows and

arrows, though the decorauon applied by a particular craftsman may be

individual to him.

Arrows bought in Kiritiri market were decorated with red paint on a

white ground. This white colour comes from the ground orcNd(s)

called kirilro (7/8, Eulophia orthoplectra). The rhizome is dug from

the ground, peeled with a knife, washed with water and the sap or dye

is then squeezed out of it by pressing it on a stone ( according to Riley

and Brokensha the vernacular name probably includes a number of

similar species. They say that it has no use-s (1988: II, 2L2)). The

decorauon is a]l between the flights and immediately below them.

Trzpes of Arlow and Arrowhead

igoto, magoto, 5/6, is a single-pointed \dooden arrow with barbs

(mburo) carved into the Up. This kind of arrow is particularly

effective in kiLIing monkeys, and in areas where monkeys are a serious

T2

crop pest men may have t$renty or tNrty of these arrows at the leady

at any one time. If hit with other kinds of ( unpoisoned ) arrow,

monkeys simply pull them out and throw them down. However, the

barbs make this kind difficult to pluck out because of the pain which

they cause. This makes it relauvely easy for the farmer to approach

and kill the wounded monkey. In April 1993 these cost Kshs. 8 each in

Ishiara market.

In Kiritiri market one man mentioned rOgOtO (11110) as the name for a

barb [or barbed arrow of this kind?].

Orde Browne described related types of arrow as follows:

"The other type of arrow is the wooden-pointed one. This isconsidered inferior to the iron-pointed variety, and is used forhunting, amusement, or when the iron point is not available. Theshaft and nock, with the feathering, remain much the same, butthe shank and point are replaced by a wooden point from four toeight inche.s in length. This is sharpened at one end, and theother is pointed to go into the socket in the end of the reed shaft.This wooden point is generally cut into balbs like the hook of acrochet needle; these are made by cutung the wooden pointtriangular in cross-sestion and then notching the edge-s thusformed. But the point is often left plain, without barbs. Thereis an inferior form in which shaft, shank and point are all made inone piece, with a rough feathering and nock at the end" (1925 |1s3-r.s4).

The contemporary ig{lt{l correspond to the type which Orde Browne

describes as inferior.

irangt, marangi, 5/6, is an arrow whose shaft is made from a length

of bamboo, morangl (3/4, Alundinaria alpina). Although bamboo doe.s

not grow in northern Mbeere it can be obtained from upper Embu, and

people in Ishiara do make this kind of arrow from time to time. It is

liked because it is light and can therefore travel a long distance ( there

are few strong winds in Mbeere). Only the shaft of this kind of arrow

is made from bamboo. A separate nock and shank of wood are mad.e

lwhat is a separate shank called?1 . The best wood for making the

shank is m0nluge irla lwhat aloes this name mean? Why is it the best? ](3/4), Clerondendrum spp., though movu (3/4), Grewia villosa, or

other species can also be used. Any kind of iron head can be fixed to

13

the shank, and the arrows are still called marangl. The.se arrows may

be poisoned and, depending on the kind of head affixed, they can be

used for hunting medium sized game like gazelle or even elephants.

According to Riley and Brokensha (1988: II, 198-199) n0rangt grows in

the hretter and higher areas of ( what was) Mbeere Division, including

shaded valleys on the northern slope.s of Kiang'ombe. A bamboo shaft

was bought in Kiritiri market and the bamboo was said to grow locally

on farms to the east of Kianjiru hiu. This arrow did not reguire a

separate wooden shank, but hras simply fitted htith an arror,', head

( motari) which a.lso fit other non-bamboo shafts.

ivavia, mavavla, 5/6, is an arrow made from the stalk (also ivavia )

of a variety of two-season solghum, m0via wa m0ruge (3,/4, Sorqhum

bicolor var. ), named after the brown colour and therefore cooked

appearance of its grain ( this variety can, in fact, be eaten raw). The

nock is made from a separate piece of wood. The Up of the arrow is

also carved from a pie@ of wood [check]. This piece has two equally

sharp points at either end: one of them being inserted into the stalk

(shaJt). The arrow and its head have a very short life (often less

than one day's use) and are likely to split if it lands on a stone. As

well as being used for shooting birds, this kind of arrow is also used

for tesUng the strength of bows. This is because it is so ught and

can be shot very far, whether up in the air or paralel to the ground.

This kind of arrow is not referred to by Orde Browne (L925), though

he does describe wooden-headed arrows in which the head is a seParate

piece inserted into a reed shaft.

klrOnda, Ir{lnda, 7/8, the largest kind of iron arrowhead. The.se

are leaf-shaped and often have small barbs (mburo) along the edge.

They are rarely poisoned, and when they are it is only with a very

small amount. Their primary use is for shooting small and medium-size

animals, including antelope, dikdik and rabbits. The weight of the

arrowhead makes it difficult for a small animal to cany it far and easy

for a hunting dog to seize the wounded prey. Otherwise it is not

unusual for the animal to lose a lot of blood and collapse within a short

period of Ume after being struc]<.

L4

According to one writer in the Melu District Socio-Cultural Profile

(anon 1986 ) :

"Alrow heads are purchased from blacksmiths. At l4itunguumarket Gerrad Nyaga is known for his well crafted kirunda (leaf-shaped arrow ) and muthali ( barbed arrow head)" (1986: 151.).

The following pass.rge in Orde Browne's account refers to a related, but

not idenucal, kind of arro$/head:

"But there is another type [other than the Kamba-inspired V-shaped headl which comes chiefly from Theraka [sic.] and Mumoni,in wtrich the V-shaped point is replaced by a leaf blade, which isoccasionally as much as two inches long; this is fitted by a tanginto a wooden shank w}Iich again fits by a tang into the socl<et inthe end of reed shaft. This shaft is feathered in the same way,but on a larger scale, the whole arrow being bigger and heavier.This type is by no means so neat as the Kamba pattern, but it isa dangerous missile, with considerable penetrauve power: I haves€en several cases where these arrows were driven five or sixinches into a rnan's body" (1925: t53).

kithonji, IthonJi, 7/8, is a wooden arrow wNch is designed esp€cially

fo! shooting bi-rds. The shaft is split at the end into a number of

separate points of equal length. The outer points are splayed out from

a central point around which has been wound a thread made from the

chewed inner bark of mogaa (3/4, Acacia tortilis ) and held in place

with the sdcky sap of m0kuyu (3/4, Ficus spp.), ith0rt (5/6,

Euphorbia spp.) or kaga (5/6, Euphorbia candelabrum). Each of the

points may also have barbs (mburo) carved into it. These arrows are

most effective when aimed at a bird which is relatively expoGed in the

open: if shot into trees or dense undergrowth the points are as likely

to catch on branches and foliage as they are to hit their target

properly. when one or more of the poiqts break the others are

whittled down to the same length. when the points a.re worn dohtn

completely the shaft can be used for making an iron-Upped arrow.

In early 1993 these cost less than Kshs. 10 each in Istriara market. In

Aprif 1993 they cost Kshs. 1.0 each.

I f

Orde Browne described a vadant of this type, remarking in a footnote

that he had seen a very similar arrow among the Makua of southern

Tanganyika (now Tanzania) :

"A curious form of shaft exists, in which the socket to receive theshank is splayed out into points, which are kept open byinterweaved binding of fibre, so that the shank itself fits into thecentre of a circle of points, just like the handle of an umbrellaamong the ribs when closed' (19253 L54).

m0rlva, nirlva, 3/4, a small iron arr:owhead used on poisoned

arrows, for shooung elephants and other large game. The Ups of these

are the same size and shape as the ndiya alrowheads wruch are used in

blood-letung. In this case, however, the size and shape are designed

to allohr the arrowhead to penetlate right through the animal's skin so

that the poison behind the head can take maximum effect. The shank

and tang of this kind of arrowhead are much longer than that of othe!

type-s, so that the poison can be applied onto the shank between the

shaft ( kiano) and tbe Up of the arrow. Large amounts of poison are

typically applied.

m0tari, mitari, 3/4, a medium-siz€d iron arowhead, barbed in a V-

shape. These may have addiuonal small barbs (mburo), though they

are less common than on the larger klr{lnda arrowheads. This type is

used particularly for hunung antelope and impala.

Nine arrowheads of ttris kind were purchased in May 1993 for Kshs. 20

each in Kiriuri market. This price included the shafts with feathering,

all made by the same man, a blacksmith. A bamboo shaft with the same

head was also the same price.

Compare this (and the smaller morlva type ) with Orde Browne's

descripuon of the model Kamba arrow:

"This arrow consists of a thin wooden shaft about t$renty-fourinche.s in length and a litfle more than a quarter of an inch indiameter; the point is V-shaped, and is made in one piece, with ashank of iron some four inches long, ending in a tang; this isinserted in a socket in the end of the shaft, which is bound withgut or fibre to receive iU in this it fits firmly, but not so fastthat it will not come out when the point is fixed in some object"(7925: L52).

16

(Are the shafts with their feathering retrieved and reused?).

Browne @ntinues:

Orde

rrThis is the arrow which serves as a pattern for most of the tribesround Embu. Their copies are, holuever, mosuy far inferior inworkmanship, and the neat giraffe-tail binding, the thin,accurately made shaft and the finely cut point are a]l absent. Theiron point is as a rule bought from a Mkamba; a rough shaft isfitted to it and a much cruder feathering is put on, the generaldesign of the arrow being the same, hohrever" (1925: 153),

ndlla, ndll,a, 9/LO, in Kiritiri this was given as the name of a

feathered arrow shaJt without the iron head. In the market they were

being sold either with the head or without. The same name is also

applied to wooden-Upped arrows used by young boys lequivalent to the

Ishiara nduru?l .

ndiya, ndlya, 9/IO, a very small iron arrowhead used for drawing

blood from oxen and other catUe. The head is shaped ]ike a scaled-

down version of the mOtari arroh/head. The same name is also given to

the arrow as a hrhole ldo they have flights?], which is shot from a

speciaf small bow, the Ota wa ndlya.

Orde Browne described a different type of bleeding arrow:

"A stopped arrow, with a piece of wood secured to the shank toprevent extreme penetration, is occasionaly used to bleed cattle; itis very similar to that used by the Masai" (1925: 154).

Leakey described the Southern Kikuyu ndia as follows:

"A bleeding arrow was made not only by smiths but also by wirepuuers. The metal heads of the bleeding arows were litUe flatbits of iron with a rounded tip" (7977 z 3L4).

nduru, nduru, 9/LO, is an arrow [made and?] used by both

unirrifated boys and newly circumcised boys to shoot their age mates

who are not yet circumcised. There are three types of nduru

differenuated by the kind of head affixed to the wooden shaft: (a)

made with a blunt (square) w@den head, also called nduru - the type

I7

commonly used by uninitiated boys; (b) made with a stone head,

again caled nduru [not seen by SK]; and (c) made with a head

comprising the sta-r-shaped thorn of a plant (or tree ) caffed ldtilgla

rrJogu (7/8, unidenufied sp.), literaly "the elephant's footprint", after

the shape of the thorn. The thorn is attached to the end of the shaft

with beeswax wNch has been softened by heat, and will subsequenuy

harden. The wooden head is made with a long and thin tang which can

be inserted into the shaft. It is not knohrn how the stone head is

affixed to the shaft. These arows normally last no longer than 1-3

weeks each.

This type is not referred to by Orde Browne (1925).

ranganl, ranganl, g/LO,

regardless of its type.

the general name for an iron arrowhead,

ranganl ya mou, rangani cta mgti, 9/lO, a wooden arrowhead. The

head is made from old and dry wood, and is not fire hardened. This

type of arrowhead is rarely made and used nour, if at all.

According to Silas Kibwece mog0nga (3/4, Acacia drepanolobium ) was

once used for this purpose: "In the olden days !,rhen ... iron was not

invented the middle or the innelmost part of a very old tree ... was

sharpened to make an arrow-head. This is because the innermost part

of a mature tree is quite hard such that even when an arrow lands on a

stone it does not easily get blunt. " The inner wood is al,ark brown in

colour, and was also used to make knives for skinning animals. Riley

and Brokensha refer to the heaviness and hardness of the wood but do

no mention either or these two uses (1988: II. 88-89).

Orde Browners descripUon (see under lg0t0 above ) implies that the

practice of fixing a wooden arrowhead to a separate shank was once the

norm.

The types of arrow head made by the Southern Kikuyu and described

by Leakey are as follords:

'Mogui wa Kahl0 [= "knife" ]A 2 in leaf-shaped arrow head v/ith a mid-rib and a tang was thecommonest form of arrow used.

18

Mogui wa Mbugi [= rr l-'all n ]A small, iron arlow Up with a metal fore.shaft was made on theKamba pattern.

M0gul wa M0rarangai [or m0rarangari? ]An arrow head made like m0gui vra kahlo, but with a series ofbarbs at the base, was made on the Maasai pattern " (1977, 3L3).

Leakey also de-scribed the following type.s of w@den arrow:

" ThuuthlThis was a wooden-headed arrow, the point being made from suchwood as nOhOgO I Brachvlaena huillensis ] or mgtamallzo I BrownOlive, Olea europaea var. africanal . The shaft was made of thestems of sorghum, or thara reeds [this now describe.s NapierGrass, Pennisetum purpureum, a recenuy introduced exotic:Gachathi (1989: f43) afso gives tlrara-wa-r{i, Echinochloapvramidalis I .

ThuuthlAnother type of wooden arrow had a cane shaft and was used forshooung colobus monkeys, which were never shot with iron arrowsor with poisoned arro$rs.

[6gui ya ArutInitiauon candidates, during their period of seclusion, r^rere givenspecial arrows in hrhich the shaft and stem were all of a singlepiece of wood cut from a stem of motamatld [Brown OUve, Oleaeuropaea var. africana]. These arrows were used for ceremonialpurposes on]y. . .

Ndtrtnga (3lso c rted Ndllrl )This was a special arrow made of morangarl [Scutia mvrtina ] woodfor the use of initiation candidates during the period of theirnovitiate. The stem of the alrow was made of mgrangart wood.andthe head was made of a leather disc through which the point of thearrow was thrust. On to this leather // dis and round theprojecting point was moulded beesr,rax until there was a ball shapedhead of wax completely covering the leather disc. It was used forshooting birds, and might even be used for shooung at girlsoccasionaUy!" (L9772 337-338).

Further reference is made to the arrows for shooting colobus monkeys

as follows:

" colobus could not be trapped like ordinary monkeys, for theyseldom came dov/n to the ground, and they could not be shot withpoisoned arrows, because iJ they were, the s,<ins were valueless,as all the long hair would fall out, and it was this long hair that

19

was wanted for the ornaments [worn by men and boys at dance-s].Colobus were, therefore, hunted with a special form of arrowknown as thuuthl, which was used exclusively for this purpose.These arrows had wooden and not metal heads, the reason for thisbeing that any arrow that missed its mark lras irretrievably lost inthe dense forest, and therefore to use metal-headed arrows wouldhave been too cosuy. For the sarne r@son, the shafts of thearrovrs were not made of the ordinary arrow shaft wood(m0gumocano), but from reeds called tlrara, or someUmes fromstems of tnagoko lnot idenufied ] thatching grass" (1977: 454).

Tools used in Arrow-makinq

kinbo, dinbo , 7 /8 , a kind of awl used in drilling a hole into the

end of an arrowshaft (kiano ) so that it can take the tang of an iron (or

othe! ) arrowhead. The awl is typicaly made these days from a piece of

barbed wire or umbrella wire inserted into a w@den handle. The point

of the awl is filed down so that it is very tlfn at the Up, widening out

slighuy into a sharp double-edged blade. Most men make and possess

one or more of these tools. In order to drill a hole in the end of a

shaft, the wooden handle of the awl is held between the feet and the

shaft itseu is driued by hand onto the upward poinung point of the

awl. If the resulung hole is too wide and does not provide a Ught

enough fit for the tang of an arrowhead, then it is glued in with the

help of mogaa ( Acacia tortilis ) or other thread and the sucky sap of

Ikaga ( Euphorbia candelabrum) or its alternauves.

Tree.s used in Arror.r-makinq

m8karakara, mikarakara, 3/4, EEelqle__resrSgga , usually a small

shrub or tree. Also mentioned by Justus Runji. The thin branches of

this tree are also mentioned by Riley and Brokensha as being good

material making arrows (1988: II, 107).

m0nJuge lria, rnlnJuge lrla [plural also given as miunjuge ida - check],

3/4, Clerodendrum spp., a small shrub or tree. According to Ritey

and Brokensha (who spe[ the name "munjuga-iria" ), "The younger

20

stems are Ught ... and straight and they are used very often as small

shafts for young boys' practice arrows. Arrows might be used against

bird pe-sts, but are not heavy or thick enough to be used against

larger quarry" (1988: II, 179).

The shafts of nine arrows purchased in Kiritiri were all made of this

wood.

moragwa, miragwa, 3/4, Grewia bicolor or Grewia trichocarpa.

while Riley and Brokensha mention the use of this in making bows, they

do not refer to it as a source of arrows (1988: II, 1.95).

moruva, miruva, 3/4, Grewia tembensis or Ziziphus abvssinica, both

of which occur as straggly bushe.s. Also mentioned by Justus Runji.

The use of the long, straight, flexible shoots, when pe€led of their

bark, for arrow shafts (as well as bows) is also noted by Riley and

Brokensha, who use the spelling "muruba" (1988: II, 221-222).

movangua, mivangua, 3/4, Milletua usaramensis, quite rare and

usually found as a small bush growing on high and rocky hills. Riley

and Brokensha do not menuon its use in making bows and arrows,

though they do refer to its use in making digging sucks and

spearshafts (1988: II, 1.4).

movu, mlvu [check], 3/4, Grewia villosa, usually found as a bush

rather than a tree. Arrows (and bows) made from this are quite elasuc

and long-lasung: as a result the arror,\ts do not break easil y hthen they

are in the body of an animal. Riley and Brokensha (under "mubuu")

also note that the light, straight and flexible branches provide good

wood for arrows, as well as bows (1988: II, 35).

Arrow Poisons

There are diJferent recipes for arrow poisons. wNch vary in strength

and the complexity of their production process. The producuon of the

2I

stronger poisons with more complex recipes tends to be the work of

specialists, while other simpler reqipes are known to most men.

(1) According to Silas Kibwece the following recipe is widely known

and can be prepared by any archer. The leaf of a plant ca[ed ikono

(5/6, Sansewieria sp.) is heated and then squeezed so that its sap

@mes out. The sap is then mixed with soot to make a weak poison

wtrich can then be applied to the arrow. The anudote to this poison is

to rub sheep's oil into the wound [check t}!at it is rubbed in]. Riley

and Brokensha do not give this recipe but do refer to the fact that the

juice of this plant is someumes smeared on poisoned alrows to "renehr"

the poison if it is considered too dry (1988: II, 147).

(2) Another reqipe given by Silas Kibwece uses a kind of 'cactus',

ith0rl (5/6, Euphorbia spp., especiatly E. candelabrum, also E.

cussonioide.s. E. grandicornis, E. nvikae and E. robechii ). Its milky

sap is mixed together with soot ( mOrare, 3/-) collected from a kitchen

roof to make an €rlrow poison which is very black in colour and caled

ivat (5/- [?]) in Mbeele ( note that soot alone is also prepared into a

medicine to induce abortion). The mixture forms a thick solid and is

smealed on the aEow where it is allowed to dry into a hard black

substance. The sap is very poisonous: if it comes into contact with

the body of a man, goat or cow, it c€ruses a wound to develop

immediately. Riley and Brokensha do not menuon this use of the plant

under this name, though they do refer to the fast that the milky sap is

Nghly irritant to human skin and mucous membranes (1988: I, 189; II,

297-298). They do, however, refer to the use of Euphorbia

candelabrum as an ingredient in arrow poison, but under another name

( see below).

(3) Jonathan Mutua describes the following anudotes to arrow poison.

The leaves and small branches holding the leave-s of m0caritha (3/4,

Entada leptostachva), a scrambling creeper or shrub, are collected.

They are then crushed ( with any available implement ) and squeezed to

remove the sap from the leaves. This is then dripped onto the wound

made by a poisoned arrow (this use of the plant is not mentioned by

22

Riley and Brokensha (1988: II, 39-40), though it is mentioned in their

first volume (1988: I, 189)). Another treatment is to make the person

shot by a posioned arrow eat raw sweet potatoes, ngwad (9/10, Ipomoea

batatas). The most effecuve treatment for arrow poison, however, is

to combine both of these cures.

(4) Riley and Brokensha (1988: I, 188) give the fotlowing recipe:

"Two men, both hunters, gave details of how they prepared theirpoison. The fuller accrunt follows, the main ingredients being:

a) mubal, Acokanthera schimperi; or A. lonqiflora, leaves;

b) Murugambumbu, (not identified), roott

c) ga-Idrllmblu, Adenia volkensii;

d) mhr-kanla, Euphorbia candelabrum;

e) kt-thunlu, Aloe sp., 'leaf ';

f) Mutandambogo, Capparis tomentosa, root.

The first two trees were said to be rare but the other treesare common in most parts of Mb€ere ! (b) is the main poison; (a)cannot kill alone; (c) and (d) are added partly for their slimyquality, as this helps to harden the poison; although (c) can kiUarrimals; and (d) is bitter; (e) produces pain if put in an openwound; and (f) is always regarded as a poisonous plant.

SmaU pieces of all ingredients are boiled in a debe ( twentyUter metal container ) with water, and the steam is not allowed toescape. The bark and branches are discarded, and a fresh lotadded and boiled - this can be repeated two or three Umesdepending on the quality of the poison required. The mixture isboiled until it reaches a thick consistency, when it is put througha sieve to remove aII the piece-s of plants. The Uquid is againheated untjl it becomes viscrus, then it is dropped on ashes tocool and harden. At this stage, it is struck with a piece of wood,to ensure an even consistency. Then it is ready to be shaped intosmall oval ba]ls ready for sale. If the mixture has to be handled,the hands should be protected with a thick layer of ash.

To test the mixture, a drop is put on the tail of a lizard,aJter cutung the tail; unless the lizard dies instanuy, the poisonis not strong enough and more murugarnbungar [sic] or more mubalshould be added.

Other source-s menuon extra ingredients, including a small redfrog, gakengete, hvperolins marmoratus glandicolor [sic3 check];

23

rwengt, a small herb which is very irritaung if it touches theskin; gitent, a worm that js fatal to livestock; skulls of snakes. "

The following informaUon is provided on anudotes:

"If a person is accidentatly shot by a poisoned arrow, the foltowingplants are said to prowide good anudotes:

mu-carltha, Entada leptostachvs, or pumpkin root - juicesqueezed on to the wound. The fibre of mu-rutla, Grewiatembensis, can be chehred, and put on to the wound.(Woman's urine is also said to be effective. ) A specific formutanda mbogo [sic] is tatha ya ng'ondu (or mburl), theundigested parts from the stomach of a sheep or goat" (1988:r , 1 8 9 ) .

Also menuoned as an arrow poison is "g{-kathl, Sansevieria spp."(1988: I, 189). This may be the same as the Sansevieria sp. menUoned

under the name ikono by Silas Kibwece.

(5) The informauon in the second volume contradicts some of the

above. "Mubal" is idenufied as Garcinia volkensii, now only found in

isolated forest remnants such as the inace-ssible slope.s of Kianjiru Hill:"The latex and young bark were formerly used in preparauon of alcrowpoison rdhen game hunUng was a more prevalent pursuit, according to

our older male informants. This use appears to have ceased" (L988:

II, L2). According to Riley and Brokensha (1988: II, 235) Acokanthera

opposiufolia (A. lonqiflora ) and Acokanthera schimperi (A. friesiorum )are called by the same name in Mbeere: mor{lrtl ( 3,/4 ) . In Kikuyu,

however, they are given different names: m0r0r{ (3/4) or ldOrOrO(7 /8) is applied to Acokanthera opposiufolia, wtrile Acokanthera

schimperi is called morico (3/4) ( Gachathi 1989: 199). Here Riley and

Brokensha add the followinq information:

"The plant is the basis of the well documented arrow poisonsattributed localy to the Wa-Kamba people. Enquiries aboutwrapped arrows offered for sale in the artisans' @rner at IshiaraMarket elicited the re.sponse that they were I'doctored", but theexplanauon differed in that we were told the milky latex fromleaves and pounded young green growth had been used in thepreparauon of the poison rnastic in hrhich the arrows had beenplaced, then protected by a padding of young green leaves. Oneold man whom we encountered out hunung in the bush at Riandu

24

had arrows so protected in a quiver over his shoulder" (1988: II,23s).

Murugarnbumbu or murustanbungu, an unidentified sp., is not mentioned

in the second volume. Adenia volkensii is caled gakfrt (not

galrlr[mbfu, a]so when mentioned elsewhere in volume J. (1988: I, 189)),

and its use in poison preparation is not menuoned (1988: II, 130).

Euphorbia candelabrum is called mwanla (not mwkanla), and no us€s are

given for it (1988: II, 5). The use of klthunJu, Aloe spp. in

preparing poisons is also not g"iven: instead its use in healing wounds

is described (1988: II, 295). Mutandamt ogo is idenUfied as both

CaDparis sepiaria and CapDaris tomentosa: again, its medical uses are

mentioned but not its use in arrow poison (1988: ll, 246-247).

(6) Orde Browne's descripuon presurnably refers to the Acokanthera

poison:

" Poison figures in the weapons of the [Mt.] Kenya tribes to someextent, though it is generally obtained from the Akamba; it is usedto poison arows, but it is never put on any other weapon. It isa thick black sUcky paste when fresh and is prepared by boilingdown the leaves and roots of a tree; it is the r^/ell known poison ofthe Akamba, and acts through the depressant effect upon theheart. The efficacy of it has probably been considerablyexaggerated, the natives stating that it will kill a large buckbefore he can travel a hundred paces. It is put on the arrows alldor^rn the shank and point, which is then wrapped in thin strips ofskin to keep the poison fresh; when dry and hard it Ioses itsefficacy considerably. Before shooung the arrow, the strip is tornoff, leaving the poison fresh and sticky" (1925: 156-157).

(7) This can be compared with L€akey's information for the Southern

Kikuyu:

"Menuon has been made ... of the poison that was used on thearrows and elephant harpoons by the Kikuyu hunters. This poisonwas procured almost exclusively from the mortco plant[Acokanthera schimperi], although the juice of a small rock plantcaled gathoorl ka mahlga-lni lunidenufied, possibfy related toMbeere ith{lri, Euphorbia spp., and also an ingredient in arrowpoisonl was added to the brew when the poison was being made, tomake it of a suckier consistency.

The morlco shrub gre$, commonly in Kikuyu country aroundDagoretti and elsewhere. The roots, bark, and smaller brancheshrere chopped up small and then put into a special earthenware pot

25

used exclusively for // poi*n. There they were boiled in water,more water being added from Ume to Ume, for about 12 hours.The water was then allowed to boil away, and it left a sucky blackgum at the bottom of tbe pot. This gummy substance wascarefully scraped together wNle it was cooling and it was made upinto oblong lumps, which, when cold, went hard.

When one brew was thus finished a second lot was put on thefire, and the poison brewers would spend two or three whole daysdoing nothing but preparing this poison, which they later wouldseu to other aathl and to the agricultural Kikulru.

The brewing of the poison could not, by custom, be carriedout in a village or anywhere near habitauon sites. The poisonbrewers had to go into the bush and build a rough shelter to sleepin, or else go and dwell temporarily in a cave.

while brewing poison for arrows, the brewer might on noaccount have any sexual contact with thejr wives or any otherwoman, and no wornan might come near the place where the poisonwas being prepared, or it would certainly be rendered ineffective.If a poison brewer required food, his wife might bring it each dayto tfle vicinity of the cave o! hut in the bush where he wasworking, but she had to put it down a litue distance away, andIeave it for him to couect when she had gone. If a woman was inthe middle of a menstrual p€riod, she could not even prepare foodfor her husband while he wasi engaged in brewing poison, let alonecarry it to him, and she had to ask some other r^/ornan to cook himfood and take it to him.

when a man returned home with his supply of poison there wasno special ceremony required before he resumed normal life.

The lumps of poison were kept wrapped in soft pieces ofleather ( n(tatl|l) , and when required, a lump was put out in thesun until it was softened by the heat, and then a poruon of thegummy substance scraped off and appUed to the arrows andelephant harpoons as required.

A small ball of arrow poison atlout the size of a golf ball wasvalued at one ewe, and those who made good and effective poisondid a brisk trade. If a man gave a fellow hunter poison, insteadof seuing it to him, he thereby became entiued to one ndarl -piece of hide large enough for a shield - from each buffalo that hisfriend kiUed.

Poison of the kind made from moricg juice was not only usedon arrows for shooung game, but also on the arrows which theolder men used for fighung the Maasai when the Maasai raidedKikuyu country. Occasionaly a man would accidentally woundanother Kikuyu with a poisoned arrow, and in view of this theKikuyu had experimented with antidotes. They claimed that if aman who had been wounded with a poisoned arrow could get holdof some ngonlrl seeds I cardiospermum halicacabum ] and somemotongu berries [Solanum incanum, Sodom Apple, and Solanumindicuml , and // chew them quiclcfy and swallow their juice, hehad a good chance of recovery, because, rr Those juice.s wouldcause serious trouble to one another". ('Mai mau nimekoharana.')In other r^rords, the anudote to a blood poison was to take anotherpoison of the internal kind, for the juice of ngonld seeds and ofmotongu berries were also Nghly poisonous. The effect of this

26

treatment was that after an hour or two the pauent vomitedviolently.

An alternative treatment for arrow poison was the stomachjuice-s of a sheep or a goat. One of these animals would be kiUedas quickly as possible, its stomach contents removed, and thejuice.s squeezed out of it. which the pauent had to swallow.

The flesh round a poisoned arrow wound in an animal was cutout and thrown a\^ray. It was never eaten.

The mOrIcO shrub was said to be so poisonous that if beestook too much honey from its flowers, the honey was poisoned andwould make people who consumed i.t sick, and if they were at allweak in constituuon it would kill them" (L977: 476-478).

Else$/here Leakey refers to poison by the name flrtlr0 (1977: 377).

[How is poison stored and carried? How is the archer protected from

contact with it? How long does it last?l

Quivers

Use of Ouivers

Generally only iron-tipped arrows are carried in a quiver. Wooden

Upped arrows, as well as the different kinds of nduru, are not kept in

quivers. Most wooden arrows are, in any case, much longer than the

quivers that are used, except the wooden arrows that have worn do\^rn

(and been sharpened down) qrith age. The splayed klthonJt type of

arrow \rould not fit in a quiver however short they were. Instead

w@den arrows are usually carried two or three at a time in the left

hand. They are not normally carried in larger numbers than this

[arrows which miss their target are retrieved if possibfe?].

Quivers are calried by a strap ove! the left shoulder. when the

archer is in acuon the quiver hangs under the arm facing forward and

with its cover off ( suspended by a part of the strap in some cases) so

that arrows can be taken from the quiver easily with the right hand.

27

When the arctrer is just travelling with the quiver it is worn over the

left shoulder in the normal way lhow is the bow carried?].

Parts of the Ouiver

mokwa wa thtaka, mlkwa ya thlaka, 3/4,quiver.

the carrying strap of a

nemo ya thlaka, nemo da thlaka, 9/IO, the cover of a quiver (as

disUnct from nemo ya ldthembe (9/1.O), the cover of a honey barrel.

ngunlko, nguniko, 9/1.O, the generic term for a @ver. This is

sometimes applied to the cover of a quiver, though the proper term for

this is nemo ya thlaka.

(the main body of the quiver has no special name).

Tvpe-s of Ouivers

thlaka, tblaka, 9/LO, the generic name for a qrdver.

thiaka ya m0cingi, thiaka cia m0cingl, 9/IO, a quiver made out of a

plasuc water pipe. This is a relatively recent [when?] innovation.

The quivers are made from plasuc water pipes hrith leather carrying

straps and are very durable. The plastic is moulded by being heated

and then cold water is poured on to it to make it contract quickly and

filsfy into place. As in the leather quivers the hooks for holding the

strap are made by cutting two slits and then inserting a piece of wood

through them to hold them in place.

In early 1993 this type of quiver cost Kshs. 30-60 in Ishiara. There is

only one nan, a carpenter, who makes them there. He does so at home

and doe-s not sell them in Ishiara market. This is b€cause the plasuc

pipe.s are obtained on the black market ( which would imply that they

are stolen or otherwise filched from somewhere else). Silas has two

28

such quivers at home, one larger than the other, and both of which his

late elder brother had bought from this man. The one which r.ras made

for me was made by Nyaga Motenge, the brother of Jacob Njoka. It

cost Kshs. 120 in Aprif 1993. Nyaga had already made it on order for

someone who had paid a deposit of Kshs. 60, but Si]as persuaded him

to part with it and make the other customer anothe! one.

thlalra ya mO6, thla]<a cia m0ti, 9/L0, a wooden quiver. This type

of quiver is not very common now, though they are still made. This is

done using the small riparian tree caUed morlra (3/4, identifed as

Cordyline sp. or Dracaena sp. (? steudneri) ), which is now quite rare

because it is also used in house building. The soft and fibrous inside

of ( which part of?) the tree is hollowed out with a special tool (name?)

to form the main body of the quiver. The cover, bottom and strap are

made of cow-Nde and attached to tNs. It is much easier and takes

less Ume to make than an al-leather quiver. Simon Nyaga's father,

and in fact any man of his age-group, c.rn make these well, wtrile it is

said that even small boys can (or could once) produce them. It also

uses less cow-hide, and in that respect is less expensive. The

disadvantage.s of this type of quiver are that it is not as durable as an

all-leather one and is also rather heavier. A major constraint upon

their production, hordever, is the rarity of mirlra trees, already

mentioned above. Silas has one such quiver at home, inherited from

his late father (who made his own?). In April 1993 these cost Kshs.

80-120 in Ishiara. Another disadvantage with morlra is that the wood

may be quite moist and takes a long time to dry. It has to be properly

dry otherwise it will lose its shape if it is scooped out when it is still

wet [how long does it take to dry?].

Another type of wooden quiver I does it have a special name?] is made

from a sisal bulbil tcheckl , the flowering stem, called m0valvo (3/4,

s€e Riley and Brokensha 1988: II, 13). The sisal plant itself, Aqave

sisalana, is caued mokonge, 3/4 tcheckl . This is an exouc grown for

its fibres and also as a fence or boundary marker, while the tall bulbils

or poles can also be used in house construction. The core dries out of

its own ac@rd and a suitably sized piece can easily be cut to make the

29

cylindrical body of a quiver. The outer surface is then smoothed down

using a piece of broken bottle. A knife can also be used but the

broken botue is best lwhat was used in the past? Is tllis also done

vrhen making the morlra quiver?1 .

The example I have has a leather strap and bindings. The latter were

wound alound the cylinder and shrunk-dried into place with sisal string

bound around them. This string hras later removed: the impressions

made by it on tbe leather can still be seen.

The sisal quiver made for me in April 1993 was made by NjOe Kibwece,

Silas' father's blother. He charged Kshs. 150 to make it together with

a leather quiver ( the hide was already prowided). Sisal was preferred

over rnorlra because of the Ume this would have taken to dry. The

bulbil was obtained free by Silas: however it proved very difficult to

obtain because sisal is not common in Ishiara and the bulbils are

de.stroyed by children before they can be put to any other use (so

there is not much of a market for the poles in Ishiara).

thlaka ya ngrombe, thla]<a cia ng'ombe, g/LO, literaly a "cattle

quiver", made from cow-hide. This is an alternauve name for the

following.

thlal<a ya nJOo, thla]<a cda nj0o, 9/I0, Iiterally a "hide quiver", made

from ox-hide. This is the standard type of quiver, made from pieces

of ox-rude and joined with strips of the same, se\^rn with a wooden

needle hrhich makes large hole.s [name of this needle? It can be made of

any kind of wood, and is 3-5" Iongl . The hide of a buu or ox irg

preferred: this is because of its relauve tlfckness. A thin hide might

be too weak after tie process of preparation. The quivers can be made

from a tride from a freshly slaughtered animal or from a tdde wfdch has

already been dried and is then wetted. Raw hides are more difficult to

obtain, and even when they are available a craftsman might not have

the other neoessary inputs [which are?] to work w"ith before the hide

drie-s. It is said, however, that the fresh hide is stronger, partly

because it retains the hair ( though some people prefer the colour of a

leather quiver without patches of differently coloured hair). The

alternaUve is to use a hide which has akeady been dried, This first

30

requires processing. The proce.ss of wetting it lis there a better term

for this?l is called korlnda r{lwo (r{lwo meaning skin or Nde). A

shallow depression is first dug or scooped out in the homestead. The

hide is folded up (not roued ) and placed inside this, either tied up or

with a stone on top of it. Water is then poured into the hole and the

hide is buried with earth. This earth is kept damp throughout the

process. People therefore prefer to do this work during the rains,

otherwise water has to fetched for the purpose (a contemporary

alternative is to site the hole near a water standpipe, if there is one in

the homestead ) . The hide is left Uke this for 1-2 weeks: if it is left

for longer than 2 weeks then the hide will begin to decay and become

too thin. At the end of this process the hide has to be worked upon

immediately: it will later shrink as required [check on the description

and nature of tlds processl .

There are two ways of moulding the tLide into the cylindrical shape

required. One is to stretch it around a solid w@den cylinder or mou.ld

before it has dried. However, this mould should be removed before the

leather has fully dried, otherwise it will be impossible to separate the

two. The alternative is to roll the piece of hide into the required

cylindricat shape, with something [what?] at the base, and then fill it

with sand [check that this is sand]. Sand should be forced in so that

it is bulging at the side-s: tlris r,,rill ensure that when the leathe! dries

and shrinks it will retain a good cylindrical shape, forcing the sand up

in the process. This is said to be the best method. There is no idea

that both a wooden mould and sand might be used as in the Southern

Kikuyu case, though this may be a superio! method.

The cover is made out of a separate piece of hide lwhat about the

base?1, Iikewise the carrying strap. The cover is not more than c.L!"

deep. These quivers are made in different size.s and for all kinds of

arrows.

In early 1993 a quiver of this kind cost about Kshs. 150 in IsNara

market. In April 1993 they cost Kshs. 120-150 according to size. very

few people make them. One sp€cialist died recenuy (in the last 4

years: he lived nea! Simon Nyaga, who should know more about Nm),

though there is sull someone else hrho makes hide quiver for the

Ishiara market. Silas used to have one of these quivers at home (made

31

by his late father ) but it became worn out (and was thlown away?).

One of the main reasons why these quivers are made by only a few

specialists is the cos't of procuring hides. The hide of a mature cow

can cost Kshs. 150 and may be sufficient to make 8-1.0 quivers

depending on their size and that of the hide (the same hide might make

2-3 honey barrels, or even 4 if they are small (are the same specialists

involved?). It is therefore not worth procuring a hide just to make one

or two quivers for p€rsonal. use: economies of scale are necessary.

This kind of quiver can spoil in the rain. Otherwise it may Iast 100

years or so if properly treated. One threat to the hide are weevil-like

insects called ntagathaga (9/lO), which eat cow-hide land othe!

skins?1 . One hray to protect the quiver from these insects is to dust it

powder or the chemical used by people dealing in Nde-s

and skins. This treatment, hohrever, has to repeated every two

months. The be-st treatment is to apply castor oil to the quiver (this is

prepared from the seeds of m0variki, 3/4, Ricinus communis). This

also makes the quiver soft so that it doe-s not crack, and the treatment

lasts for a whole year before it has to be repeated. Other leather

goods, such as the carrying straps ( mlkwa) of hrater containers, also

used to be treaated in the same way. The castor oil is not normally

sold in the rnarket, but can be ordered and bought from the old women

who make it. The supply of castor oil is generally seasonal and not

available until after the the castor berries are harve.sted in August.

There is, however, an Indian at Ishiara srho stores and seU€ the seeds,

so it is possible to produce the oil at other times of the year. The

seeds are heated to produce the oil.

The quiver made for me in April 1993 was made by NjOe Kibwece, Silas'

father's brother. He charged Kshs. L50 for his labour to make this

and a sisal guiver. Silas bought a hide for Kshs. 230. This provided

enough leather for three leather quivers (two were spoiled: one dried

and stuck to the w@den mould - NjOe not being an experienced

craftsman - while the other one was soiled by a dog as it lay propp€d

up under a tree), and the strap and binding for sisal quiver. There

rdas enough left over to make a small honey case: however, it is very

difficult to obtain a piece of mokau (3/4), uelie_Jglkensii , to make this

with.

32

A quiver of this type was bought in KiriUri market in May t993 forKshs. 35. The old man who had made it was not present, but it wasbrought by his wife. It was reported to have been nade u/ith a woodenmoulal, not sand. It was said that it coutd arry 20 anows (terr werepurchased at the same Ume and fit inside it quite comfortably).

According to Orde Browne:

" Quivers are carried to contain arror^rs, and are generally made ofhide; they are about three feet long by three o! four inches indiameter. The body is cylindrical, with a cap of teather fittingover the end, the hrhole being sutched at the seams. A strappasses upwards from the two side.s of the quiver, on wlrich the capruns, and by which the guiver is carried slung over the shoulder.In it is often carried a fire-stic}<, with block and dry grass formaking fire. It is often ornamented with beads, and [tue charmsare sometlnes hung onto it to secule the owner general goodfortune in his travele; these seem to differ from the similar thingsworn on the person. Another form of guiver exists in which thehide is replaced by bamboo, the two ends being made of hide, andthe general da<ign being the samef (L925: I57\.

This may well describe the prevalent form of quiver in the rugherz.ones: certainly the bamboo type belongs to this a!ea. Carrlring fire-

sticks in the quiver is clearly an ancient and widespread practice:

hence the Ice-Man discovery ( reference ) (check whether Mbeere did or

do this).

Comlrare Leakey's description for the Southern Kikuyu:

'Thlaka

Ouivers were made by special craftsmen from oxhide. A piece ofoxhide was soaked and sewn over a round sectioned block of woodof suitable size, about 2! ft fong and 4 in. in diameter. When ithad been thus sewn and shaped, the vrood was withdrawn beforethe skin dried, the hollow leather tube was filled up with Ughuypacked earth and put to dry. When dry, the earth was removedand a bottom was fixed to the tube of leather by drying on it acap of wet rawhide, which contracted as it dried and becameimmovable. The upper end of ttle quiver had a removable capmade of leather as follows. First a piece of thick broken gourdwas cut to the exact size of the top of the tube, and a leathercollar rdas made and tacked on to the gourd disc with nnailsn madefrom splinters of bamboo. The quiver was provided with acarrying strap, and was then completen (1977: 358).

33

l,eakey refers to the bamboo quiver

follor^rs:

among the Southern Kikuyu as

'Thlaka wa MoranglSomeumes a quiver was made from a hoUow length of bambooinstead of from leather, and had only a leather base and leatherc a p " ( 1 9 7 7 : 3 3 8 ) .

Tools used in Ouiver-makinq

(a special tool is used for hoUowing out the soft and fibrous inside of

( which part of?) the mirlra trees used in making wooden guivers,

thial<a cla mO6. This tool is sirnilar to that used in b€€hive-making,

but is smaller in size [what is it called?].

(a wooden needle ( with an eye) is used to se$r the strips of cow-hide

which 3bin the seams on the leather quiver, called thiaka ya nJOo or

thlaka ya ngrombe. The needle can be made of any kind of wood, and

is 3-5" long and capable of making large holes for the strips of leather

to pass through [what is it caued?].

Plants used in Ouiver-makinq

mgrlra, nirlra, 3/4, a small tree idenufied by Riley and Brokensha

as Cordvline sp. or Dracaena sp. (? steudneri) (1988: If, 217). The

soft and fibrous inside of ( which part of? ) the tree is hollowed out with

a special tool (name?) to form the main body of the type of quiver

c lled thlal<a ya moti. In northern Mbeele the tree is only found along

the banks of the Thuqi and Ena rivers, and is now quite rare because

it is also used in bouse building. The owners of land with these trees

on then will generaly not let other people sut them, at least not for

free. Riley and Brokensha do not record any contemporar!, uses for

ttre-se tree.s, although they were tofd by elderly informants that the

leaves were once used to rnake women's and a very strong cord

used in trapping wild animals (1988: II, 2I7-2I8).

34

Archer,J Technlques

The Grip (?)

The bow is gripped in the left hand with the thumb lying on top of the

folded fingers and the arrow shaft resting on top of the thumb. Thisgrip is said to be free from chafing by the bowstring. The arrow is

held and drawn bacl< in the right hand between the first and second

fingers. lf the arrow has a separate and extended nock piece behind

the flights (as in ivaviya, the sorghum-stalk arrow ) then it is held at

that point. If, however, there is insufficient space between the ftights

and the nock, then the shaft is held above the flights. When the

arrow is released the flights $/i[ then squeeze through the archer's

fingers at speed before springring straight back into shape.

Orde Browne description differs in some respects from tlris:

"The method of drawing and releasing is as follohrs. Tbe arrow isput into position, qrith the nock on the string; the left hand thengrasps the c€ntre of the staff, the right hand holding tfre arrowon the string udth the nock between the first and second fingers,and the thumb resting on the end of the nock; the bohr is ttrendrawn, held in an almost upright posiuon, and to about tv/o-thirdsof the length of the arrow; the thumb is withdrawn from the endof the arrow, and the string is released with the two fingers. InMwimbe there is a tendency to straighten the first finger of theleft hand to assist in aligning the arrow, tlough this is not alwaysdone. No sort of guard for finger or $/rist is worn n (1925: 1.5L-L52).

Aiminq and Shootinq

Aim is taken by sighung along the arrow \,vith one eye (the other eye

being cfosed). Where the arfow is aimed depends on whether the prey

is stauonarlt or moving, and if moving how fast it is mowing.

Corrections are made ac€oxdingly. (Is this usually done standing or

J5

kneeling? Is there anytNng about stalking?

used? what are the best times for hunung?).

According to Orde Browne:

How are hunung dogs

"The distance covered by the arrow is about a hundred and twentyyards, or occasionally more: accuracy is very poor as a rule; theavelage marksman v/ill miss a hat at thirty yards more often thanhe will hit it" (L925: I52).

Hlgtortcal Inpllcauons

Discussion of the UnguisUc evidence. Origins of Mbeere and CKB

hunting technology, from Southern Cushiuc or Eastern Cushitic?. Orde

Browne (1925) considers Chuka, Embu and Mbeere in general as inferior

to the Kamba model:

" Nearly all of ttre arrows made by the people of Soutl-East [Mt.]Kenya are poor imitations of the Kamba arrow, and the latter isconsidered much superior, and commands quite a good price whensoldff (L925: 152).

However, it might be argued that the difference in technology

represents an adaptauon to a different environment and ecology.

Consider the following description of hunting in (the formet ) Meru

District by Ogutu:

"The oldest and the most effective weapon for hunung $tas t}r€ bowand aror^r. In relauvely flat regiions such as Dvtanti and Tharaka,the hunters made light arrows \.dth equaly light hanaues of bows.These were meant for aiming at fast running anilnafs suctr as themthia [chec]<l (harc) and nt]riva (antelope). In contrast, theChuka, Uving in hilly forest areas are reported to have made thickedged and generally large and round looking arrows. These weremeant for dose quarter shooting. Hunung of larger animals suchas buffalos or elephants, for example, required that the hunterhides behind a bush or tree to be able to accurately shoot thepassing beast. To be more effective the arrowheads used onlarger animals had poison. This was necessar]t to kill the animalsduring tie course of the day. The Meru atho€ri [hunters] obtainedthe arrowheads from the local blacl<smith. The arrows were of twotypes, one with an iron head and the other with a wooden head.while the forrner was used for giant animats, the latter wassmeared with deadly poison. Such an arrcht was prohibited from

36

usage during ordinarlt wars and was only used basically as ahuntjng weapon" (1986: 55).

For larger animafs (elephants and buffalos ) Ogutu says that "The use

of a poisoned arrow by a hunter hidden behind a thicl<et was @mmon"

(1986: 56). However, the use of pit traps along animal trails was the

safe,st method. Another type of trap is de-scribed as follows:

nThe second and perhaps more sophisucated type of traPping thelarger animals was called nouumi. This involved the use of a longarrow put on a big log, preferably a branch of the kiuria baobab.The log was tied to a tree with a string that went around to wherethe trap was. If the string and the trap was stepped on by ananimal, the log gave way by going down and striking the animalforcing it to faU often on its backbone. Normally the arrow put onthe log would pierce and break the animal's backbone, disenablingit to nrove" (1986: 56).

Influence of the Segeju upon the Mijikenda and others.

Condualona

Possibilty of documenting material culture and associated linguisuc data

as a means of drawing historical conclusions. Working back from the

present as is done in linguistics, with the added advantage of

archaeological material, at least for iron and other durable materials.

Note the evidence of innovation: sisal is a relauvely recent crop,

plasuc pipe.s are even more r€cent. A lot of contemporary rnaterials are

used. There is sull a market for improvements: new materials have

made a lot of tlrings easier.

The production and sale of these items appears to be in decline.

Ishiara market is now held once a weel< ( Tuesdays) but the market for

bows and arrows is said to have tleen ver,1t poor for some time: outside

buyers have not been coming. It is difficult to tell whether this is

related to the current recession and inflauon or not (and it would be

interesting to know what proportion of the goods find their way into

37

the hands of tourists: probably only a small percentage judg"ing by the

inferior items sold in Nairobi and Mombasa).

Ac,<nowledgementgSilas Kibwece ( for most of the information), Simon Nyaga, JonathanMutua, Alfred Nyaga, Justus Runji, Mugo wa Nyaga, Severino tcheck lM\^raniki and the craftsmen in Kiritjri market, Harriet Skinner (foraddiuonal infornauon), Carolyne wanja Njue (for suggesting a visit tothe Insutute of African Studies' ethnographic couection), Silas Gitonga( for information on Chuka arrow feathers).

References

anon [check] 1986 ron Material Culture and Design Development in

Meru District', in G. S. Were (ed) Meru District Socio-cultural

Profile. Nairobi:. Ministry of Planning and Nauonal Development

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Blackbuln, Roderic H. 1973 'Okiek Ceramics: Evidence for Central

Kenya Prehistory', Azania, 8, 55-70.

Brokensha, David n.d. 'Crafts in Mbeere', ms in the Institute of

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Brokensha, David, H. S. K. Mwaniki and Bernard W. Riley L972'Bee-keeping in Embu District, Kenya', Bee World, 53 (3), 114-

t23.

Brokensha, David and Bernard Riley L97I 'Bee-keeping among the

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Brown, Jean L977 'Anti-Sorcer'I Ritual of an Mbeere Blacksmithr ,

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38

Brown, Jean f980 TradiUonal Blacksmiths and Metalworkinq in

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Cummings, Henry 1978 'Two Iron Age Site-s in the Grand FaIs

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Ehret, Christopher 1980 The Historical Reconstruction of Southern

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Fadiman, Jeffrey A. l9AZ An Oral History of Tribal Warfare: Tfle

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Geider, Thomas lon Pokomo beekeeping]

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J:'

NdeU, Kivuto 1972 Elements of Akamba Life. Nairobi: East AfricanPublishing House.

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Sope!, Robert 1976 'Archaeological Sites in the Chlrulu HiUs,Kenya', Azania, 11, 83-116.

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Steinhart, Edward [work on hunting in general, in JAH ]

Walker, D. A. L957 rciriama Arrow Poison: A Study in African

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Walsh, Martin 1992 rElephant Shrews and Arrow poison', Egst Af4caNatural Historv Societv Bulleun, 22 (2), l8-2L.

40