measurement and survey research by azmeri khan
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Measurement and Survey Research
Azmeri KhanInstitute of Statistical Research and Training
University of Dhaka, Bangladesh
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Measurement and Survey Research
Fundamental ideas
construct validity (the degree inference can made from study to theory)Reliability (the quality of measurement) random and systematic error,
Reliability and validity related
Scales of measurements
NominalOrdinalIntervalRatio
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Arithmetic strength of scales of measurements
Levels Arithmetic Features Examples
Nominal Counting Categories Religion
Ordinal Counting Categories Economic classRanking Ranks
Interval Counting Categories IQ scoreRanking Ranks
Addition/Subtraction Has equal units
Ratio Counting Categories WeightRanking Ranks
Addition/Subtraction Has equal unitsMultiplication/Division Has absolute zero
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Information strength of Scales of measurements
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Types of Survey research
Types
Questionnaire
mail surveys (cheap but low response),
group administrated (can explain questions),household drop-off then mail back or pick up (has advantages betterresponse)
Interviews or a combination
personal
telephone (can probe ask follow-up, easier for respondent but timeconsuming, telephone get info rapidly but must be kept short)
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How to select the best survey method
Population Issues
can you enumerate or estimate the population?Is the pop literate?Are their language issues?
Will the pop cooperate?Are there geographic restrictions?
Sampling Issues
what data is available for your sample-Tel#, address etc?Can respondents be found?
Who is the respondent?Can all members of population in your sampling frame be samples?Are response rates likely to be a problem?
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How to select the best survey method (cont.)
Question Issues
what type of question can be asked?
Will screening questions (qualified)) be needed?Will lengthy questions be asked (needing background)?Will long response scales be used (phone may be no good)?
Content issues
Will they know about the issue?
Need to consult their records?
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How to select the best survey method (cont.)
Bias issues
Will they tell the truth?Will interviewer distortion be controlled?
Can false respondents be avoided?Admin issues
costs,facilities for conducting the survey,time-line,
personnel
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How do you construct the questionnaire
writing the survey
question content and purpose,
response format to be used,
wording the question,
how best to place them in the survey?
Advantages and disadvantages of the survey method
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Different types of questions
Dichotomous-yes/no, true/false, agree/disagreeAnswer in nominal scale, select 1-2-3
Rank preferences: Interval scale-strong agree, agree, neutral, disagree,disagree
Cumulative scale-sequence like do you like this country, then this city,etc
Filter question-have you ever smoked, then 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 times
Try to avoid more than three levels don’t confuse
If two levels use graphic to jumpSpecial features
Scaling: used to measure unmeasurable thing-used in psychology
assigning numbers to objects such as statements, attitude etc
putting on interval scale-a number line used to test a hypothesis-
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Question content
is the question useful?
Are several needed?
Do they have the needed info?
Does the question need to be more specific?
Is question sufficiently general?
Is question biased or loaded (what benefits to a tax cut)?
Will respondents answer truthfully e.g. your age-use responsebrackets-
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Question wording
will it be misunderstood?
Assumptions the question makes?Is the time frame specified?
How personal is the wording (too private)?
Is the wording too direct?
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Question placement
which should be introduced early and which later?
Opening questions (easily to answer)?
Sensitive questions (need to tell if uncomfortable don’t have toanswer)?
Ask one topic at a time. You are imposing on their time, attention,trust and personal lives - do unto others as you would have them doyou.
Interviews: Administering a personal interview
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Interviewer tasks
Locates and enlists cooperation of respondents
Motivates respondents to do a good jobClarifies any confusion/concerns
Observe quality of responses
Conducts a good interview
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Interviewer training
at least rehearse
Describe the entire study
Sponsor of the research
Teach survey researchExplain sampling logic
Walk through the interview
Explain respondent selection procedure
reading maps, identify households & respondentsrehearse interviewexplain supervision, scheduling.
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The Interviewers Kit
look professional-
carry documents with
logo of sponsor,copies of instrument,official ID,
a cover letter from Sponsor,
a phone # to verify interviewer source.
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The Interview
3 steps
the opening (gains entry, establishes rapport and tone-explainsstudy-keep short)
the middle game (the heart of the process, questions-keep toquestions-don’t finish sentences of interrupt-probe silently, ask toelaborate, clarify, repeat his answer, record responses immediatelywhich shows interest)
the end game (wrap up) thank him, send results, don’t be brusk orhasty, write notes)
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Qualitative research
Tools for qualitative research
in-depth interviewsParticipatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA)Rural Rapid Appraisal (RRA)Focus group Discussion (FGD)direct observationswritten documentscase studies
Qualitative research uses different validity criteria
credibility,transferability,dependability,Confirmability).
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Research Design-the glue that holds it all together
the structure of research
Design elements-observations or measures
Treatments or programs
Groups
Assignment to group Time
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Research Design (cont.)
Classifying different designs
Randomized experiment-strongest interval validity-causalassessment-difficult-need two similar groupsNon-experimental-the weakest in terms of labeling cause effect-low
internal validityMinimizing threats to validity-if there are plausible alternativeexplanations for the outcomes other than what is theorized or testedthis is a threat to the validity of the study. To minimize these threatscan argue the threat is not reasonable, by measurement orobservation, by control groups, by using statistical analysis (two-wayanalysis of variance).
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The Nature of Good research design
theory grounded-where specific theorized effects can be hypothesized
situational-should reflect the settings of the investigation
feasible-can be implemented
redundant-have some flexibility built in-duplicationefficient-not over doing it
4 basic elements that can be expanded to improve validity
time (usually a time lapse between treatment and result)program or treatmentobservation or measurementgroups or individuals
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Analysis Steps
Data preparation
cleaning and organizing the data for analysis-checkingusing data baseneed to set up a procedure for keeping track of the data till ready for
analysisset up a data base-Microsoft Database or standard statistical programsSPSS, SAS, MINITAB etc
Analysis
running simple descriptive analysis to get reports on data status.
Check the data for accuracy.identify missing valuesfor many variable you may want to collapse them into categories.
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